q Structural systems of a building support all loads and

resist all constraining forces that may be reasonably

expected to be imposed on them during their expected
service life. And these systems serve without causing any
hazard to users, dangerous deformations, excessive side
sway (drift) or annoying vibrations.
 Loads and environmental forces acting on structural
systems are; gravity loads, wind/seismic loads,
expansion/contraction of material, heat, cold, moisture
and precipitation.
Framed or skeleton construction Load transfer to building elements
 Structural systems could be either of concrete, steel, timber,
prefabricated element or a combination.
 The selection of appropriate structural system or combination of
systems depends on;
 Soil conditions,
 the program and concept (function of a building),
 applicable codes,
 type of building,
 material delivery and construction timing,
 local construction capabilities and preferences,
 ease of construction and schedule,
 cost of the selected system,
 cost impact on other systems,
 appearance and aesthetic potential.
 Reinforced concrete structures
 Concrete is a product obtained artificially by hardening
of the mixture of binding material (cement), fine
aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel), and
water in predetermined proportions.
 The property of concrete depends on the characteristic
of the ingredients and the proportion of the mix. In mix
proportioning workability, strength, durability and
economy should be taken into consideration.
 Concrete works are classified as:
 Class I - works under the direction of qualified supervisor
 Class II – works with lower level of quality
 Concrete works can further be classified in different
manner, some are mentioned below
 Advantages and disadvantages of concrete structures
 Reinforced concrete (RCC) is a concrete in which steel
reinforcement bars have been incorporated to eliminate the major
weakness of concrete (tensile strength). The number, diameter,
spacing, shape and type of bars to be used have to be designed.

Fig. Reinforcement Steel

 A reinforced concrete structure is made up of many types
of reinforced structural members, including; footings,
columns, beams, slabs, walls, and so forth.

 Footings
Footings support the entire structure and distribute the
load to the ground. The size and shape of a footing
depend upon the design of the structure.
 COLUMNS
 These are the
vertical load
bearing
members of the
structural frame
which transmits
the beam loads
down to the
foundations.
 BEAMS
These are horizontal load bearing members which are classified as
either Main beams which transmit floor and secondary beam loads
to the columns or Secondary beams which transmit floor loads to the
main beams.

Fig. Typical beam drawing

 SLABS
Carry the live and dead loads of a building and transfer
them to the beams or walls.

Fig. Typical Slab drawing

 JOINTS IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES
 Contraction joints: the purpose of contraction joints is to control
cracking caused by temperature changes.
 Expansion joints: Wherever expansion might cause a concrete
slab to buckle because of temperature change, expansion joints
are required.
 Steel Framed Structures
Steel has the maximum number of properties which are
not found in any other materials. Some of them are
listed below;
 High tensile and compressive strength
 Ability to deform plastically with out damage
 Can be easily welded, forged and riveted
 Large displacement before collapse
 Steel is the only material which is equally strong both
in tension and compression.
 Steel is suitable for all construction purposes in the
present day practice.
 Steel bars are widely used as reinforcement in
reinforced concrete structures.
 In addition, Steel frames are used in the construction
of steel bridges, Skeleton works in building
construction, long span construction, erection of
towers, etc.
 The construction of a framework of structural steel
involves two principal operations: fabrication and
erection.
 Steel Sections
 Cold rolled sections: Cold-formed shapes are
relatively thin sections made by bending sheet or strip
steel in roll-forming machines, press brakes, or bending
brakes. Door and window frames, partitions, wall studs,
floor joists, sheathing, and moldings are made by cold
forming.
 Hot rolled sections: these are structural steel
available in wide range of size, shape and
weight.
Fig. Cold rolled steel sections
Fig. Hot rolled steel sections
 Structural Steel Connectors
There are four basic connectors used in making structural
steel connections. They are bolts, welds, pins, and rivets.
Fig. Structural Steel connectors
 Advantages and disadvantages of steel structures
Advantages Disadvantages
• High strength to weight ratio
• Energy intensive
• Non-combustible
material
• Recyclable
• Susceptible to rust and
• Consistent material quality
corrosion
• Safety: offers greater protection
• Requires fire proofing
• Flexibility
• Highly conductive
• Inorganic: will not warp, split,
• Emission of gases during
creep, crack
production
• Dimensional stability
• Extra cost for protective
• Straight walls, corners
coating
• Speedy construction
 Timber structures
 Wood has always been a very good construction
material since olden times. And it is still used extensively
for construction purpose, railways, furniture, formwork,
miscellaneous articles, and transportation.
 Wood that is suitable for structural work is called timber.
It can be used as;: beams, joists and rafters, Studs and
posts, girders, trusses, decking, piles, and structural
laminated members.
 The qualities of timber depend upon; type of tree,
maturity of tree, time of felling, method of seasoning,
and type and process of preservation.
Fig. Timber frame construction
 Timber can
also be used
as a composite
structure with
steel or other
materials.

Fig. Composite timber beams

 Advantages and disadvantages of timber structures
Advantages Disadvantages
• Quick erection time
• Reduced site labour • Additional design and
• Reduced construction waste engineering time
• Easily converted to any shape • Susceptible to decay
• Economical and cheap • Very likely to warp and crack
• High strength to weight ratio • Not fire resistant
• Light weight structural members • Requires regular maintenance
• Easy alteration and repairs • Lack of experience of
• Energy efficient in its production following trades
• Non conductor of heat and sound
 Prefabricated building systems
 Prefabrication may be in general terms defined as a continuity
of production implying; a steady flow of demands,
standardization, integration of different stages of production,
high degree of organization of work, and mechanization to
replace manual labour.
 The prefabrication practice has advantages with respect to
cost, time, quality, safety and environment.
 Types of prefabrication approach:
 Fully Pre-fabricated Construction Method

 Partially pre-fabricated Construction Method

 Prefabrication of elements of the construction.


Fig. Precast structural elements
 Connections in
precast concrete
structures
Precast concrete
structural members are
transported from their
production site and
assembled in the
construction site. The
assembling process is
done by using
connectors which are
installed in each
precast concrete
member.
Fig. Connections in
precast concrete
structures
 Advantages and disadvantages of precast concrete
Advantages Disadvantages
• More time efficient
• Very heavy members
• Ensures high quality
• Problems at connections
• Better cost savings
• Requirements for lifting device
• Safety
• Limited building design
• Lower maintenance cost
flexibility
• Erection at every weather
• Accommodation for last minute
condition
change
• Less formwork
• Additional reinforcements for
• Early return of the investment
handling
• Less wet work at the site
• Transportation cost
• Better fire protection
 Shell and dome structures
 Shells
A shell is structural curved skin covering where the
forces in the shell or membrane are compressive and in
the restraining edge beams are tensile. The main
properties of shell roofs are:
 the entire roof is a structural element, basic strength is
inherent in its geometrical shape and form, and
comparatively less material is required than other forms of
roof structure.
 Some of the advantages of Shell roof structures
are:
 The curved shapes are naturally strong structures
 Allow wide areas to be spanned
 No use of internal supports

 Gives an open and unobstructed space

 Ideally suited for architectural applications
Fig Different types of shell structures
 Domes
Domes are double curvature shells which can be rotationally formed
by any curved geometrical plane figure rotating about a central
vertical axis. These are shells curved in two directions.
 They are one of the oldest types of construction.
 Some of the advantages of shell:
 They are completely span-free

 Have high ratio of span to thickness

 Aesthetically very pleasing

 Virtually any size and number of openings are possible

 Excellent for athletic facilities, schools, auditoriums, churches,

convention halls, museums etc.
  Types of dome structures

Fig Different types of dome

structures
Dome structures
Thanks!