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Lab 4 Report

Submitted by
Trần Minh Trí - EEACIU22234

Date Submitted: 18/6/2024

Date Performed: 18/6/2024
Lab Section: 4
Course Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Nguyen Binh Duong

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 GRADING GUIDELINE FOR LAB REPORT

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Table of Contents
List of Figures................................................................................................................................................4
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................4
Nomenclature................................................................................................................................................4
Theoretical Background................................................................................................................................4
Experimental Procedure................................................................................................................................8
Discussion of Results...................................................................................................................................11

List of Figures
Figure 1Reality circuit..................................................................................................................................................8
Figure 2 Reality circuit...............................................................................................................................................10

List of Tables
Table 1Part A...............................................................................................................................................................9
Table 2 Part B............................................................................................................................................................ 11

Nomenclature
VDD = DC Voltage Source
Vdd = AC Volatge Source
Iref = Reference Current
Etc.

Theoretical Background
1. Op-Amp Terminal Characteristics
The Fig. 1 illustrates a 741 Op-Amp. It has two input terminals where the input voltage Vi
is measured. These terminals are known as inverting (Vn) and non-inverting (Vp), leading
to Vi=(Vp-Vn). The output, Vo, is measured against the ground. Extra terminals like V+ or
+Vcc, V- or -Vcc, serve purposes like bias and offset.

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 Fig.1. Pinout for the 741 Op-Amps

The operational amplifier's realistic model, as per your textbook and depicted with equivalent
symbols, includes distinct input and output sections. The input features an input resistance Ri
across the inverting and noninverting terminals. The output involves a voltage-dependent
voltage source (with voltage AvVi) in line with an output resistance Ro.
It's important to note that the dependent source's proportionality relation is the sole link
between the input and output.

Fig. 2. An Op-am equivalent circuit.

a. Input Voltage Vi: V(a,b)=Vi=(Vp-Vn)

b. Output Voltage Vo: This is proportional to the input as long as it’s smaller than in
absolute terms of the DC bias voltages V+ and V-.

.
c. Input Resistance R : This resistance sits between the inverting and noninverting
terminals with Vi across it. It's determined by dividing the input voltage Vi by the
current entering Vp or leaving Vn.

d. Open Loop Voltage Gain μ or Av : This gain is the proportionality constant in the
dependent source equation where V = AvVi (or V=μV(a,b)).

e. Output Resistance Ro: This resistance is in series with the dependent source. If Ro
isn't zero, the voltage across a load RL isn't all of V = AvVi and can be calculated
by examining the voltage divider between Ro and RL.

2. Linear Operation and Saturation

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 Op-Amps have two regions of operation: linear and saturation. In the linear region, the
voltage transfer characteristic, i.e. the mathematical relationship between the input and output
voltages, is linear. This holds true when the output voltage lies in the range
From the earlier definition of voltage gain, which is Vo = AvVi, it can be inferred that

this range aligns with input voltages within a certain range.

In this range, the output voltage is directly proportional to the input voltage, by the factor
Av.

If the input voltages fall outside this range, the Op Amp is said to be in the saturation
region. In this region, its output is limited by the DC bias voltages. Specifically, the output
voltage is limited to V- when Vi<V-/Av and to V+ when Vi>V+/Av. This essentially
means that the output cannot exceed these voltage limits, regardless of the input.
• Ideal Op-Amp
Ri = Based on the above definition of input resistance, an infinite input resistance implies
that no current flows into or out of the input terminals of the op-amp. This simplification
makes the analysis of op-amp circuits much easier.

Ro = 0: When the output resistance is zero, the entire dependent source voltage is present
across the load resistance or is inputted into another device. This implies that there is no
voltage drop across the op-amp output due to its output resistance, which is another
useful simplification for circuit analysis.
μ =AV = : : With infinite voltage gain, if the output voltage isn't saturated, the input will
approach zero (Vi ≈ 0), assuming negative feedback exists. This creates a virtual short
circuit between input terminals, simplifying calculations. If one terminal is grounded,
both are at zero voltage, creating a virtual ground.

4. The Inverting Amplifier

Fig. 3. An inverting amplifier

Circuit analysis of the inverting amplifier in Fig. 3 yields the equation,
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 V2 = K V1 = (-Rf/R)V1 (1)

Thus, the theoretical gain K of the whole stage (that is, the entire Op-Amp circuit of
Fig 3.) is given by
K = V2/V1= (-Rf/R).

5. The Non-Inverting Amplifier

Fig. 4. A non-inverting amplifier.

Circuit analysis of the non-inverting amplifier shown in Fig. 4 yields the equation,

V2 = (1+Rf/R)V1 (2)

Thus, the theoretical gain K of the whole stage is given by

K = V2/V1= (1 + Rf/R).

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Experimental Procedure
Part A: Non – Inverting Amplifier:

Construct the Circuit:

Figure 1Reality circuit

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 Table 1Part A

Vi,nominal Vi KVi Vout %Error

-3.5 -3.52 -19.05 -12.4 53.6
-3 -3.06 -16.96 -12.97 30.7
-2.5 -2.5 -13.86 -12.84 7.9
-2 -2.03 -11.25 -11.3 0.44
-1.5 -1.5 -8.31 -8.38 0.84
-1 -1.03 -5.711 -5.75 0.68
-0.5 -0.5 -2.77 -2.82 1.8
0 0.05 0.277 0.32 17.6
0.5 0.53 2.94 2.94 0
1 1 5.54 5.54 0
1.5 1.56 8.64 8.73 1.04
2 1.99 11.02 11.03 0.09
2.5 2.5 13.86 13.73 0.94
3 3.03 16.8 14.22 18.14
3.5 3.51 19.46 14.21 28.05

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Part B: Inverting Amplifier

Construct the Circuit:

Figure 2 Reality circuit

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 Table 2 Part B

Vi,nomin
Vi KVi Vout %Error
al
-3.5 -3.51 (greater than 15) 12.75 0
-3 -3.03 13.75 12.8 7.4
-2.5 -2.51 11.39 11.5 0.9
-2 -2.05 9.307 9.4 1
-1.5 -1.51 6.85 7.01 2.3
-1 -0.99 4.49 4.56 1.5
-0.5 -0.5 2.27 2.31 1.7
0 0 0 0 0
0.5 0.5 -2.27 -2.29 0.9
1 1.04 -4.72 -4.8 1.6
1.5 1.52 -6.9 -7.1 2.9
2 2.09 -9.48 -9.6 1.2
2.5 2.54 -11.53 -11.8 2.3
3 3.1 -14.07 -12.8 10
3.5 3.48 -15.8 -15.85 0.3

Discussion of Results
1. Inverting OP-AMP:
The measured and simulated gains match closely, indicating the accuracy of the simulation
model and the reliability of the components used. The gain increases significantly when Rf is
increased, demonstrating the principle that increasing Rf enhances the amplification factor. The
output waveform is amplified by a factor of around 10 when Rf is increased, making the
inverting amplifier a useful component for signal conditioning, filtering, and amplification. The
output signal is an inverted version of the input signal due to the inverting nature of the
amplifier, with a phase difference of 180°.
Our results are consistent with those reported in other studies on inverting amplifiers, supporting
the reliability and validity of our findings. However, there may be some differences due to
component tolerance, noise, and environmental conditions in real-world measurements.
Therefore, it's important to conduct experiments under controlled conditions and use high-quality
components for accurate results.
2. Non-Inverting OP-AMP
Simulation and measurement results show that increasing Rf increases voltage gain and output
voltages. There is good agreement between simulation and measurement, with slight variations
attributed to real-world factors.

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The phase difference between the input and output of the non-inverting amplifier is found to be
zero degrees. The experiment validates the theoretical understanding of non-inverting amplifier
behavior. Potential sources of error include resistor tolerances and op-amp imperfections.

Successful exploration of non-inverting amplifier behavior under varying feedback resistor values.
Valuable insights for practical applications and reinforcement of theoretical concepts.

3. Comparator using OPAM :

This experiment focused on an operational amplifier (OP-AMP) acting as a comparator. The

results aligned with theoretical expectations for most inputs: when V1 was larger than V2, output
voltage reached positive saturation, and vice versa. However, when V1 equaled V2, the output
remained near positive saturation, contrary to the theory suggesting an undefined or zero output
in such cases.

This discrepancy could be due to non-ideal behaviors of real OP-AMPs, measurement errors, or
external interference. It underscores the importance of considering component limitations in
circuit design, especially for precision-critical applications.

Future experiments could explore this discrepancy with different OP-AMP types or improved
measurement techniques, enhancing the understanding of OP-AMP comparators in electronics
applications.

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