Objectives:

1. Name the fallacy committed in each argument;

2. Determine what makes an argument fallacious;
3. Create an argument that is correct.

Introduction

Statements that are carelessly arranged or arguments that are speciously delivered may result to a funny
situation if not embarrassment. To avoid such inconvenience, one must be familiar with the different types of
error in language called the fallacies.
The term FALLACY is derived from the Latin Fallo which means I DECEIVE. It is an erroneous or
false reasoning which has the appearance of truth. It is an illogical, misleading, and deceptive argument; it is an
error resulting from the violation of any rule of Logic.

Characteristics

1. Misleading: Fallacies aim to deceive or mislead.

2. Invalid: Fallacious arguments lack logical validity.
3. Flawed: Fallacies result from errors in reasoning or assumptions.
4. Persuasive: Fallacies often rely on emotional appeal or rhetorical devices.

In the context of logic and argumentation, a fallacy refers to an incorrect or misleading argument, often
resulting from flawed reasoning or invalid assumptions.

Consequences

1. Misinformation: Fallacies spread false or misleading information.

2. Poor decision-making: Fallacies lead to flawed conclusions and decisions.
3. Eroding trust: Repeated exposure to fallacies undermines trust in sources and institutions.

Types of Fallacies

I. FALLACIES OF AMBIGUOUS LANGUAGE/SEMANTIC FALLACIES

II. FALLACIES OF EXAGGERATED ASSUMPTIONS
III. FALLACIES OF NEGLECTED CATEGORIES
IV. FALLACIES OF IRRELEVANT EVIDENCES

Critical Thinking Strategies

1. Recognize emotional appeals: Identify attempts to manipulate emotions.

2. Analyze arguments: Evaluate structure, premises, and conclusions.
3. Seek evidence: Demand empirical support for claims.
4. Consider multiple perspectives: Avoid confirmation bias.
5. Be aware of cognitive biases: Reflect on personal biases and assumptions.
 I. FALLACIES OF AMBIGUOUS LANGUAGE arise from careless as
well as incompetent use and interpretation of language.

1. EQUIVOCATION consists in using the same term with different meanings in the same
argument; it is caused by inattention to the shifting meaning of a word.

EXAMPLE:
All stars are astronomical bodies.
Narda is a star
So, Narda is an astronomical body.

2. AMPHIBOLY arises from the ambiguous use not of a single word but of
a phrase or of a complete sentence.
EXAMPLE:
Lost : The dog of a lady with a long tail.

3. ACCENT or PROSODY arises from a false accent or from a false emphasis in speech.
EXAMPLE: The injunction declares :
“Thou shall not covet thy neighbor’s wife .”
But Edison is not my neighbor .
He lives in Project 4 and I live in Laguna.
So, I can “covet” his wife.

4. COMPOSITION consists in taking collectively what should be taken individually. In other words, a
term is first used in its distributive sense and then in its collective sense.
EXAMPLE:
Generick Augustus is a poor boy.
But Generick Augustus studies at CCM.
Therefore, all who study at CCM are poor.

5. DIVISION consists in taking individually what should be taken collectively. We use a term first in its
collective sense
and then in its distributive sense.
EXAMPLE:
The Philippines is the only Christian nation in Asia.
The Aetas are Filipinos.
Therefore, the Aetas are Christians.

6. COMPLEX QUESTION is so worded that a simple answer may be an answer to many other
unasked questions.
E X A M P L E: Have you stopped cheating on exams
_________________________________________________
II. FALLACIES OF EXAGGERATED ASSUMPTIONS

1. CONTRADICTORY ASSUMPTIONS exist when two words or phrases in an argument are

combined which results to a conflict of idea.
E X A M P L E S:
 He found the solution to an unfathomable problem!
 He had a difficulty reading his indecipherable letter.

2. MISUSING THE MEAN

When the sole reason for deciding is the
consideration of central position, neglecting
therefore other points, this fallacy is committed.
E X A M P L E: Electric bill must be 3.00 /kwh because that is what
the consumers can afford and the electric company’s demand.

3. HYPOTHESIS CONTRARY TO FACTS

”If the circumstances of the situation were other than they were…” This fallacy is
committed when we simply guess what would have happened considering little
possibilities.

E X A M P L E:
 If I hadn’t been sick for two weeks last semester, I would have been able to get
a good status (GS).
 If Magellan had not come to the Philippines, we would not have been ruled by
Spain.
4. FALSE ANALOGIES arise when we compare two things that are similar in some
aspects but not in totality, yet we consider it absolute.
E X A M P L E:
 A mango tree does not bear santol; so Mr. David’s son will exactly be like
him; rude, useless, and hoodlum!

5. SPECIAL PLEADING occurs when only the favorable side is presented in order to
gain acceptance of the issue or thing at hand; hence one sided.
E X A M P L E:
 Look at this car, it’s body is rusty and old but the tires are original! So if I
were you, I will buy it now.

6. RATIONALIZING is often used in place of reasoning. It is committed when we invent seemingly

valid reasons for events and occurrences in place of the real causes.
E X A M P L E:
 Mother: “Anak why did you fail Logic?”
Son: “Don’t worry Nanay, it’s not a major subject, anyway.”
III. FALLACIES OF NEGLECTED CATEGORIES

Fallacies of Neglected Categories are committed because some fundamental principle is not given attention to
or part of the truth is ignored.

1. PRETENDED OR FALSE CAUSE (Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc, = After this, Therefore, Because of this)
arises when one takes a coincidental occurrence to be true cause of certain events, or anything that happens
before an event is its cause.
E X A M P L E: (Superstitious Beliefs) I met an accident on Friday the 13th.
That’s very unlucky day and diabolic number, indeed.

2. BEGGING THE QUESTION/ PETITIO PRINCIPII/CIRCULAR DEFINI is the fallacy of using the
conclusion as a premise and using it to prove the same conclusion; A proves B, and B proves A.
E X A M P L E: The soul can never die, for it is immortal.

3. ONE, MORE OR LESS

is committed when a small difference is deemed unnecessary, or a small figure does not affect the total claim.
Example:
 Avatar is already shown in theaters, I heard it’s a very good movie. Just skip your Logic class, one
absence does not affect your grades anyway.

4. Accident arises when what is accidental is confused with what is essential.

E X A M P L E: Brown is a color.
A Filipino is brown.
Therefore, a Filipino is a color.
It is also committed when one applies a general rule or general principle to an exceptional situation or
circumstances.
E X A M P L E: The Bible says:
You must not kill.
(How about in cases of
self-defense or in times of war)

5. Converse Accident/ Hasty Generalization consists in arguing that what is true of a few members of a class
must also be true of all members of that class; jumping to the conclusion out of small sample or from inadequate
and typical representatives.

E X A M P L E: E X A M P L E:
Some Filipino politicians are grafters. Therefore, all politicians are grafters.

6. BLACK OR WHITE/BIFURCATION
is committed when choices are limited only to two, without reference to other possibilities.
Examples:
 If you want to earn a college degree, you either enroll at CCM or PLM.

 The terrorists may be eliminated by killing them or kidnapping their family members.
IV. FALLACIES OF IRRELEVANT EVIDENCES do not provide evidence to support
the conclusion they wish to establish. They simply work on certain emotions to cause
acceptance of the conclusion.

1. ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM (Argument against the man) ignores the topic and instead, attacks the
character or personality of the opponent. This includes name calling, mud-slinging, hitting below the belt.

Example: How can my opponent be relied upon; she was confined at the Mental Hospital!

2. ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM (Appeal to respect /authority) assumes that a conclusion is proven

or valid because of the testimony of a person who commands respect or authority or holds a high office or
position.

Example: How dare you doubt the word on poetry of the great science genius Einstein.

3. ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM
(Appeal to Pity/Sympathy) is an attempt to direct attention from the topic by arousing pity or sympathy for the
accused.

Example: My father is sick and may die if he sees my failing grade in Logic

4. ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM (Appeal to the People) ignores the topic and appeals to the passions and
prejudices of the people or listeners to get the conclusion accepted.

Example: Your great university is the best institution in the East; my only regret is that I never attended
college here.

5. ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM (Appeal to Ignorance) assumes that a conclusion is proven or valid

because the opponent cannot prove his side, or because the conclusion has not been proven.

Example: Since you cannot prove that God exists, then there is no God.

6. ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM (Appeal to rod/stick) ignores the topic and instead uses physical force or
moral pressure or threat to cause acceptance of the conclusion.

Example: Pay 3M or your son will be killed.

 Pay 3M or your son
will be killed.

3.6 ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM

(Appeal to rod/stick) ignores the topic
and instead uses physical force or
moral pressure or threat to cause
acceptance of the conclusion.