Module-2

INTERFERANCE
Interference of light
The intensity variation obtained by the superposition of two
or more coherent light waves is called interference.
The intensity distributions received on a screen is called an
interference pattern. Such pattern consists of alternatively arranged dark
and bright fringes or intensity minima and intensity maxima.
The phenomenon of interference can be explained on the
basis of principle of superposition of waves.
Principle of superposition of waves
It states that, when two or more light waves interfere in a
medium, the resultant amplitude at any point in the medium is the vector
sum of their individual amplitudes.

Condition for constructive and destructive interference in terms of

superposition principle
 Constructive interference
Either, 2 crusts or 2 troughs interfere with each other, the
resultant will be a large crust or tough which is the condition for
constructive interference.
The intensity, I α A2
Where, „A‟ is the amplitude. This is the condition for constructive
interference.
 Destructive interference
When the crust of one wave Superimposes with the trough of
the other or vice versa, in other words, 2 waves are superimposed out of
phase with each other, the resultant will be dark fringes. Which is the
condition for destructive in the reference.

Significance of perfect interference pattern

A perfect interference pattern consists of all bright fringes
with the equal brightness and all dark fringes with equal and complete
darkness. Such pattern can be formed when 2 coherent light waves
superimposes with each other.

1
Coherent sources
The sources emitting waves, of same amplitude, same
frequency and same or constant phase difference are called coherent
sources.
A predictable correlation of the amplitude and phase at any
point of a wave with any other wave is called coherence.
There are two types of coherence,
1. Temporal or Longitudinal coherence
It is a measure of correlation between the phases of a light
wave at different points along the same direction of its. This tell us how
monochromatic the source is
2. Spatial/Transverse or Lateral coherence
It is the measure of correlation between the phases of light
waves at different point‟s transverse to the direction of its propagation.
This tells us how uniform the phase of the wave front is.

Relation between path difference (X) and phase difference ( δ)

𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑿 𝝀
=
𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝛅 2𝝅

Therefore,
2𝝅
Phase diff. δ= .X
𝝀
or
𝝀
Path diff. X = .δ
2𝝅

2
Condition for Constructive and Destructive interference in terms of
path difference and phase difference

Constructive interference
(in terms of path difference , (X) (in terms of phase difference , ( δ)
If the path difference, X If the phase difference
between two light waves, is an between two light waves is an even
integral multiple of 𝝀 , constructive integral multiple of π, Constructive
interference takes place interference takes place
i.e X= 𝒏𝝀 i.e, δ = 2nπ
Where, n= 1,2,3…. Where, n= 1,2,3….

Destructive interference
in terms of path difference , (X) in terms of phase difference , ( δ)
If the path difference, X If the phase difference
between two light waves, is an odd between two light waves is an odd
𝝀 π
integral multiple of 𝟐 , destructive integral multiple of 𝟐 , destructive
interference takes place interference takes place
i.e X= (𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏) 𝟐
𝝀
i.e, δ = (2n±1) π
Where n= 1,2,3…. Where n= 1,2,3….

Optical Path length

The product of geometrical path length traversed by the light
and its refractive index value is called optical path length

Optical Path length, X = Geometrical Path length „AB‟ x Refractive

Index of the medium „µ‟
3
 i.e, X = AB. µ
Derive cosine law of interference in reflected system or Derive the
conditions for Interference due to reflected light from a plane
parallel thin film

Consider a thin transparent film of refractive index′µ′ and

thickness„t‟. Suppose a ray „SA‟ incident on the upper surface of the
film at the point „A‟ is partially reflected along „AP‟ and partially
refracted alone „AB‟.
At „B‟ part of it is reflected along „BC‟ and finally emerges
out along „CQ‟.
To find the optical path difference between the rays „SAP‟
and „SABCQ‟, Draw a line „CN‟ normal to „AP‟ such that „CQ = NP‟.
Let the Optical path difference between the rays „SABCQ‟
and „SAP‟ is given by,
X= SA+ (AB+BC) µ + CQ – [SA+AP]
X= SA+ (AB+BC) µ + CQ – [SA+AN + NP]
X= (AB+BC) µ – AN [since, CQ = NP]
i.e, X= 2ABµ – AN --------- (1)

[Since, ∆leABD & ∆leCBD, are congruent triangles. Hence, AB=BC,

AD=DC & BD=t]

To find the value of „AB‟ in terms of µ, t & r, Consider the

le
∆ ABD,
𝐵𝐷 𝑡
Then, cos r = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵
4
 𝑡
Therefore, AB = cos 𝑟
𝟐𝝁𝒕
Eq (1) becomes, X= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 - AN --------- (2)
To find the value of „AN‟ in terms of µ, t & r, consider the
le
∆ ACN,
𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑁
Then, sin i = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐷+𝐷𝐶 = 2𝐴𝐷 [AD = DC]
Therefore, AN = 2AD sin i ---------- (3)
From the triangle ABD,
𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐷
tan r = 𝐵𝐷 = 𝑡
Therefore, AD = t tan r ----------- (4)
Sub (4) in (3) we get,
AN = 2t tan r sin i
sin 𝑟 sin 𝑟 sin 𝑖
AN = 2t cos 𝑟 𝜇 sin r [since, tan r = cos 𝑟 sin 𝑟 = ]

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝒓
AN = 2𝝁t ----------- (5)
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓
Sub (5) in (2) we get,
2𝜇𝑡 sin 2 𝑟
X= cos 𝑟 - 2𝜇t cos 𝑟

2𝜇𝑡
X= cos 𝑟 [ 1 − sin 2 𝑟 ]

2𝜇𝑡
X= cos 𝑟 [ cos 2 𝑟 ]

X = 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 ---------- (6)

As the ray undergoes reflection at the rarer - denser interface, an

λ
additional path difference 2 exist between the incident ray and reflected
ray, hence, Total optical path difference between the two rays is given
by,
𝛌
X = 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 ± 𝟐 ------------ (7)
Is the condition for path difference
5
Case 1
We have the general condition for constructive interference, X= 𝒏𝝀
Comparing it with equation (7) we get,
𝒏𝝀 = 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 ± 𝛌 𝟐

2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = (𝟐𝒏 ± 1) 𝟐 Where, n=0,1,2…

𝛌

This is the condition for constructive interference in reflected system.

Case 2
𝝀
We have the general condition for destructive interference, X= (𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏) 𝟐
Comparing it with equation (7) we get,
𝝀 𝛌
(𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏) 𝟐 = 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 ±
𝟐

2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 Where, n=0,1,2…

This is the condition for destructive interference in reflected system.

Derive cosine-law of interference in transmitted system or

Interference due to transmitted light from a plane parallel thin film

Expression for optical path difference in transmitter system,

X = 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 ------- (7)

Case 1
We have the general condition for constructive interference, X= 𝒏𝝀
Comparing it with equation (7) we get,

6
 𝒏𝝀 = 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓

2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 Where, n=0,1,2…

Is the condition for constructive interference in transmitted system.

Case 2
𝝀
We have the general condition for destructive interference, X= (𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏) 𝟐
Comparing it with equation (7) we get,
𝝀
(𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏) 𝟐 = 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓

𝝀
2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 =(𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏) Where, n=0,1,2…
𝟐

Is the condition for destructive interference in transmitted system.

Note
Interference pattern produced from those transparent film whose
thickness is comparable with the wavelength of the light used. This
minimum thickness of transparent film to produce interference is called
coherent length.

Explain, why the colour is exhibited by the reflected and transmitted

systems are complementary?

The condition for constructive and destructive interference in

reflected system is,
𝝀
2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏 𝟐 & 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 respectively.
Similarly the condition for constructive and destructive
interference in transmission system is,
𝝀
2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 & 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏 respectively.
𝟐
Since, these conditions are opposite in reflected and
transmitted system. The colours exhibited by reflected and transmitted
systems are complementary with each other.
7
Reason for colours of thin transparent film - using cosine law
When a beam of white light is incident normally on a thin
film and seen in reflected light, coloured fringes are observed. These
colours arises due to the interference of light waves reflected from the
upper and lower surface of the film.
𝝀
In reflected system 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏 is the condition
𝟐
for constructive interference and 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 is the condition for
destructive interference.
When, white light is incident on thin film, the light which
comes from any point from it, will not include the colour whose
wavelength satisfies the equation 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 in reflected system.
𝝀
Similarly, the wavelength satisfies the equation,2 𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝟐𝐧 ± 𝟏
𝟐
appears Bright in that colour.
Also this colour depends on the thickness of the film„t‟ and
angle of inclination „r‟. In the case of oil spread over water, different
colours are seen because it's „r‟ &„t‟ values are varies. If „r‟ and„t‟ are
constant the colour of the film will be uniform.

Interference due to thin wedge shaped air film

fig 1
When, 2 plane glass plates „AB‟ and „CD‟ are placed in such
a way that „A‟ and „C‟ are kept in contact with each other. And a thin
wire whose thickness is to be determined is inserted in between „B‟ and
8
„D‟. This forms a wedge shaped air film, as shown in the figure. When
normally incident monochromatic light on wedge a shaped film formed
between the glass plates, an alternatively arranged equidistant fringes are
formed parallel to the line of intersection of two glass plates „AB‟ and
„CD‟.
Let „θ‟ be the angle of the wedge film. Assume an „n th‟ dark
fringe is formed at „P‟ of the film, where the thickness of the film is „tn‟.

Fig -2

We have the condition for nth dark fringe in reflected system,

2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀
Applying in this case we get, 2𝝁𝒕 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎 = 𝒏𝝀
2𝝁𝒕 𝒏 = 𝒏𝝀
𝒏𝝀
𝒕 𝒏= -------- (1)
𝟐𝝁
Where tn - is the thickness of air film corresponding to n th dark fringe.
Similarly, the thickness of air film corresponding to (n+m) th dark fringe
can be written as,
( 𝒏+𝒎)𝝀
𝒕 (𝒏+𝒎) = --------- (2)
𝟐𝝁
𝒎𝝀
Eq (2)–(1) we get, 𝒕 (𝒏+𝒎) − 𝒕𝒏 = ------- (3)
𝟐𝝁

9
From fig-2, consider ∆leASP & ∆leARQ,

𝒕 𝒕 (𝒏+𝒎) 𝒕 (𝒏+𝒎) −𝒕 𝒏
tan θ = 𝑳𝒏 = 𝑳 =𝑳 -------- (4)
𝒏 (𝒏+𝒎) 𝒏+𝒎 −𝑳 𝒏

Where, tn – the thickness of the film & L n and L(m+n) - is the distance of
nth and (n+m)thfringe from the edge of the film.
Substituting (3) in (2) we get,
𝒎𝝀
tan θ = 𝟐𝝁[𝑳 ---------- (5)
𝒏+𝒎 −𝑳 𝒏 ]
Here „m‟ represents the number of fringes between nth and (n+m)th
dark fringe
We have, the fringe width,

𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐧𝐭𝐡 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐧+𝐦 𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐤 𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐞

β = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏+𝒎 𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆

𝑳 𝒏+𝒎 −𝑳 𝒏
β= ----------- (6)
𝒎
Sub. (6) in (5) we get,
𝝀
tan θ = 𝟐𝝁𝜷 ----------- (7)
Suppose„d‟ is the diameter of the wire using which the wedge film is
formed and „L‟ is the length of the film from the edge,
𝒅
tan θ = -------- (8)
𝐋
Sub (8) in (7) we get,
𝒅 𝝀
= 𝟐𝝁𝜷
𝐋

𝝀𝑳
d=
𝟐𝝁𝜷
This is the expression used to measure the thickness of thin
wire of diameter „d‟ placed in between plane glass plates at a distance
„L‟ from the edge of contact.

10
Newton's rings

A concentric circular fringe pattern is formed due to the

superposition of light waves, reflected from the upper and lower surface
of a symmetrical shaped air film enclosed between Plano convex lens
and plane glass plate. These ring patterns were first observed by
Newton, hence it is called Newton's ring.

Why the shape of the ring is circular?

The fringes are circular because, the shape of the film is
symmetrical about the point of contact of the lens and glass plate. The
centre of Newton ring looks dark in reflected system and bright in
transmitted system.

Why the centre of Newton rings looks dark in reflected system?

At the point of contact between the lens and glass plate the
thickness of the air film is zero. Therefore the light wave reflected from
this point (rarer- denser interface) will undergo an additional path
𝝀
difference 2 with respect to the incident light. i.e, they undergo
destructive interference. Hence the central sport looks dark in reflected
system.
Or
We have the general condition for path difference of light
reflected from a thin film
𝛌
X = 2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 ± 𝟐
In Newton rings setup, we consider a thin film between the lens
and glass plate i.e, t=0 at the point of contact and refractive index, µ = 1
𝛌
X=0± 𝟐
𝛌
X= ± 𝟐
This is the condition for destructive interference. Hence, the
central sport remain dark in reflected system

11
Experimental setup for Newton's ring and derive the expression to
find the radius of nth dark ring

Plano convex lens „L‟, Plain glass plates „P &G‟, Monochromatic

light source „S‟, Eye piece of travelling microscope „M‟ are set up as
shown in the above figure. When a monochromatic light incident
normally on the thin film enclosed between the lens and glass plate, an
alternatively arranged concentric circular dark and bright fringes are
formed. This Newton ring pattern can be focused with a travelling
microscope eyepiece as shown in the figure.

To find the radius of nth dark ring

12
 Let „R‟ be the radius of curvature of Plano convex lens „L‟
and „tn‟ the thickness of the air film a corresponding to n th dark ring at
the point „C‟ of the film.
The general condition for dark ring in reflected system is given by,
2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 [where, 𝜆 = wavelength of light]
Applying in this case we get, 2𝝁𝒕 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎 = 𝒏𝝀 [Since, i = r = 0]
2𝝁𝒕 𝒏 = 𝒏𝝀
𝒏𝝀
𝒕 𝒏= -------- (1)
𝟐𝝁

Also using geometry, Applying Pythagoras theorem to ∆ le ABC,

CB2 + AB2 = AC2
rn2 + (OA-OB)2 = R2
R-Radius of curvature of lens
rn + (R-tn)2 = R2
2

rn2 + R2 - 2Rtn + tn2 = R2

rn2 - 2Rtn + tn2 = 0
rn2 = 2Rtn - tn2
[As tn is a small quantity, tn2 << 2Rtn , ie, tn2 can be neglected]

rn2 = 2Rtn

𝒓 .𝒏 𝟐
tn = ------------- (2)
𝟐𝑹

Comparing eq. (1) & (2) we get,

𝒓 .𝒏 𝟐 𝒏𝝀
=
𝟐𝑹 𝟐𝝁
𝒏𝝀𝑹
rn 2 =
𝝁
𝒏𝝀𝑹
rn = ----------- (3)
𝝁

rn = 𝒏𝝀𝑹 , for air film of µ=1

This is the expression for calculating the radius of n th dark

ring from Newton‟s rings experiment.
13
Similarly, the expression for Diameter of n th dark ring is,
𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹
Dn = ----------- (4)
𝝁

Dn = 𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹 , for air film of µ=1

Derive the expression and procedure to find the wavelength of

monochromatic light from Newton rings experiment
th
We have the equation for diameter of n dark fringe in
reflected system,
Dn = 𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹
Squiring on both side we get,
2
Dn =𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹 -------- (1)
Similarly, squire diameter of (n+k) th dark ring is,
2
D(n+k) = 𝟒(𝒏 + 𝒌)𝝀𝑹 --------- (2)
(2) – (1), we get,
2
D(n+k) - Dn2 = 𝟒(𝒏 + 𝒌)𝝀𝑹 – 𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹 = 𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹 + 𝟒𝒌𝝀𝑹 - 𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹
2
D(n+k) - Dn2 = 𝟒𝒌𝝀𝑹
𝑫.(𝐧+𝐤) 𝟐 − 𝑫 .𝒏 𝟐 ------------- (3)
𝝀=
𝟒𝒌𝑹
This is the expression for calculating the wavelength of monochromatic
light from Newton‟s ring experiment
Experimental set up & Procedure

14
 The Apparatus such as, Plano convex lens „L‟, plane glass
plate „P‟, travelling microscope „M‟ and monochromatic Light source
„S‟ are set up as shown in the figure. When monochromatic light source
is switched on, a large number of concentric circular dark and bright
fringes are formed, these rings are focused with a microscope eyepiece
„M‟ arranged vertically above the film.
The centre of the cross wire of eyepiece „M‟ is adjusted
tangentially to the first clearly seen 2 nd dark ring from the central dark
spot towards the left side, and the horizontal scale reading
[MSR+(VSRxLC)] is noted. Again take microscope reading for the dark
rings 4 th, 6th, 8th,…. 20 th on left and the same on right. The values are
tabulated as shown below.

Order Microscope Reading, MSR+(VSR x LC)

of ring Diameter
2 𝑫.(𝐧+𝐤) 𝟐 − 𝑫 .𝒏 𝟐
'n' Left (L) Right (R) Dn = L ~ R Dn with k=10
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
𝟐
Mean 𝑫[.(𝐧+𝐤) − 𝑫 .𝒏 𝟐 ]

If ‘f’ is the focal length of the lens and „d‟ is the boy‟s
distance, then radius of curvature or can be determined by boy‟s method.
𝒇𝒅
R=𝒇−𝒅
Then the wavelength of monochromatic light can be determined by the
Expression,

𝑫.(𝐧+𝐤) 𝟐 − 𝑫 .𝒏 𝟐
𝝀=
𝟒𝒌𝑹
15
Expression to find out the refractive index (µ) from Newton rings
experiment

Plano convex lens, plane glass plates, liquid film are arranged
as shown in the figure and obtain a Newton ring pattern in the field of
view of the travelling microscope eyepiece. Let „t n‟ be the thickness of
liquid film corresponding to n th dark ring and „µ’ is the refractive index
of the liquid.

16
 Let „R‟ be the radius of curvature of Plano convex lens „L‟
and „tn‟ the thickness of the air film a corresponding to n th dark ring at
the point „C‟ of the film and „µ’ is the refractive index of the liquid.

The general condition for dark ring in reflected system is given by,
2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 [where, 𝜆 = wavelength of light]
Applying in this case we get, 2𝝁𝒕 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎 = 𝒏𝝀 [Since, i = r = 0]
2𝝁𝒕 𝒏 = 𝒏𝝀
𝒏𝝀
𝒕 𝒏= -------- (1)
𝟐𝝁

Also using geometry, Applying Pythagoras theorem to ∆ le ABC,

CB2 + AB2 = AC2
rn2 + (OA-OB)2 = R2
R-Radius of curvature of lens
rn2 + (R-tn)2 = R2
rn2 + R2 - 2Rtn + tn2 = R2
rn2 - 2Rtn + tn2 = 0
rn2 = 2Rtn - tn2
[As tn is a small quantity, tn2 << 2Rt n , ie, tn2 can be neglected]

rn2 = 2Rtn

𝒓 .𝒏 𝟐
tn = ------------- (2)
𝟐𝑹

Comparing eq. (1) & (2) we get,

𝒓 .𝒏 𝟐 𝒏𝝀
𝟐𝑹
=
𝟐𝝁
𝒏𝝀𝑹
rn 2 =
𝝁
𝒏𝝀𝑹
rn = ----------- (3)
𝝁
This is the expression for calculating the radius of n th dark
ring from Newton‟s rings experiment.
Similarly, the expression for Diameter of n th dark ring is,
17
 𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹
Dn = ----------- (4)
𝝁

Squiring on both side of eq (3) we get,

2 𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹
Dn = 𝝁
-------- (5)
Similarly, squire diameter of (n+k) th dark ring is,
2 𝟒(𝒏+𝒌)𝝀𝑹
D(n+k) = 𝝁
--------- (6)

(6) – (2), we get,

D(n+k)
2
- Dn2 = 𝟒𝒌𝝀𝑹
𝝁

𝟒𝒌𝝀𝑹
𝝁= ------------- (7)
𝑫.(𝐧+𝐤) 𝟐 − 𝑫 .𝒏 𝟐
This is the expression used in laboratory for calculating the refractive
index of a liquid using Newton‟s ring experiment.

Special case
If „R’ and „λ’ values are not given, experimentally refractive
index can be calculated simply by knowing the diameter of an n th ring
with air as the film and then with the liquid as the film. Their squire ratio
will give the refractive index of the medium,
𝑫.𝒏 𝟐 (𝑎𝑖𝑟 )
i.e, 𝝁 =
𝑫.𝒏 𝟐 (𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 )

Applications of interference
Anti-reflection coating
It is a type of optical coating applied to the surface of lenses
and other optical instruments to reduce the degree of reflection using the
phenomenon of interference.
Construction and working

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 A thin layer of transparent dielectric material, whose
refractive index „µ2‟ lies between those of air „µ ‟1 and glass „„µ3‟ is
coated on the surface of Glass. The thickness of the coating is adjusted
such that, the light reflected from the top and bottom surface of the
𝝀
coating will interfere destructively. ie, t = 𝟒 . Hence no reflection comes
out.

𝝀
t = (𝟐𝒏 ± 𝟏) 𝟒
Is the minimum thickness required to the layer coating for no
reflection of light of wavelength „𝝀’.
When the light of wavelength „ 𝝀’ reflected from the top and
𝝀
bottom surfaces of the layer of thickness =t 𝟒 , interfere out of phase
with each other and vanishes due to destructive interference. Hence the
entire light is transmitted. The thickness of antireflection coating is
different for different wavelengths. Hence the thickness of the coating is
chosen for the wavelength in Yellow-Green region of visible spectra,
because human eye is most sensitive in this region of visible spectra.
The coating material should be insoluble and scratch resistant, which
safeguards the glass.
Interference filters or colour filters
Colour filters are the optical instruments, in which the
wavelengths that are not to be transmitted are removed by interference
rather than by absorption or scattering.

19
Construction and working

Interference filters are made by placing thin transparent layer

such as cryolite in between two semi reflective coatings. The thickness
𝝀
of the spacer layer will be half of the wavelength 𝑡 = or integral
𝟐
𝝀 𝝀
multiple 𝟐 ; (t= n 𝟐 ). This thickness determines wavelengths to be
𝝀
transmitted. i.e, if the thickness of the spacer layer is 𝟐 for the desired
wavelength, then the remaining wavelengths vanishes by destructive
interference. Hence only the desired wavelength will be coming out
from the filters.
For protecting semi reflecting coating on both side of the spacer
layer, a set of Glass plates are cemented on its top.
Usually colour filters made for a particular wavelength „ 𝝀’ and
designed for its normal incidence. Suppose the angle of incidence
increases, different colours are filtered out due to the change in its ‘t’
value.
Important Formulae
 Condition for constructive interference in reflected system,
𝛌
2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = (𝟐𝒏 ± 1) [same is the condition for distructive
𝟐
interference in transmitted system]
 Condition for destructive interference in reflected system,
2𝝁𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 [same is the condition for construtive interference in
transmitted system]
 Expression to calculate the wedge angle from air wedge experiment,
𝝀 𝝀
tan θ = 𝟐𝝁𝜷 or θ = 𝟐𝝁𝜷 [ since, θ is too small, tan θ ≈ θ]
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 Expression for Calculating the thickness of thin wire using Air wedge
𝝀𝑳
experiment, d = 𝟐𝝁𝜷
 Equation to find the radius of Newton's ring, rn = 𝒏𝝀𝑹
 Equation to calculate the thickness of the film in terms of ‘R’ and
𝒓. 𝟐
𝒏
‘rn’, tn = 𝟐𝑹
 Expression for Calculating the wavelength of light using Newton
𝑫.(𝐧+𝐤) 𝟐 − 𝑫 .𝒏 𝟐
rings experiment, 𝝀 =
𝟒𝒌𝑹
 Expression for Calculating the refractive index of liquid using
𝟒𝒌𝝀𝑹 𝑫.𝒏 𝟐 (𝑎𝑖𝑟 )
Newton rings experiment, 𝝁 = & 𝝁=
𝑫.(𝐧+𝐤) 𝟐 − 𝑫 .𝒏 𝟐 𝑫.𝒏 𝟐 (𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 )

21
 Diffraction
Phenomenon of bending of light around the sharp edges of an
obstacle, towards the geometrical shadow region is called diffraction of
light.
The resultant intensity distribution obtained on a screen is
called diffraction pattern. This pattern consists of alternative rearranged
dark and bright bands of equal intensity.
The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by
Huygens‟s principle.
Huygens principle
“When the light is incident on the edges of an obstacle, each
point on the primary wave front will be acts as a source of secondary
wavelets”. When these secondary wavelets superimpose with each other,
an alternatively arranged dark and bright diffraction bands are produced.

Diffraction phenomena can be classified into two general

classes, on the basis of relative positions of the screen and source with
respect to the obstacle causing diffraction.

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhoffer diffraction

Either the source or screen or both The screen and source are placed at
are placed at finite distance from infinite distances from the obstacle
the obstacle/screen causing causing diffraction
diffraction
The incident the wave front used is The incident wave front used is
spherical or cylindrical plane
The centre of diffraction pattern The centre of diffraction pattern is
may be bright or dark always bright
No lenses are necessary for Convex lenses are required to
observing diffraction pattern observe the pattern
Optical and theoretical treatment is Optical and theoretical treatment is
much complex much simpler
It is called near field pattern It is called far field pattern
Egs:- Diffraction due to circular Eg:- Diffraction due to single or
aperture double slit
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Diffraction Grating
It is an arrangement of large number of narrow parallel slits
separated by opaque spaces. When a plane wave front is incident on the
grating surface, the light transmitted through the slits and obstructed by
the opaque spaces. Such grating is called Transmission Grating. The
secondary waves from the each slit of the grating are superimposes with
each other and diffraction pattern is formed. These diffracted beams can
be focused by the lenses. When white light incident on the grating,
produce a spectrum due to diffraction.
Construction of grating
` Transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material
on which opaque rulings are made with a diamond tip. The spaces
between the rulings are equal and transparent, constitute parallel slits.
The combined width of a ruling and slit is called grating element„d‟. The
points on successive slits are separated by a distance equal to the grating
element are called corresponding points.

Grating Equation – Derivation

Let A,B,C,D,E,F…. represent the section of a grating normal
to the plane of paper. Here AB, CD, EF… represent the opaque region
BC, DE… represents width of slits of grating. Hence, the combined
width of slit and grating BC+CD= d is the grating element.
Let a plane wave front incident normally on the grating
surface, produces secondary wavelets. These secondary wavelets from
each of these slits are spread in all directions on the other side of the
grating. All the secondary wavelets travelling in the same direction as
that of the incident light, will focus at the point „P‟ on the screen and
forms Central bright fringe.
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 Now consider the
secondary wavelets,
travelling in a direction
inclined at an angle „θ‟ with
the direction of incident
light and come to focus at
the point „P 1‟ on the screen.
The intensity at P 1 depends
on the path difference
between the secondary
wavelets originating from
the neighboring slits.
Suppose, we obtaining an
nth bright Maxima at P1.
Then the path difference,
DN = 𝒏𝝀
From the fig. consider
the triangle BDN,
𝐷𝑁
Sin θ =𝐵𝐷 ; DN = BD
sin θ; DN = (BC+CD) sin θ
DN = d sin θ ------------ (1)
The expression for bright maxima, in terms of path difference,
X = DN = 𝒏𝝀 ---------- (2)
Sub (2) in (1) we get,
d sin θ = 𝒏𝝀
Or
sin θ= 𝒏𝑵𝝀 is called grating equation

Where, 𝜆 -wavelength of light

1
N=𝑑 - No. of slits per unit length of the grating
n- Order of the band
θ- Angle of diffraction
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Characteristics of grating spectra
Grating spectrum consists of a central maxima at n=0 and principal
maxima of various orders are produced on either side of it
symmetrically. These are called primary spectra.
Between 2 successive primary maxima, there are spectra of lesser
intensity are called secondary spectra. It is found that, there are (N-2)
secondary maxima and (N-1) secondary minimas in secondary spectra,
but these are of negligible intensity.
Advantages of grating spectra over prism spectra
Grating spectra Prism spectra
No overlapping or mixing up of Different spectral lines are seems
spectral lines takes place to be overlapped
Two different gratings with same Dispersion by different prism
„d‟ value will produce same cannot be identical
dispersion hence they are identical
Most deviated line in grating Most deviated line in prism
spectrum is red spectrum is violet
Resolving power of grating Resolving power of prism spectra
spectrum is very high is very less
Formed due to diffraction Formed due to dispersion
Multiple spectrum of different Single spectrum is formed
order is formed
Rayleigh criteria for resolving power
To find the resolving power of an optical instrument Lord
Rayleigh proposed an arbitrary criterion.
The minimum requirement for the resolution of 2 nearby
closer objects is obtained when, the central maxima of intensity curve of
one image coincides with the first minimum of the other and vice versa.

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 Therefore the minimum angle of resolution provided by an
aperture/slit of width „D‟ and at a wavelength „λ’ is given by,
𝛌
θmim = 1.22
𝐷
Where, 1.22 - is the minimum distance between the central
maxima to the first minima
𝛌 -Wavelength
𝐃 -Width of the aperture.
Resolving power of grating
The resolving power of grating is defined as the ratio of
wavelength of spectral line to the difference in wavelength between this
line and neighboring line, such that two lines can just seen as separate.

𝛌
Resolving power =
𝑑𝛌

26
 Suppose 2 wavelengths „λ‟ & „λ+dλ‟ incident on grating
surface simultaneously, the 2 wavelengths will give their own diffraction
pattern on the screen. According to Raleigh criteria, the 2 pattern of any
„nth‟ order on the screen can be just resolved, if the principal maximum
of one falls on the first minima of the other.
The expression for nth maxima due to wavelength „λ‟ is given by,
d sinθ= nλ
There for first minima after nth maxima is given by,
𝛌
d sin(θ+dθ)= nλ+ ---------- (1)
𝑵

Similarly, expression for n th maxima due to „λ+dλ‟ is given by,

d sin(θ+dθ)= n(λ+dλ) --------- (2)
According to Raleigh criteria, condition for resolving power of 2 nearby
pattern of nth order, Compare eq. (1) & (2),
𝛌
nλ+ = n(λ+dλ)
𝑵
𝛌
nλ+ = nλ+ndλ
𝑵
𝛌
𝑵
= ndλ
𝛌
= n𝑵
𝐝𝛌
This is the expression for resolving power of grating. This implies
resolving power of grating is proportional to „n‟ and number of lines on
grating „N‟.
Dispersive power of a grating
Dispersive power of grating is defined as the ratio of change
in angle of diffraction to the corresponding change in wavelength.
𝐝𝛉
i.e Dispersive power =
th
𝐝𝛌
Let, grating equation for n order maxima is given by,
d sinθ= nλ ------- (1)
If the wavelength „λ‟ changes to „λ+dλ‟ then the angle of
diffraction „θ‟ also changes to θ+dθ.
By differentiating equation (1) w.r.t „dθ‟ and „dλ‟ on both sides, we get,
d cosθ dθ= n dλ
27
 𝟏
cosθ dθ= nNdλ [𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, = N]
𝒅

𝐝𝛉 𝒏𝑵
=
𝐝𝛌 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
This implies, dispersive power of grating varies directly with „N‟ and
order „n‟ of the spectrum.
Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Interference Diffraction
It is formed due to the Superposition of number of
superposition of two primary wave secondary wavelets of same
front from coherent sources primary wave front or Bending of
light towards shadow region.
Large numbers of fringes are Few number of bands are formed
formed
Fringe width will be same for all Different bands have unequal
fingers width
All bright fringes are having equal Bright bands have different
intensity and dark fringes have intensity
perfect darkness
Lenses are required to focus the Diffraction bands can be seen with
pattern naked eye
Coherent light sources are essential Coherent sources are not essential
for obtaining interference

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