UNIT 1 SOUND BROADCASTING CHAIN

Structure ..
1.0 1ntroduct;on
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Basic Description of a Broadcast Chain I

3
1.3 Studio Centre +
1.3.1 Multi-purpose Studio
1.3.2 Transmission Studio
1.3.3 Announcer Booth
1.3.4 Microphones
1.3.5 Audio Mixer
1.3.6 Control Room
1.4 SMio-40-Transmitter Link (STL)
I 1.5 Transmitting Centre
1.5.1 Function of Transmitters
1.5.2 Modes of Transmission
1.6 Radio Propagation
1.7 Receiving System
I 1.8 Sequence of Events before a Radio Transmission
1.9 Let Us Sum Up
1.10 Glossary
1.1 1 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Course MJM-002 you have studied the various formats used in audio programme
production. Having read the different types of sounds, you must be thinking about how
to record them and transmit them for broadcasting. This is just what this course deals with.

1
Broadcasting is a complex technical process which requires the interconnected operation of
I electronic equipment and system such as microphones, mixers, amplifiers, transmitters etc.
The total system consisting of all these equipment which are required for achieving of this
1 task is known as 'Broadcast Chain'.
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As the name suggests, 'Broadcast Chain' is a sequential process. That IS,the programme
which we generate at source travels from one electronic device (or equipment) to another in
a serial fashion till it is finally received by the listener through hislher radio set. Each of these
equipment which comprise the chain have a specific technical function to perform. Any
malfunction, defect or failure in one or the other equipment causes a disruption or defect in
the whole process of broadcasting, much like the breakage of a single link causing the whole.
I chain to be broken.

Depending on the magnitude and sophistication of a radio statidn's infrastructure,the

c elements comprising its broadcast chain vary in complexity. Now-a-days we have varieties
I
of radio stations ranging from single-person operated, single-studio, canned-prograrmhe
stations to high-end, multi-studio, multi-channel, programme producing networked stations

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with remote switching facilities and redundancy features built in. The details of the broadcast
chain accordingly differ from station to station. In this unit, we will discuss the essential links
of a typical sound broadcast chain and how the overall process of sound broadcasting and its
reception take place.

11 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
discuss the overall technical system of audio broadcasting and its reception;
identify specific areas of interest within the technical system which are important; and
describe the technical issues involved in day-to-day studio operations.
 Recording
1.2 BASIC DESCRIPTION OF A BROADCAST CHAIN
Any radio broadcasting system can be understood as consisting of the following major
sub-systems:
a) The studio centre
b) Studio-to-TransmitterLink (STL)
c) The transmitting centre
d) Radio propagation medium, and
e) Reception system (radio set).

The studio centre is the place where the programmes are recorded, edited, produced, and
played back at the time of transmission. In the case of live broadcasts, the studio centre is
again the origin of the progfammes with the concerned artistes/performers/announcers/ news-
readers operating from one or the other studio of the studio centre. Even in the case of OBs
(outside broadcasts), the events being broadcast from the OB spot areinvariably routed
through the studio centre for convenience of switching and other technical reasons. Thus
the studio centre becomes the eventual outlet for all programmes.

The programmes emanating fiom the studio centre are transported electronically to the
transmitting centre through the Studio-to-Transmitter Link (STL). This is because, in most
cases, broadcast transmitters are located several kilometres away from the studio centre,
usually in the outskirts of the city. In practice, STL can be any one of the several techcal
options available which include telephone lines, coaxial cables, microwave link, FM radio
link etc.

The transmitting centre is the place which houses the radio transmitter and the antenna system
with the help of which the programmes are transformed into 'radio' frequencies and radiated
in the form of 'electromagnetic' waves. In the case of radio stations broadcasting multiple
channels, say, Delhi 'A', and Delhi 'B'(a1so known as Indraprastha Channel and Rajdhani
Channel respectively), the transmitting centre may house all the concerned transmitters (and
the antennas) in the same place. Alternatively, a transmitting centre may contain just one
transmitter to cater to a single-channel station. In either case, note that a separate transmitter
with a distinct "carrier frequency' is essential for each broadcast channel. For example, Delhi
'A' channel is broadcast through a transmitter which operates at a camer frequency of
809KHz (medium wave), while Delhi 'B' is broadcast through another transmitter operating
at a carrier frequency of 1020KHz (again in the medium wave).

The audio signals (programmes) delivered fiom the studio centre through STL are 'modulated'
onto the carriers generated by the respective transmitters. Then the modulated RF (Radio
Frequency) power is fed from the transmitter to the antenna. From the antenna, the RF power
gets radiated outwards in the form of electromagnetic waves (also called radio waves). The
nature of radio waves is such that their propagation follows different paths depending on the
camer frequency of transmission. Frequencies in the Medium Wave range (roughly 300KHz
to 3MHz) travel through ground layers, while Short Waves (3 MHz to 30 MHz ) travel
skyward, get reflected by the electric charges in the upper atmosphere and reach places
several hundred kilometres away.

a
In general, MW broadcasts are limited to radius of around 200 Krns., while SWs can reach
(under favourable conditions) as far as 4000 Kms. FM (frequency modulation) radio, on the
contrary, can provide only line-of-sight coverage that is, at best, about 60 Kms.

Radio receiver technology has undergone a sea change with the invention of transistor.
Before that, the sets were, like the present day TV sets, heavy and bulky, consuming a lot
ofbattery/electric power and requiring a long outdoor aerial wire to pick up the broadcasts. '
Since 1960's, the transistor radios have made rapid inroads into people's homes as they
became increasingly portable, trouble-free and economical on power consumption.
Now-a-days, pocket sized single-band radios (also called transistors) are the most popular
..- common man's possession all over the country. The radio medium owes its universal reach
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largely to these tiny devices which form the last link in the broadcast chain.
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Before we take a closer look at the various sub-systems that comprise the broadcast system,
first let us attempt the following exercise:
 neck Yow Progress: 1 @# Sound Broadcasting Chain
t
Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers.
.2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

1) What do you understand by the term 'Broadcast Chain'?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................
2) Recapitulate the major sub-systems of a typical Radio Broadcast System.
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1.3 STUDIO CENTRE

As we learnt in the$revious"section, the studio centre is the source of all programming.
This is the place where all recordings, editing, dubbing, mixing, live broadcasts and
announcements during transmissions take place. In the case bf outside broadcasts, the feeds
from the OB spot are invariably routed through the studio centre; so the studio centre becomes
the focal point of all programme generation and distribution.

A studio centre may have just one studio or many sfudios designed for recording different
kinds of programmes. Apart from studios, the centre will also have facilities such as editing
rooms, a control room and other related technical facilities. The layout of a typical studio
centre containing a complement of three studios is shown in the figure below:

I
ELECTRICAL S W I T C H G E A R
& STORE
AC P L A N T S
lECH

17 CONTROL
ROOM
SERVICE
ROOM

REHEARSAL
ROOM

MUSICAL
INSTRUMENT
STORE

LOCK
DUBBING
TAPES
&
LIBRARY
EDlTlNQ
I ANNOUNCER
BOOTH

*-'

Layout of a typical studio centre

You will notice that the three studios are earmarked for specific purposes e.g. Talks, MUSK,
Transmission (playback). This is because, ideally, different kinds of programmes need to be
recorded in different acoustic conditions. This aspect is taken care of while designing the
studio structure and its acoustics. Acoustic design of studios is primarily concerned with two
parameters, namely, Noise level and Reverberation Time.

Noise Level
Commonsense tells us that the noise level (that is, unwanted ambient noise) inside a studio
should be as low as possible. The sources of noise in a studio are the noise caused by airflow
through AC ducts, leakage of external noise fiom adjoining corridors and rooms, and noise
travelling through the building structure itself (vibrational noise). The acoustic design of
studios should be such that all these noises are screened out as much as possible to make the
studio sound-proof. Engineers quantify the noise level inside a studio with the help of
internationally standardised 'noise curves' known as NC- 30, NC-20, NC-15 etc, Lower NC
figures denote better sound-proof condition. Present day high-end radio broadcast studios the
world over confirm to the NC-15 standard. The audio studios of the Electronic Media
Production Centre of IGNOU, and several AIR studios are examples of this kind.

Reverberation Time
Sound produced inside a studio travels outward, gets reflected fiom the studio walls, travels in
a reverse direction, agaln gets reflected and so on. The net result of these multiple reflections
prolong the life of a sound signal a little while, even after the cessation of the original sound.
The phenomenon is called 'reverberation' and is measured in seconds. Reverberation adds
'lustre' and 'bulk' to the sound and adds to its richness. This is considered very desirable for
music programmes upto a point, or else the music will sound 'dead'. Too much reverberation,
however, causes boominess, overlapping of individual sounds and loss of intelligibility.
Hence reverberation is a defmite drawback for spoken-word programmes. The generally
accepted reverberation time for a talk studio is 0.3 seconds, while for a music studio it can be
around 0.7 seconds to 1.8 seconds.

The required amount of noise isolation and reverberation are achieved in studio by:
double door entry (sound lock area);
covering the studio walls with acoustic material, and the flooring with linoleum or thick
carpet;
designing the door seals and observation windows in such a way as to prevent leakage of
sound;
reducing air velocity through air-conditioning ducts and lining the ducts with sound
absorbent material;
constructing the studio walls in a non-parallel fashion (unlike normal rooms) to prevent
multiple reflections; and
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constructing the stud10 shell itself o i a separate foundation, isolated from rest of the I
building structure (to prevent vibrational noises).

1.3.1 Multi-purpose Studio

Smaller production houses cannot afford to create separate studios for individual purposes
like talks, drama, music etc. In their case, a single multi-purpose studio is the answer. The
reverberation time of a multi-purpose studio can be designed to be as low as possible to make
it suitable for talks. When it has to be used for music or drama, reverberation can be added
electronically (such electronic devices are available and are common as a part of the'control
room set up) in the right magnitude.

1.3.2 Transmission Studio

In the studio centre shown in the figure on page 9, studio 3 is designated as the Transmission
studio. T h s is for the purpose of playing back pre-recorded tapes interspersed by live
announcements etc. in a pre-determined sequence. The number of transmission studios (also
called as playback studios) would depend upon the number of broadcast channels that the
station handles. All India Radio's Broadcasting House (BH) studio complex in Delhi, for
exazple, contains 36 studios - some of them for production, and a e rest for transmission.
 Sound BroadcastingChain
1.3.3 Announcer Booth
you would have noticed that an Announcer Booth is attached with the production studios.
While the actual programme (talk/ discussion/ drama1 music concert etc.) takes place inside
the studio, the Announcer Booth serves various related works like keeping continuity with
programmes from other studios, linking announcements, playing filler music and pre-recorded
material, playback of pre-recorded music into the studio etc.

To facilitate these tasks, an Announcer Booth is equipped with the following:

a signalling lamp (red in colour) in the booth, but operated by the control room, as a cue
to the announcer to start a programme;
signalling keys to activate a similar red light in the studip to start programme from the
studio. Simultaneously a red lamp outside the studio also glows as a warning signal for
outsiders that the studio is now 'live';
a synchronised clock for accurate time keeping (master clock in the control room with its
slaves in all announcer booths and studios);
listening facilities for ongoing programmes, from the studio as well as from other studios
to facilitate accurate switch over from one programme to another;
a talk-back mike, speaker and head phones;
an announcer microphone;
audio mixer or announcer console; and
playback facilities for pre-recorded materials (tape deck, cassette deck, etc).

As most of the recorded material in broadcast studios is on open reel quarter-inch tape,
the tape deck is the foremost among the equipment provided in the announcer booth. Other
playback facilities may include the audio cassette decks, DAT (Digital Audio Tape) player
and CD player. Turntables (gramophone disk players), which were the mainstay of broadcast
studios in the past, have almost faded out because of technological changes.

An audio mixer is also provided in the booth which the announcer operates for fading
'in' or 'out' and also to 'cross-fade' the programmes for a smoother change-over from one
programme source to another. The audio mixer not only controls the sources within the
booth, but also the microphones in the studio as well as the signalling lamps.

The.primary source of audio in any broadcast studio is the microphone. It is an indispensable

device for audio recording, whether inside the studio or outside. In the next unit you will
study microphones in greater detail and how to use them effectively in programme
production. At this stage the following particulars miy be noted for a preliminary
understanding of the subject:
C

Microphone (Mike for short) is a device which converts sounds into electrical signals. These
electrical signals are further amplified and processed in succeeding stages of the broadcast
chain. There are different kinds .of microphones to suit different occasions, places and
purposes. From a programmer's standpoint, there are two broad categories of microphones:

Omni-directional Microphones: These are mikes which can pick up sounds from any
direction equally well. When such a mike is placed at the centre of a table with the persons
seated all around, all the voices will be picked up by it without any discrimination. In studios,
omni-directional mikes can be used for group discussions and multi-way interviews, as a

Uni-directional Microphones: These are mikes which can pick up sounds only in one
direction and relatively less from other directions. In other words, uni-directional mikes are
like a sensitive ear in the direction in which they are pointed, whereas they are relatively
deaf to sounds coming from all other directions. These mikes are much more sensitive than
omni-directional ones in the particular direction in which they are pointed; so they can be
usedto advantage for pick up of sounds from a distance e.g. in outdoor locations, sports
events etc. In the studios, uni-directional mikes can be used as announcerlnews-reader mikes
and in radio plays.

Bi-directional: In between the omni and uni-directional mikes, there are mikes with.
directional patterns like bi-directional, which can be used for specific purposes. These
are dealt with in detail in Unit 2 of this Block.
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Recording 1.3.5 Audio Mixer

Audio Mixer is the generic term for the announcer console. From an operational view point,
an audio mixer can be understood as an equipment to which all the sources in the studio and
announcer booth (microphones, tape decks, CD player etc) are connected and from which the
selected source/sources at any time can be passed on to the succeeding stages of the broadcast
chain, or for other purposes like monitoring, recording, editing etc.

Like other electronic gadgetry, audio mixers too are available in a wide range of models,
facilities and technical features. Professional grade Audio mixers used in broadcast studios
are expected to contain the following standard features: /

A minimum of eight channels (that is, eight different sources) can be kept connected to
the mixer: say, 3 or 4 microphone channels and the rest for tape a deck, CD player,
cassette player etc. Bigger recording studios meant for a western orchestra use many
more microphones simultaneously and therefore the channel capacity of the mixer too
needs to be larger in their case.

Each of the channels will have provision for equalisation, 'pre-fade' listening, and a
linear fader (for a gradual fading in or out of the source). Equalisation means the facility
to selectively attenuate (weaken) a portion of the audio spectrum to improve the clarity
of speech or for some creative effects.

A master fader for overall control of the audio sources. While the channel faders control
the individual sources, the masters fader controls the outputs of all the sources whose
channels have been faded in (that is, the mixed audio).

Auxiliary features such as monitoring, cueing amplifiers, muting of loudspeakers in the

studio whenever the studio mikes are faded in, signalling facilities etc.

While the above features may differ in details, in all cases, it is the audio mixer whlch combines
the programme sources of a studio and gives out the composite programme from the announcer
booth to the Control Room. You will study about mixers in greater detail in the next unit.

1.3.6 Control Room

Control Room is the focal area at which all the technical activities in a studio centre converge.
Engineers in the control room have overall responsibility for the technical operations in the
studio set up at large, for switching of broadcast feeds to the transmitting centre and incoming
feeds from external sources. In particular, the following functions are carried out in the
control room:

to receive programmes on-line from each studio (through the respective announcer
booth), and from external sources like the radio-networking terminal, OB spot, etc.

to distribute the programme to respective transmitters, other radio stations that may be
forming a network for programme exchange, satellite up-link facility or to any other
destination.

Thus, the control room set-up is primarily an electronic switching system. These switching
optrations are performed by using a 'control console'. The control console has provision for
continuous monitoring of the on-going programmes either through headphones or loudspeakers
and to control their audio levels. The audio levels are carefully controlled, as too high a level
will cause distortion and also overload the transmitter. On the contrary, too low a level will
cause poor signal-to-~oiseratio and, ultimately, poor reception in the radio sets.

In very large studio coin~lexes,a separate Master Switching facility is also employed, in
addition to the control room set up. In this case, control room activity is essentially confined
to monitoring and control of audio quality and levels, while the switching activities are carried
out in the Master Switching facility.
.

12
 Check Your Progress: 2 Sound Broadcasting Chain

Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers.

2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.

1) What do you understand by the term 'Reverberation Time'?

............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2) Explain the functions performed in the control room of a broadcasting station.
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1.4 STUDIO-TO-TRANSMITTER LINK (STL)

We have learnt that radio transmitters, in general, are located away from the city centre (so
also from the studio centre) as they require a large area for the aer~alfield. In the few cases
where a transmitter is co-located with the studio, this link can be a hard-wired connection
between the two. In all other cases, the option is among the following:
Telephone lines
Coaxial cables
Mlcrowave link
FM radio link
Satellite link

Dedicated leased telephone lines are the most popular form of STL. Normal telephone lines
have a narrow frequency response which is good enough for telephone conversation but not as
I a transparent medium for broadcast quality audio. Hence, the telephone lines used for STL are
specially 'loaded' for improved frequency response and carefilly maintained to prevent
breakdowns or loss of quality.

Coaxlal cable connection is generally more robust than a telephone line in its physical
construction and performance. Coaxial cables have inherently less loss for signal transmission
and protect the signals from cross-talk and other interference. For longer STL routes coaxial
cables are preferred over telephone lines.

Mlcrowave, FM radlo and satellite llnes offer wireless solutions for STL. In all these cases
the transmitting equipment (Microwave transmitter/FM transmitter/satelliteuplink) is
installed as part of the studio centre and the corresponding receiving system at the radio
transmitter site. STLs of either kind (wired and wireless) have their own advantages and
disadvantages. For example, a dedicated telephone line link is simple and easy to nlaintain but
is prone to failure during rainy season and road repair works. Coaxial cable links are costly to
install and maintain, but they can offer better quality over long haul routes. Microwave and
FM links can provide reliable service over short distances, provided that there are no natural
or man-made obstructions for line-of-sight between the studio and transmitting stations. A
satellite link requires a costly ground installation at the studio end which becomes costly to
maintain, apdrt from the expenses involved for use of satellite itself. But if a number of
transmitters dpread across the country have to be fed from the same studio centre, the satellite
link becomes very convenient and economical.

We can appreciate that the STL is a crucial link in the broadcast chain and even a temporary

I failure of it causes disruption in the broadcast schedule, Hence, in most cases redundancy is
ensured by providing one telephone line link and a back-up FM link for the same STL.
Recording
1.5 TRANSMITTING CENTRE
We have studied earlier in this unit that a separate radio transmitter is needed for each
broadcast channel. In the case of a radio station broadcasting many channels, the transmitting
centre houses as many individual transmitters and contains an elaborate technical infrastructure
and a sprawling aerial field, with masts of different heights and shapes towering over the
surrounding landscape.

1.5.1 Function of Transmitters

Unlike the studio centre, which combines in itself all the programme production activities and
the related technical activities, the transmitting centre is devoted solely to the technical aspect
of converting the audio signals into radio frequencies and radiating them all over the service
area. The indispensability of the radio transmitter can be understood by the fact that, when
the programme from the studio centre breaks down for any reason, a stand-by pre-recorded
programme can be put out from the transmitting centre itself, no such thing can be done if the
transmitter itself fails. Nothing will be picked up by the radio sets when the transmitter is not
on or breaks down; so even a regret announcement to the listeners cannot be broadcast!

1.5.2 Modes of Transmission

The technical processes which take place in a radio transmitter can be broadly understood as
follows:

Firstly, the transmitter generates the allocated RF (radio frequency) 'carrier', and it is this
frequency that distinguishes the particular broadcast channel. Broadcast stations invariably
announce this frequency in their opening announcements day-in and day-out as so many 'kilo
hertz' or so many 'meters' (ofwavelength). The incoming audio signal 'modulates' the carrier
in such a manner that either the amplitude (meaning the strength) or the frequency of the
carrier is continuously varied in accordance with the amplitude variations of the audio signals
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from instant to instant. This modulated RF contains the on-going programme either in the form
of its amplitude variations (called amplitude modulation) or frequency vaflations (frequency
modulation). The radio transmitter also amplifies the modulated RF power to a sufficient level
(the power output of a transmitter is specified as so many kilowatts) for delivering to the
transmitting aerial.

The physical dimensions (lengthlheight) of an aerial are the prime determinants of its radiahon
properties. For efficient radiation of RF power, the aenals are designed with their length1
height as a simple fraction of the wavelength (usually half the wavelength). Also, it would be
interesting to note that aerials meant for the MW band are always vertically installed. In fact,
the steel mast structure (which stands on a base insulator with the help of supporting guy-
wires) itself acts as the aerial in the case of MW transmitters. Such aerials are known as self-
radiating masts. In the SW band, the aerials are erected horizontally at a height, by hanging
them across the self-supporting steel structures, like a gigantic clothes line. Aerials for FM
radio broadcast are installed usually atop TV towers (very much like the TV aerials) as both
FM radio and terrestrial TV operate m the VHF (Very High Frequency) band. There are, of
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course, deep technical considerations behind aerial design to handle the particular RF power i
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level and frequencies, and to produce a particular shape of radiation pattern to suit the
geography of the service area to which the broadcast station caters.

1.6 RADIO PROPAGATION

We haveSeen that a few specific portions of the electromagnetic spectnun in the medium
wave (300 KHz to 3 MHz), short wave (3 MHz to 30 MHz) and very high frequency (VHF)
(30 MHz to 300 MHz) bands are approved for audio broadcasting and that propagation of
radio waves differs considerably in the various frequency bands. Medium wave and Short
wave bands are also referred to as medium frequency (MF) and high hquency (HF) bands
respectively. It should be noted that wave length and frequency are inversely proportional to
each other; that is, shorter the wavelength, higher is its frequency.
,
Propagation in the MFs takes place along the ground and therefore soil conditions play a role SoundBro*dcasting Chain
in determining the range of coverage as much as the power of the transmitter. Sea, other water
bodies, marshy soil are very good conductors of MF radio waves, while a rocky or desert
terrain attenuates and constrains their reach. Typically, the range of a 100 KwIMF transmitter
under average ground conditions can be around 150 Kms. Thus Delhi 'A' which is broadcast
through a 100 KW transmitter, can be heard upto Mathura, Kurukshetra, Hissar and Alwar.

In the night hours, MFs reach much longer distances throuih a second propagation mode
called the 'sky waves'. Under favourable conditions, the sky waves ban reach destinations
around 1000 Krns and beyond. But the sky wave propagation is subject to the vagaries of the
ionosphere and, in general, its reception cannot be as consistent and dependable as the ground
wave. High frequency (that is, short wave) propagation depends totally on the ionospheric
layers and their capacity to reflect these frequencies.

Ionospheric layers are layers of the upper atmosphere which are electrically charged by the
sun rays. The height of these layers above the ground keeps varying roughly in the range 80 to
120 Km (E-layer) and 200 to 400 Km (F-layer), depending on the time of the day. They are
also subject to seasonal and other long-term variations. A typical HF transmitting aerial
radiates the radio waves sky-ward at an angle. When these sky-bound waves hit the
ionosphere, one or the other of its layers reflect them earthward, somewhat like a mirror
reflecting light. By careful frequency planning, HF broadcasts can be targeted to service areas
located thousand of Krns away from the transmitter. Most of the overseas services of All India
Radio are though the HF broadcasts, as also of other broadcast organisations around the

While the outstanding advantage of HF Broadcasts is their long distance reach, they are
susceptible to ionospheric variations. H e n q reception on these frequencies is often
characterised by severe fading and interference. Those of you who tune in the SW Band on
your radio even occasionally would testify how strenuous it is to get a clear reception of these
signals for half-an-hour at a stretch!

In the VHF (Very High Frequency) region, the propagation of radio waves takes place almost
in straight lines between the tiansmitting aerial and the radio set; so a clear line-of-sight is
required without any major obstructions like hillockyin between. When the transmitting aerial
is located at a height, the distance it can 'see' all around increases. FM radio stations operate
in the VHF band, and their transmitting aerial are geigrally co-located with TV aerials atop
the tall TV masts to maximise the coverage.

The main drawback of FM radio is its restricted reach because of the line-of-sight limitations.
In spite of this, FM radio is becoming increasingly popular because of its excellent reception
within the sellrice area, without any noise or fading. For good quality music and as a local
radio, FM broadcasting is an ideal medium.

Check Your Progress: 3

State which of the following statements is true or false:

Ionospheric layers are also subject to seasonal True 1 False

and other variations.

When an FM transmitting Ariel is located at a height, True 1 False

its coverage area increases.

If a transmitter fails, nothing can be sent 011 air- True 1 False

not even a regret announcement.

MW band are always horizontally inste!:ed. True I False

..
Recording
1.7 RECEIVING SYSTEM
The universal popularity of radio broadcasting particularly in the rural and remote areas is
mainly on account of its simple reception mechanism: the radio set. This is the vital link in the
Broadcast chain. Rapid technological advances have transformed the radio reception system
from the heavy and bulky valve sets of the past (which adorned the rich and middle class
homes till the 1970's) to the highly portable, virtually trouble-fiee transistor radios which
have since become the routine possession of the poor and rural populations. In fact, the
transformation is so complete that today the name 'radio set' hardly exists in common
parlance; instead, we just refer to them as 'transistor sets' or simply as 'transistor'l

There are innumerable types and models of these 'transistor sets' to suit different applications,
tastes, and pockets. Broadly, the following categories can be understood:

Communications Receivers: These are meant for professional use by broadcast

organisations, radio amateurs (HAMS) and other heavy-duty purposes. They have higher
sensitivity far superior to domestic sets and provide special features like pre-set tuning,
variable selectivity. motorised tuning, in-built meter for single strength indication, internal
circuit features which can counter the effects of fading, channel noise etc. They can be
employed for monitoring of distant stations, radio relay, accurate assessment of reception
conditions etc.

Two-in-Ones: They are most popular in a home setting as they combine in one gadget the
audio cassette recorder as well as the radio set. The facility to record off air broadcasts
directly without any need for external chords is their prime attraction. Other standard features
include mains as well as battery operation, telescopic rod aerial for short wave and FM bands,
ferrite rod aerial (fixed inside the set) for MW reception, detachable speakers etc. In general,
the SW band is split into two or more bands for better selectivity.

Thus, the costlier models would contain more number of SW bands, one MW band and one
FM band monolstereo selection.

Pocket Radios: 'single-band (MW only) radios of the size of a cigarette packet have become
extremely common and they work usually on a couple of 'AA' size battery cells. Multi-band
sets, including the FM band are also available in the same size. Obviously, they are the kind
of thing one would carry on travel, to the workplace, into the kitchen, to the bed side or as you
like. Periodical replacement of battery cells can be the only nuisance with these otherwise
undemanding devices, but of course there too you have an option to use rechargeable cells!

Car Radlos: Specially designed for use in automobiles, they work on the 12V car batteries
with the telescopic aerial mounted a top the vehicle,

Do note that, irrespective of the category, all radio sets receive the broadcasts in the same
way: the basic receptor is the receiving aerial, Communication receivers use externally
installed aerials of different shapes and lengths especially for HF reception (i,e, SW Band).
In all other receiver sets, it is the in-built telescopic rod aerial whose length and orientation
are adjustable for best reception of the particular HF broadcast. MW Broadcasts are picked up
by a ferrite rod aerial mounted inside the set. For best reception, the orientation of this has to
be adjusted in the horizontal plane and for this purpose, the set itself will have to be rotated.

The radiation picked up by the aerial in all cases is too weak and needs amplification. The
electronics inside the set firstly selects the particular broadcast station's Aequency, (by the
act of band selection and tuning) amplifies this particular radio frequency, Swn-converts it
to lower order called intermediate frequency, 'detects' the audio frequency (AF) signal by
strippbg off its 'carrier', amplifies the AF still further and delivers it to the loudspeaker(s) or
headphones. The end transducer is the loudspeaker/headphone which converts the AF (which
is an electrical signal) back into sound energy, which alone can be heard by o w ears,

16
1.8 SEQUENCE OF EVENTS BEFORE A
TRANSMISSION
Having studied the overview of how the broadcasting process happens, let us also note the
sequence of events that take place before and at the start of a typical radio transmission.

Half-an-hour before start: The control room generates a lKHz continuous tone and feeds it
to the transmitter via STL. The transmitter is switched on to full power and kept switched on
for rest of the time. To begin with the lKHz tone is also faded in for testing, burfaded out
after a few seconds, keeping only the blank carrier on the air.

Ten minutes before start: The lKHz tone which is on the STL all the while is faded in upto
about 30% modulation level. At this stage, the station can be tuned into by radio sets in the
service area. You will hear the lKHz tone at a constant level on the set when you tune in.

One minute before start: The lKHz tone is faded out by the control room and the signature
tune of the station (or the broadcast network) is faded in. The fader control in the transhtting
station is adjusted so that signature tune is faded in for full depth of modulation.
I

A few seconds before start: The signature tune is faded out and a standard time signal in the
form of discreet pips in one second intervals is faded in. The last pip denotes the correct time.

Exactly at the correct time: The control room sends a signal to the annouacer booth to alert
the announcer to start the programme. Simultaneously the red warning lamps are on outside
the sound lock and inside the concerned announcer booth.

The announcer fades-in the recorded tape ' Vande Mataram ' (in the case of morning
transmissions of AIR). At the end of the song, the announcer fades it out and fades in the
announcer mike to make the opening announcement. This includes information about the
station name, frequency and wavelength of transmission and then the name of the programme
to follow.

Soon after the announcement, the announcer mike is faded out and the studio mike is faded
in and the announcer gives the signal to the studio to start the prograillme. This is in case of
a live programme from the studio. If the programme is a recorded one, the announcer starts
the concerned tape deck and fades-in the relevant fader and the programme starts getting
broadcast.
- -

Activity
Visit your nearest All India Radio station. Go round the various studios, control room etc.
Take detailed notes. Identify in particular if there are any significant differences between
the actual situation and the description given in this unit.
C
L

.
1.9
-
LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed the sequence of links that constitute a typical Sound Broadcast
Chain. Starting from the nlicrophone, the broadcast signal passes through a train of equipment
wlthin the studio centre, then passed on to the transmitter through the studio-to-transmitter
link. The transmitter does the job of generating the radio frequency 'carrier', which then gets
modulated by the audio programme. The modulated RF, after amplification, is fed to the
transmitting aerial which radiates the RF in the form of electromagnetic waves. Depending on
whether the RF in question is Medium Frequency, High Frequency or Very High Frequency,
the propagation of the radio waves take different paths such as along the ground, via the
ionosphere or through line-of-sight respectively. The receiver sets located within the service
area of the broadcast station then pick up these radio waves and convert them back into the
original sounds of the audio programme generated by the station.
Amplifier An electronic equipment which serves to boost the voltage or
power of a signal.

Carrier The radio frequency energy generated by a transmitter. Every

transmitter generates and transmits a carrier with a unique
frequency.

Detection (in : It is the process by which the audio signal is recovered back from
the context of a the modulated RF.Detection is the reverse process of modulation.
radio receiver)

HF High Frequency. 3 MHz to 30 MHz. Also referred to as

Short Wave (SW)

Ionosphere : Layers of the upper atmosphere which are electrically charged.

Ionosphere helps in HF Propagation.

MF Medium Frequency. 300 KHz to 3 MHz. Also referred to as

Medium Wave (MW)

Modulation : The process by which the information contained in an audio signal

is imprinted on the RF camer.

RF Radio frequency

Selectivity (in : It is the ability of a receiver to sharp-tune into a

the context of a particular station, rejecting all other in the neighbouring
radio receiver) frequencies.

Transducer : Any device which converts one form of energy into another.
For example, Microphone (converts sound energy into electrical
energy); Loudspeaker (converts electrical energy into sound
energy)

Transistor Technically, transistor is an electronic component which is used

in electronic circuits (including those in a radio receiver) for
amplifying and other signal processing functions. Loosely, the
radio receivers themselves are called transistors or transistor sets.

Transmitter : A device which transforms the audio signals into modulated

F S (radio frequency) power.
VHF Very High Frequency. 30 MHz to 300 MHz.

1.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE ANSWERS

Check Your Progress: 1

1) Sound broadcast chain means the path taken by Sound from the studio to the listeners
which is linked by many electronic devices such as microphones, mixers, amplifiers,
transmitter, etc.

2) The major sub-systems of radio broadcasting system are the studio, studio to transmitter
link (STL), the transmitter, radio propagation medium and the receiving or radio set.
 unssGn IU U ~rrogress: 2

1) Sounds produced inside a studio travel outward, get reflected from the studio walls,
travel in a reverse direction, again get reflected and so on. The net result of these multiple
reflections prolongs the life of a sound signal a little while, ven after the cessation of the
A
original sound. The phenomenon is called reverberation ti e and is measured in seconds.

2) Control Room is the focal area at which all the technical activtties in a studio centre
converge. The engineers in the control room have overall responsibility for the technical
operations in the studio set up at large, for switching of broadcast feeds to the transmitting
centre and incoming feeds from external sources. In particular, the following finctions are
carried out in the control room:

to receive programmes on-line from each studio (through the respective announcer
booth), and from external sources like the radio-networking terminal, OB spot, etc.

to distribute the programme to respective transmitters, other radio stations that may
be fonning a network for programme exchange, satellite up-link facility or to any
other destination.

Check Your Progress: 3

1) True

. 2) True

3) True

4) False.

19