Cambridge O Level Mathematics (Syllabus D) 4024

Notes and Resources

Contents

0 Preliminaries 2

1 Number 3

2 Algebra and Graphs 4

3 Coordinate Geometry 5

4 Geometry 6

5 Trigonometry 7

6 Mensuration 8

7 Transformations and Vectors 9

7.1 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.1.1 Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.1.2 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.1.3 Enlargement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.1.4 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.1.5 Describing Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.2 Vectors in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3 Magnitude of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.4 Vector Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

8 Probability 42

9 Statistics 43

1
Chapter 0

Preliminaries

2
Chapter 1

Number

3
Chapter 2

Algebra and Graphs

4
Chapter 3

Coordinate Geometry

5
Chapter 4

Geometry

6
Chapter 5

Trigonometry

7
Chapter 6

Mensuration

8
Chapter 7

Transformations and Vectors

7.1 Transformations
Definition 7.1
Transformations are a method to change the position, orientation and/or size of
an object on a graph or plane. These objects can be points, lines or shapes. The
transformed object is called an image.

We will be dealing with four transformations: reflection, rotation, enlargement, and

translation.

7.1.1 Reflection
Reflection moves points across a line, known as a line of reflection, which acts like a
“mirror”.

Finding the image of a reflection

Given an object and a line of reflection, you will be asked to find its image.

Example 7.1.1
Draw the image of shape A after a reflection in the line x = 1.

A 2

x
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9
Step 1: Identify and draw the line of reflection.

y
x=1
4

A 2

x
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Step 2: Count the distance from each vertex of the object to the line of reflection.
Since the line is vertical, count the horizontal distance (count the vertical distance if
the line is horizontal).

y
x=1
4

A 2

x
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Step 3: Count the same distance on the other side of the line of reflection to get the
corresponding points and join the points.

10
 y
x=1
4

A 2 A′

x
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

The procedure above is used for vertical or horizontal lines. A similar method is used
when the line of reflection is diagonal, i.e. y = x or y = −x.

Example 7.1.2
Draw the image of shape A after a reflection in the line y = −x.
y

2 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

11
Step 1: Identify and draw the line of reflection.
y
y = −x
4

2 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

Step 2: Count the horizontal distance from each vertex of the object to the line of
reflection.
y
y = −x
4

2 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

12
 Step 3: Count the same distance vertically on the other side of the line of reflection
to get the corresponding points and join the points.
y
y = −x
4

2 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1
′
A
−2

−3

7.1.2 Rotation
Rotation moves points in a circular path by a certain angle with respect to a specific
centre of rotation.

Finding the image of a rotation

Given an object, an angle, a direction, and a centre of rotation, you will be asked to find
its image.

13
Example 7.1.3
Draw the image of shape A after a 90◦ anticlockwise rotation with centre (1, −1).
y

2 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

Step 1: Identify the centre of rotation. For convenience, the centre is marked C.
y

2 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

−3

14
Step 2: Draw an ‘L’ from the centre to one point of the object.
y

2 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

−3

Step 3: Rotate this ‘L’ by the specified angle in the specified direction to get the
corresponding point of the image.
y

2 A

◦ x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

−3

15
 Step 4: Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for the other points of the object to get the complete
image.
y

2 A

◦ ◦ x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
◦ −1 •
C
−2

−3

Remark
The only angles you will dealing with are multiples of 90◦ , and the same method as
above applies. Angles such as 270◦ clockwise can be interpreted as 90◦ anticlockwise,
while 270◦ anticlockwise can be interpreted as 90◦ clockwise.

7.1.3 Enlargement
Enlargement scales an object up or down using a point as a centre, called the centre of
enlargement by some specified factor, known as the scale factor.

Finding the image of an enlargement

Given an object, a centre of rotation, and a scale factor, you will be asked to find its
image.

16
Example 7.1.4
Draw the image of shape A after an enlargement of scale factor 2 with centre (1, −1).
y

1
A
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

Step 1: Identify the centre of enlargement. For convenience, the centre is marked
C.
y

1
A
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

−3

−4

17
Step 2: Draw an ‘L’ from the centre to one point of the object and mark the
horizontal and vertical movement and the direction needed to get from C to that
point.
y

1
A
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

−3

−4

The diagram above shows that to get from C to (2, 0), a horizontal movement of +1
and a vertical movement of +1 is required.

Step 3: Multiply the horizontal and vertical movements by the scale vector and
draw the ‘L’ from C again using the newly calculated values.

New horizontal movement = +1 × 2 = +2

New vertical moevement = +1 × 2 = +2

18
 y

1 ◦
A
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

−3

−4

Step 4: Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for the other points of the object to get the complete
image.
y

3 ◦

2
A′
◦ 1 ◦
A
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

−3

−4

Since we are multiplying the scale factor with the movements from the centre, a scale
factor greater than 1 means the object gets scaled up, while a scale factor between 0 and
1 means the object gets scaled down. What if we are dealing with a negative scale
factor?

19
Example 7.1.5
Draw the image of the same shape A as in example 7.1.4 after an enlargement of
scale factor −2 with centre (1, −1).

The steps are exactly the same as in example 7.1.5, except now the results calculated
in Step 3 are different.

New horizontal movement = +1 × −2 = −2

New vertical movement = +1 × −2 = −2

This means the new ‘L’ will look like this:

y

1
A
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

◦ −3

−4

−5

Repeating this for all the points of the object, the resulting image becomes

20
 y

1
A
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •
C
−2

◦ −3 ◦

−4

◦ −5

Remark
An enlargement with a negative scale factor can also be seen as two successive
transformations - an enlargement with a positive scale factor, followed by a 180◦
rotation about the same centre. For example, the transformation in example 7.1.6 is

i) An enlargement of scale factor 2 with centre (1, −1); followed by

ii) A rotation of 180◦ about centre (1, −1).

Changing the order of the transformation (rotation followed by enlargement) also

results in the same image.

7.1.4 Translation
Translation moves points according to a column vector.

What is a column vector?

A column vector is two numbers arranged in a column that describes movement in the
xy-plane. It looks like this: !
x
y
where the number on the top, x, denotes a movement of x units horizontally (parallel to
the x-axis) and the number on the bottom, y, denotes a movement of y units vertically

21
(parallel to the y-axis).

Finding the image of a translation

Given an object and a column vector, you will be asked to find its image.

Example 7.1.6
Draw the image of shape A after a translation with the column vector ( −3
2 ).

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

The column vector represents a movement of −3 units in the x-direction (3 units

horizontally to the left) and 2 units in the y-direction (2 units vertically upwards).
Move all the points of the image according to this to get the image.
y

A′

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

7.1.5 Describing Transformations

In addition to finding the images of a transformation, you will be asked to describe trans-
formations that have taken place given an object and its image under the transformation.
There are two steps to describing a transformation:

(i) Identify the type of transformation

(ii) Give the details corresponding to the identified type of transformation.

22
Reflection

(i) If the given image is flipped, and rotating it does not return the original object,
then the transformation is a reflection.

(ii) Detail(s) that need to be included are

• Line of reflection
Steps to identify the line of reflection:
Step 1: Draw a line connecting a pair of corresponding points between the
object and the image.
Step 2: Draw its perpendicular bisector. This perpendicular bisector is the
line of reflection.
Step 3: Identify the equation of the line of reflection.

Example 7.1.7
Describe the single transformation that maps shape A onto shape B.
y

3
B
2

x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2 A

−3

−4

−5

The object is shape A while the image is shape B. Shape A has been flipped and
rotating it by any amount does not give the same shape as B, hence this is a reflection.
To identify the line of reflection, connect two corresponding points (dotted line) and

23
 then draw its perpendicular bisector, as shown.
y

3
B
2

x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2 A

−3

−4

−5

The perpendicular bisector is the line y = x. So your final answer should be:

A reflection in the line y = x.

Rotation

(i) If rotating the given image returns a shape that is the same as the original object,
then it is a rotation.

(ii) Detail(s) that need to be included are

• Angle of rotation
This can be any multiple of 90◦ , such as 90◦ or 180◦ .
• Direction of rotation
Clockwise or anticlockwise
• Centre of rotation
Steps to identify the centre of rotation:
Step 1: Draw lines connecting two pairs of corresponding points between the
object and the image.

24
 Step 2: Draw both of these lines’ perpendicular bisectors.
Step 3: The point of intersection of these perpendicular bisectors is the centre
of rotation.

Example 7.1.8
Describe the single transformation that maps shape A onto shape B.
y

2
B
1 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

The object is shape A while the image is shape B. Since rotating B gives a shape
that resembles A, this is a rotation.
By observation, this is an anticlockwise rotation of 90◦ anticlockwise.
To find the centre of rotation, join any two pairs of corresponding points (dotted
lines), and draw their perpendicular bisectors.

25
 y

2
B
1 A

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 •

−2

−3

−4

The perpendicular bisectors intersect at (0, −1). So your final answer should be:

A 90◦ anticlockwise rotation with centre (0, −1).

Enlargement

(i) If the image is different in size, then it is an enlargement (the image can have the
same orientation as the object or it can be rotated by 180◦ in the case of a negative
scale factor).

(ii) Detail(s) that need to be included are

• Scale factor
Formula for finding scale factor:

Any length of the image

Scale factor =
Corresponding length of the object

• Centre of enlargement
Steps to identify the centre of enlargement:
Step 1: Connect two pairs of corresponding points.
Step 2: Extend the lines so that they intersect.
Step 3: The intersection point is the centre of enlargement

26
Example 7.1.9
Describe the single transformation that maps shape A onto shape B.
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 B

1
x
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1
−2
−3
−4
A
−5
−6
−7
−8

The object is A while the image is B. Since there is a change in size, this is an
enlargement. Also notice that that if you rotate B you will get a shape similar to A,
only scaled up. Hence the scale factor is negative.
To calculate the scale factor, consider any pair of corresponding sides (for example,
the vertical edge of both A and B is one such pair) and divide the image length by
the object length.  
4
Scale factor = − = −2.
2
To find the centre of enlargement connect any two pairs of corresponding points
and extend the lines until they intersect. Their intersection point is the centre of
enlargement.

27
 y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 B

1
• x
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1
−2
−3
−4
A
−5
−6
−7
−8

Hence the centre of enlargement is (0, 0). So you final answer should be

An enlargement of scale factor -2, with centre (0, 0).

Translation

(i) If the given image is the same as the object except for its position in the xy-plane,
then it is a translation.

(ii) Detail(s) that need to be included are

• Column vector
Choose one pair of corresponding points and count how many units in the x
direction and how many units in the y direction the point moved from the
object to the image.

28
 Example 7.1.10
Describe the single transformation that maps shape A onto shape B.
y

3
A
2

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1
B
−2

−3

−4

The object is A and the image is B. There is no change in size or orientation, only
in position. So this is a translation.
Choose any pair of corresponding points (for example, (1, 2) and (−2, −2)) and count
how many units horizontally and vertically you need to move to get from the object
to the image.
In this case it is -3 units horizontally and -4 units vertically. So your final answer
should be !
−3
A translation with column vector .
−4

7.2 Vectors in Two Dimensions

Definition 7.2
A vector is any quantity that has a magnitude (length) and a direction.

Representing vectors

There are multiple ways to represent a single vector, an example of which was already
encountered before - a column vector. Vectors may or may not be represented in a graph
or grid, but either ways they mean the same thing, since they only denote a certain
distance/length in a certain direction.

29
Example 7.2.1
In diagrams, vectors are denoted by arrows, whose length show the magnitude.
Consider the following

The diagram above shows an arrow that moves from A to B (direction) by mov-
ing a certain length diagonally. This diagonal movement can also be viewed as a
combination of horizontal and vertical movements

A +4 units

-2
units

So this vector can be represented in writing as

!
−→ 4
AB =
−2

which means that, to go from point A to point B, you need to move +4 units
horizontally and -2 units vertically.

30
 Remark
Note that a vector is only defined in terms of two things, a direction and a length.
This does NOT include its position. So given two vectors

!
3
Since they can both be defined by the column vector , they are the same
−2
vector. In other words, vectors remain the same under translation.

In addition to this, vectors can also be represented simply by letters, such as a, p, q, etc.
The difference between this and the column vector representation is that it does not give
you a precise understanding of how far you need to move to get from one end of the
vector to the other.

Example 7.2.2 Consider the rectangle ABCD

A a B

D C
−→ −−→
The vectors AB = a and BC = b. This does not show the length of the lines AB
−→ −−→
and BC but is only a symbol that represents the vectors AB and BC.
Also, since ABCD is a rectangle, AB and DC
−are of the same
 length and are parallel.
−→ −−→ → −−→
Hence, the vectors AB and DC are equal AB = DC = a . The same applies for
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ 
BC and AD BC = AD = b .

31
 Remark
−→ −→
Be careful when you use the symbol AB. This is NOT the same as BA, since this
gives you the opposite direction. Opposite directions are denoted by a change in sign.
In other words
−→ −→
AB ̸= BA

but rather
−→ −→
AB = −BA

Vector addition

You can add two vectors to get a new vector. This vector can be thought of as the vector
connecting the two end points of the “path” created by the two vectors we are adding.

Example 7.2.3 ! !
−→ 3 −→ 2
Consider the vectors AB = and AC =
2 −1

−→ −→
To find AB + AC, we will use the fact that vectors remain the same under translation
−→
and create a “path”. We do this by moving AC so that its tail touches the head of
−→
AB.

32
Now we have a continuous path from the tail of the left vector and the head of the
right vector. We can connect the two end points to get the new vector.

This is what happens visually when we add two vectors. We can also simply carry
out this operation using the column vectors like so
! ! !
−→ −→ 3 2 5
AB + AC = + =
2 −1 1

where we add component-wise (the top entry is 3 + 2 = 5 and the bottom entry is
2 + (−1) = 1) Verify that this is exactly the vector we got in the diagram above.

33
 Remark
−→
If two vectors are denoted by letters instead of their column vectors, such as AB = p
−−→
and CD = q, then
−→ −−→
AB + CD = p + q

Scalar multiplication

A scalar is any number or constant that does not have a direction. A vector can be
multiplied with a scalar to get a new vector. This is the same as scaling the vector up or
down along its original direction (enlargement).

Example 7.2.4 !
−→ 4
Consider the vector P Q = . Then the vector
−2
! !
1 −→ 1 4 2
PQ = =
2 2 −2 −1

−→
Visually, it looks like the vector P Q being scaled by a factor of 12 .

−−→ −→
where P X = 12 P Q.

7.3 Magnitude of a Vector

Definition 7.3 !
−→ x
The magnitude of a vector AB = is the length of the vector and is given by
y

−→ p
AB = x2 + y 2

34
This formula is derived from the Pythagoras Theorem since the horizontal and verti-
cal movements that define the vector form a right-angled triangle (verify this using the
diagram in example 7.2.1).

Example 7.3.1 !
−→ 3 −→
Given the vector AB = , find AB .
−4

Using the formula in definition 7.3,

−→ p √
AB = 32 + (−4)2 = 25 = 5 units.

7.4 Vector Geometry

Definition 7.4
A position vector is a vector that starts from the origin (O) in the xy-plane. The
−→
position vector of a point A is denoted by the symbol OA.

Vectors starting from the origin are called position vectors because they give!the precise
−→ 3
position (coordinates) of a point in a graph. For example, if OA = , then the
2
coordinates of A are (3, 2).

Using position vectors

−→
Given any vector AB, you can always break it down as a combination of position vectors
−→ −−→
OA and OB.

35
 Example!7.4.1 !
−→ 3 −−→ 1 −→
OA = and OB = . To find AB, you simply need to find a “path” from
2 −1
A to B. Notice that you can move in the following path A → O → B.
−→
Hence, given how vector addition works, we can simply add the two vectors AO and
−−→ −→ −→ −→
OB to get AB. Now, using the fact that AO = −OA, we get

−→ −→ −−→
AB = AO + OB
−→ −−→
= −OA + OB
! !
3 1
=− +
2 −1
!
−2
=
−3

We can verify this using a graph:

y

3
A
2

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4
-1
B
-2

-3

-4

−→
So, in general, for any vector P Q, we can break it down into its position vectors as such:

−→ −→ −→
P Q = OQ − OP

Parallel vectors

Two vectors of any length are parallel if and only if they point to the same direction.
How do we know mathematically that two vectors point to the same direction? We have
seen before that multiplying a vector with a scalar (or a constant) is the same as scaling

36
a vector up or down along the direction of the vector. Hence, if we are given two vectors,
a and b that can be expressed as
a = kb

where k is any scalar, then a and b are parallel.

Example 7.4.2 ! !
−→ 1 −→ −3
Consider the two vectors AB = and P Q = . These two are parallel
−2 6
−→
since you can express P Q as the following
!
−→ −3
PQ =
6
!
1
= −3
−2
−→
= −3AB

where the scalar is −3. Verify they are indeed parallel by using a graph.

You may encounter vectors that expressed as ratios of each other, these also imply that
they are parallel.

Example 7.4.3
−→ −−→
Given that AB : CD = 2 : 3, we can show that they are parallel by doing the
following
−→
AB 2 −→ 2 −−→
−−→ = 3 =⇒ AB = 3 CD.
CD

Remark
Note that the ratio above is given in terms of vectors. If you are given the ratio
AB : CD this is the ratio of their lengths and does not say anything about whether
they are parallel. In other words, you can only say two lines are parallel if the ratio
−→ −−→
between the vectors, AB and CD, are given.

Collinear points

Multiple points are collinear if they lie on the same straight line. We can identify whether
points are collinear using vectors by utilising the same concept as parallel vectors.

37
Example 7.4.4
Consider the following figure:

A
•

B
•

•
C

We can show that these points are collinear by doing the following:
First note that if these three points are collinear then we can consider the vectors
−→ −→ −→ −→
AB and AC and show that we can scale AB up to get AC (or vice versa). In other
words
−→ −→
AC = k AB.

This is true since, if A, B and C lie on the same straight line, then any two vec-
tor through these points will point in the same direction (or in the exact opposite
direction, in which case k will
! be negative). !
−→ 1 −→ 3
We can see that AB = and AC = . It is then easy to show that
−2 −6

−→ −→
AC = 3AB

and therefore A, B and C are collinear.

Remark
To show that three points A, B and C are collinear you can choose ANY pair of
−→ −−→
vectors passing through these points. For example, the pair AB and BC is also valid
−→ −−→
and so is AC and CB (try to verify this using these pairs for example 7.4.4 by finding
equations similar to the one shown in the above example).

38
Sample question
−→ −−→ −−→
AB = p, DC = 52 p and AD = q.
X is the midpoint of BC.
Y is DC produced such that DC : CY = 5 : 2.

A p B

q X
•

Y
D 5
p C
2

(a) What is the name given to the special shape ABCD?

(b) Find, in terms of p and q, in its simplest form

−−→
(i) BC,
−−→
(ii) BX,
−−→
(iii) AX,
−−→
(iv) DY .

(c) Show that A, X and Y are collinear.

(a) Trapezium.
(Explanation: This is a 4-sided polygon and hence a quadrilateral. We can
−−→ −→
also see that the opposite sides AB and DC are such that DC = 5AB, which
shows that they are parallel. A quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides is
a trapezium)

(b) (i) (Find an alternate path from B to C and add the vectors along the way)

−−→ −→ −−→ −−→

BC = BA + AD + DC
5
= −p + q + p
2
3
= p+q
2

39
 −−→ −−→
(ii) (Since X is the midpoint of BC, it follows that BX = 12 BC)

−−→ 1 −−→
BX = BC
2 
1 3
= p+q
2 2
3 1
= p+ q
4 2

(iii) (Find path from A to X)

−−→ −→ −−→
AX = AB + BX
3 1
=p+ p+ q
4 2
7 1
= p+ q
4 2

(iv) (Use the ratio given. Since DY is a straight line, we can consider the ratio
of lengths given to be a ratio of vectors)

−−→ −−→ −−→ 2 −−→

DC : CY = 5 : 2 =⇒ DC : CY = 5 : 2 =⇒ CY = DC
5 
2 5
= p
5 2
=p

−−→ −−→ −−→

Therefore, DY = DC + CY = 52 p + p = 27 p.
(Note that you cannot use a ratio of lengths as a ratio of vectors unless
the points on the line are collinear)

(c) (To show that the points are collinear, we must consider a pair of vectors
through these points and express one of them as a scalar multiple of the other.
−−→ −→ −−→
We already have the vector AX, so we can calculate AY or XY )

−→ −→ −−→ −−→
AY = AB + BC + CY
3
=p+ p+q+p
2
7
= p+q
2

40
Therefore,

−−→ 7 1
AX = p + q
4 2 
1 7
= p+q
2 2
1 −→
= AY
2
−−→
and so A, X and Y are collinear. (Try solving this problem by finding XY
−→
instead of AY .)

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Chapter 8

Probability

42
Chapter 9

Statistics

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