CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY TENTH

49
EDITION

Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman •

Minorsky • Jackson

Neural
Regulation
in Animals

楊建洲
生物醫學科學系

Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Command and Control Center
 The human brain contains about 100 billion neurons,
organized into circuits more complex than the most
powerful supercomputers
 Powerful imaging techniques allow researchers to monitor
multiple areas of the brain while the subject performs
various tasks
 A recent advance uses expression of combinations of
colored proteins in brain cells, a technique called
“brainbow”

Figure 49.1 How do scientists

identify individual neurons in the
brain?

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Concept 49.1: Nervous systems consist of
circuits of neurons and supporting cells
 By the time of the Cambrian explosion more than 500
million years ago, specialized systems of neurons had
appeared that enables animals to sense their environments
and respond rapidly
 The simplest animals with nervous systems, the
cnidarians, have neurons arranged in nerve nets
 A nerve net is a series of interconnected nerve cells
 More complex animals have nerves, in which the axons of
multiple neurons are bundled together
 Nerves channel and organize information flow through the
nervous system
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  Bilaterally symmetrical animals exhibit cephalization,
the clustering of sensory organs at the front end of the
body
 The simplest cephalized animals, flatworms, have a
central nervous system (CNS)
 The CNS consists of a brain and longitudinal nerve
cords
 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of
neurons carrying information into and out of the CNS

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  Annelids and arthropods have segmentally
arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia
 Nervous system organization usually correlates
with lifestyle
 Sessile molluscs (for example, clams and chitons)
have simple systems, whereas more complex
molluscs (for example, octopuses and squids)
have more sophisticated systems

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  In vertebrates
 The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord
 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed
of nerves and ganglia

 Region specialization is a hallmark of both

systems

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 Figure 49.2 Nervous system organization. (a) A hydra contains individual
neurons (purple) organized in a diffuse nerve net (b-h) Animal with more
sophisticated nervous systems contain groups of neurons (blue)
organized into nerves and often ganglia and a brain.

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Glia

 Glial cells, or glia have numerous functions to

nourish, support, and regulate neurons
 Embryonic radial glia form tracks along which newly
formed neurons migrate
 Astrocytes induce cells lining capillaries in the
CNS to form tight junctions, resulting in a blood-
brain barrier and restricting the entry of most
substances into the brain

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 Figure 49.3 Glia in the vertebrate nervous system.
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  Radial glial cells and astrocytes can both act as
stem cells
 Researchers are trying to find a way to use neural
stem cells to replace brain tissue that has ceased
to function normally

Figure 49.4 Newly born neurons in

the brain of an adult. In this light
micrograph, new neurons derived
from adult stem cells are labeled
with green fluorescent protein (GFP),
and all neurons are labeled with a
DNA-binding dye. Colored red in this
image.

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Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System

 The CNS develops from the hollow nerve cord

 The cavity of the nerve cord gives rise to the
narrow central canal of the spinal cord and the
ventricles of the brain
 The canal and ventricles fill with cerebrospinal
fluid, which supplies the CNS with nutrients and
hormones and carries away wastes

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  The brain and spinal cord contain
 Gray matter, which consists of neuron cell bodies,
dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
 White matter, which consists of bundles of
myelinated axons

Figure 49.5 Ventricles, gray matter,

and white matter. Ventricles deep in
the brain’s interior contain
cerebrospinal fluid. Most of the gray
matter is on the brain surface,
surrounding the white matter.

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 Figure 49.6 The vertebrate nervous
system.The central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
(yellow). Left-right pairs of cranial
nerves, spinal nerves, and ganglia
make up most of the peripheral
nervous system (dark gold).

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  The spinal cord conveys information to and from
the brain and generates basic patterns of
locomotion
 The spinal cord also produces reflexes
independently of the brain
 A reflex is the body’s automatic response to a
stimulus
 For example, a doctor uses a mallet to trigger a
knee-jerk reflex

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 Figure 49.7 The knee-jerk reflex. Many
neurons are involved in this reflex, but for
simplicity, only a few neurons are shown.

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The Peripheral Nervous System

 The PNS transmits information to and from the

CNS and regulates movement and the internal
environment
 In the PNS, afferent neurons transmit information
to the CNS and efferent neurons transmit
information away from the CNS

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Figure 49.8

CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
(information processing)

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Afferent neurons Efferent neurons

Autonomic Motor
nervous system system
Sensory
receptors
Control of
skeletal muscle

Internal Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric

and external division division division
stimuli
Control of smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles, glands
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  The PNS has two efferent components: the motor system
and the autonomic nervous system
 The motor system carries signals to skeletal muscles and
is voluntary
 The autonomic nervous system regulates smooth and
cardiac muscles and is generally involuntary
 The autonomic nervous system has sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions
 The sympathetic division regulates arousal and energy
generation (“fight-or-flight” response)
 The parasympathetic division has antagonistic effects on
target organs and promotes calming and a return to “rest
and digest” functions
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 Figure 49.9 The parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
Most pathways in each division involve two neurons. The axon of the first neuron extends from
a cell bixiy in the CNS to a set of PNS neurons whose cell bodies are clustered into a ganglion
(plural, ganglia). The axons of these PNS neurons transmit instructions to internal organs,
where they form synapses with smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or gland cells.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 49.2: The vertebrate brain is regionally
specialized
 Specific brain structures are particularly
specialized for diverse functions
 The vertebrate brain has three major regions: the
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

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  The forebrain has activities including processing of
olfactory input, regulation of sleep, learning, and any
complex processing
 The midbrain coordinates routing of sensory input
 The hindbrain controls involuntary activities and
coordinates motor activities
 Comparison of vertebrates shows that relative sizes of
particular brain regions vary
 These size differences reflect the relative importance of the
particular brain function
 Evolution has resulted in a close match between structure
and function

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 Figure 49.10 Vertebrate brain structure and evolution. During evolution,
differences arose in the relative size of the major structures common to
vertebrate brains. As discussed in the text, size differences correlate with the
importance of particular brain functions for particular vertebrate groups.

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  During embryonic development the anterior neural
tube gives rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain
 The midbrain and part of the hindbrain form the
brainstem, which joins with the spinal cord at the
base of the brain
 The rest of the hindbrain gives rise to the cerebellum
 The forebrain divides into the diencephelon, which
forms endocrine tissues in the brain, and the
telencephalon, which becomes the cerebrum

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Figure 49.11b

Embryonic brain regions Brain structures in child and adult

Telencephalon Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, basal nuclei)

Forebrain
Diencephalon Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)

Midbrain Mesencephalon Midbrain (part of brainstem)

Metencephalon Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum

Hindbrain
Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)

Mesencephalon Cerebrum Diencephalon

Metencephalon
Midbrain
Myelencephalon
Hindbrain Diencephalon

Midbrain

Brainstem
Pons
Medulla
oblongata
Telencephalon
Forebrain Cerebellum
Spinal
cord Spinal cord

Embryo at 1 month Embryo at 5 weeks Child

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Figure 49.11c

Left cerebral Right cerebral

hemisphere hemisphere

Cerebral cortex

Corpus callosum

Cerebrum Basal nuclei

Cerebellum

Adult brain viewed from the rear

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Figure 49.11d

Diencephalon
Thalamus
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Pituitary gland
Pons

Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord

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Arousal and Sleep

 The brainstem and cerebrum control arousal and

sleep
 The core of the brainstem has a diffuse network of
neurons called the reticular formation
 These neurons control the timing of sleep periods
characterized by rapid eye movements (REMs)
and by vivid dreams
 Sleep is also regulated by the biological clock and
regions of the forebrain that regulate intensity and
duration
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 Figure 49.12 The reticular formation. Once thought to consist of a single diffuse network of
neurons, the reticular formation is now recognized as many distinct clusters of neurons.
These clusters function in part to filter sensory input (blue arrows), blocking familiar and
repetitive information that constantly enters the nervous system before sending the filtered
input to the cerebral cortex (green arrows).

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  Sleep is essential and may play a role in the
consolidation of learning and memory
 Some animals have evolutionary adaptations
allowing for substantial activity during sleep
 Dolphins sleep with one brain hemisphere at a
time and are therefore able to swim while “asleep”

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 Figure 49.13 Dolphins can be asleep and awake at the same time. EEG recordings
were made separately for the two sides of a dolphin’s brain. At each time point, low-
frequency activity was recorded in one hemisphere while higher-frequency activity
was record in the other hemisphere.

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Biological Clock Regulation
 Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are examples of circadian
rhythms, daily cycles of biological activity
 Such rhythms rely on a biological clock, a molecular
mechanism that directs periodic gene expression and
cellular activity
 Biological clocks are typically synchronized to light and
dark cycles
 In mammals, circadian rhythms are coordinated by a group
of neurons in the hypothalamus called the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
 The SCN acts as a pacemaker, synchronizing the
biological clock
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Emotions
 Generation and experience of emotions involve many brain
structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of
the thalamus
 These structures are grouped as the limbic system
 Generating and experiencing emotion often require interactions
between different parts of the brain
 The structure most important to the storage of emotion in the
memory is the amygdala, a mass of nuclei near the base of the
cerebrum

Figure 49.14 The limbic system in

the human brain.

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Functional Imaging of the Brain
 Brain structures are probed and analyzed with functional imaging methods
 Positron-emission tomography (PET) enables a display of metabolic
activity through injection of radioactive glucose
 Today, many studies rely on functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI), in which brain activity is detected through changes in local oxygen
concentration
 The range of applications for fMRI include monitoring recovery from
stroke, mapping abnormalities in migraine headaches, and increasing the
effectiveness of brain surgery

Figure 49.15 Functional imaging in the

working brain. Functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to
reveal brain activity associated with
music that listeners described as
happy or sad.

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Concept 49.3: The cerebral cortex controls
voluntary movement and cognitive functions
 The cerebrum, the largest structure in the human
brain, is essential for language, cognition,
memory, consciousness, and awareness of our
surroundings
 Four regions, or lobes (frontal, temporal, occipital,
and parietal), are landmarks for particular
functions

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 Figure 49.16 The human cerebral cortex. Each side of the cerebral cortex is divided into four
lobes, and each lobe has specialized functions, some of which are listed here. Some arears on
the left side of the brain (shown here) have different functions from those on the right side (not
shown).

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Information Processing

 The cerebral cortex receives input from sensory

organs and somatosensory receptors
 Somatosensory receptors provide information
about touch, pain, pressure, temperature, and the
position of muscles and limbs
 The thalamus directs different types of input to
distinct locations

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  Information received at the primary sensory areas
is passed to nearby association areas that process
particular features of the input
 Integrated sensory information passes to the
prefrontal cortex, which helps plan actions and
movements
 In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex,
neurons are arranged according to the part of the
body that generates input or receives commands

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 Figure 49.17 Body part representation in the primary motor and primary somatosensory
cortices. In these cross-sectional maps of the cortices, the cortical surface area devoted to
each body part is represented by the relative size of that part in the cartoons.

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Language and Speech

 Studies of brain activity have mapped areas

responsible for language and speech
 Patients with damage in Broca’s area in the frontal
lobe can understand language but cannot speak
 Damage to Wernicke’s area causes patients to be
unable to understand language, though they can
still speak

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 Figure 49.18 Mapping language areas in the cerebral cortex. These PET images show regions
with different activity levels in one person’s brain during four activities, all related to speech.
Increases in activity are seen in Wernicke’s area when hearing words, Broca’s area when
speaking words, the visual cortex when seeing words, and the frontal lobe when generating
words (without reading them).

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Lateralization of Cortical Function

 The two hemispheres make distinct contributions to brain

function
 The left hemisphere is more adept at language, math,
logic, and processing of serial sequences
 The right hemisphere is stronger at facial and pattern
recognition, spatial relations, and nonverbal thinking
 The differences in hemisphere function are called
lateralization
 The two hemispheres work together by communicating
through the fibers of the corpus callosum

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Frontal Lobe Function

 Frontal lobe damage may impair decision making

and emotional responses but leave intellect and
memory intact
 The frontal lobes have a substantial effect on
“executive functions”

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Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates

 Previous ideas that a highly convoluted neocortex

is required for advanced cognition may be
incorrect
 The anatomical basis for sophisticated information
processing in birds (without a highly convoluted
neocortex) appears to be the clustering of nuclei in
the top or outer portion of the brain (pallium)

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 Figure 49.19 Comparison of regions for higher cognition in avian and human brains. Although
structurally different, the pallium of a songbird (a) and the cerebral cortex of the human brain
(b) play similar roles in higher cognitive activities and make many similar connections with
other brain strutures.

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Concept 49.4: Changes in synaptic connections
underlie memory and learning
 Two processes dominate embryonic development
of the nervous system
 Neurons compete for growth-supporting factors in
order to survive
 Only half the synapses that form during embryo
development survive into adulthood

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Neuronal Plasticity

 Neuronal plasticity describes the ability of the

nervous system to be modified after birth
 Changes can strengthen or weaken signaling at a
synapse
 Autism, a developmental disorder, involves a
disruption in activity-dependent remodeling at
synapses
 Children affected with autism display impaired
communication and social interaction, as well as
stereotyped, repetitive behaviors
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 Figure 49.20 Neuronal plasticity. Synaptic connections can change over time, depending on
the activity level at the synapse.

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Memory and Learning

 The formation of memories is an example of

neuronal plasticity
 Short-term memory is accessed via the
hippocampus
 The hippocampus also plays a role in forming
long-term memory, which is later stored in the
cerebral cortex
 Some consolidation of memory is thought to occur
during sleep

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Long-Term Potentiation

 In the vertebrate brain, a form of learning called

long-term potentiation (LTP) involves an
increase in the strength of synaptic transmission
 LTP involves glutamate receptors
 If the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are
stimulated at the same time, the set of receptors
present on the postsynaptic membranes changes

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 Figure 49.21 Long-term potentiation in the brain.

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 a) Synapse prior to long-term potentiation (LTP). The NMDA glutamate
receptors open in response to glutamate but are blocked by Mg2+.

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 (b) Establishing LTP. Activity at nearby synapses (not shown)
depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, causing 1 Mg2+ release from
NMDA receptors. The unblocked receptors respond to glutamate by
allowing 2 an influx of Na+ and Ca2+.The Ca2+ influx triggers 3 insertion
of stored AMPA glutamate receptors into the postsynaptic membrane.

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 (c) Synapse exhibiting LTP. Glutamate release activates 1 AMPA receptors
that trigger 2 depolarization. The depolarization unblocks 3 NMDA
receptors. Together, the AMPA and NMDA receptors trigger postsynaptic
potentials strong enough to initiate 4 action potentials without input from
other synapses. Additional mechanisms (not shown) contribute to LTP,
including receptor modification by protein kinases.

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Concept 49.5: Many nervous system disorders
can be explained in molecular terms
 Disorders of the nervous system include
schizophrenia, depression, drug addiction,
Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease
 These are a major public health problem
 Genetic and environmental factors contribute to
diseases of the nervous system
 To distinguish between genetic and environmental
variables, scientists often carry out family studies

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 Figure 49.22 Genetic contribution to schizophrenia. First cousins, uncles, and
aunts of a person with schizophrenia have twice the risk of unrelated members of
the population of developing the disease. The risks for closer relatives are many
times greater.

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Schizophrenia

 About 1% of the world’s population suffers from

schizophrenia
 Schizophrenia is characterized by hallucinations,
delusions, and other symptoms
 Evidence suggests that schizophrenia affects
neuronal pathways that use dopamine as a
neurotransmitter

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Depression

 Two broad forms of depressive illness are known

 In major depressive disorder, patients have a
persistent lack of interest or pleasure in most
activities
 Bipolar disorder is characterized by manic (high-
mood) and depressive (low-mood) phases
 Treatments for these types of depression include
drugs such as Prozac, which increase the activity
of biogenic amines in the brain

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The Brain’s Reward System and Drug Addiction

 The brain’s reward system rewards motivation with

pleasure
 Some drugs are addictive because they increase
activity of the brain’s reward system
 These drugs include cocaine, amphetamine,
heroin, alcohol, and tobacco
 Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive
consumption and an inability to control intake

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  Addictive drugs enhance the activity of the
dopamine pathway
 Drug addiction leads to long-lasting changes in the
reward circuitry that cause craving for the drug
 As researchers expand their understanding of the
brain’s reward system, there is hope that their
insights will lead to better prevention and
treatment of drug addiction

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 Figure 49.23 Effects of addictive drugs on the reward system of the mammalian brain.
Addictive drugs alter the transmission of signals in the pathway formed by neurons of the ventral
tegmental area (VTA), a region near the base of the brain.

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Alzheimer’s Disease

 Alzheimer’s disease is a mental deterioration

characterized by confusion and memory loss
 Alzheimer’s disease is caused by the formation of
neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques in the
brain
 There is no cure for this disease though some
drugs are effective at relieving symptoms

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 Figure 49.24 Microscopic signs of Alzheimer’s disease. A hallmark of Alzheimer’s
disease is the presence in brain tissue of neurofibrillary tangles surrounding
plaques made of -amyloid (LM).

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Parkinson’s Disease

 Parkinson’s disease is a motor disorder caused

by death of dopamine-secreting neurons in the
midbrain
 It is characterized by muscle tremors, flexed
posture, and a shuffling gait
 There is no cure, although drugs and various other
approaches are used to manage symptoms

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 At present Parkinsons disease can be treated, but not cured. Approaches
used to manage the symptoms include brain surgery, deep-brain
stimulation, and a dopamine- related drug, L-dopa. Unlike dopamine, L-
dopa crosses the blood-brain barrier. Within the brain, the enzyme dopa
decarboxylase converts the drug to dopamine, reducing the severity of
Parkinsons disease symptoms:

One potential cure is to implant dopamine-secreting neurons, either in the

midbrain or in the basal nuclei. Laboratory studies of this strategy show
promise: In rats with an experimentally induced condition that mimics
Parkinson's disease, implanting dopamine-secreting neurons can lead to
a recovery of motor control. Whether this regenerative approach can also
work in humans is one of many important questions in modern brain
research.
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Thank You For Attention