Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

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Chemical Engineering Journal

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Review

Two-dimensional MXene-based and MXene-derived photocatalysts: Recent

developments and perspectives
Qian Zhong a, Yuan Li a, Gaoke Zhang a, b, *
a
Hubei Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources Processing and Environment, State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology,
Wuhan 430070, China
b
Henan Institute of Advanced Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Since their discovery in 2011, 2D MXenes have gained tremendous traction for their flexible elemental
MXenes composition, unique 2D-layered structure, large surface area, abundant surface terminations, and excellent
Synthesis photoelectronic properties. In particular, the latest advances demonstrate that MXene-based and MXene-derived
Photocatalysis
photocatalysts are the most advantageous and novel materials in the photocatalytic field. In this review, we
Co-catalyst
summarize recent studies on the preparation of MXene-based and MXene-derived photocatalysts, including
mechanical/ultrasonic mixing, electrostatic self-assembly, hydrothermal/solvothermal preparations, and calci­
nation approaches. In addition, we present a comprehensive review of the environmental and energy applica­
tions of MXene-based and MXene-derived photocatalysts, including organic pollutant degradation, water
splitting for H2 evolution, CO2 reduction, nitrogen fixation, H2O2 production, antibacterial application, desul­
furization and denitrogenation of fuels. The roles of MXene as a co-catalyst or precursor in photocatalytic ap­
plications are addressed herein. Finally, the lingering challenges and perspectives on the study of MXenes in the
future are presented.

1. Introduction MXenes vary with different etching methods [34–36]. Since the first
report of the Ti3C2 MXene in 2011 [37], >20 kinds of MXenes have been
Two-dimensional (2D) materials have drawn immense attention successfully obtained, such as Ti3C2, Ti3CN, TiNbC, V2C, Mo2C, Nb2C
since the discovery of monolayer graphene in 2004 [1]. To date, many and Y2CF2 [38–41].
types of 2D materials also exhibit excellent catalytic, electronic, and The most widely used methods for the synthesis of MXenes are direct
optoelectronic properties [2–6], such as transition metal dichalcoge­ HF etching and indirect in situ HF etching (e.g., using a mixture of HCl
nides (e.g., MoS2 [7], WS2 [8]), g-C3N4 [9,10], layered double hydrox­ and LiF). To enhance the yield of MXenes, delamination with various
ides (LDHs) [11,12], and black phosphorous [13,14]. Moreover, the 2D organic intercalants (e.g., dimethyl sulfoxide, isopropylamine, tetra­
structure also minimizes the migration distances between charge car­ methylammonium hydroxide), high-temperature etching, and chemical
riers and the reaction interface, inhibiting the possibility of charge vapor deposition have also been explored [42–44]. The timeline of
carrier recombination, which improves the photocatalytic performance MXenes prepared by various etching methods is presented in Fig. 2 [44].
[15]. In recent years, MXenes have become one of the most popular 2D Until now, MXenes have been used for various applications, such as
materials owing to their diverse elemental compositions, unique 2D absorbents, supercapacitors, gas sensors, and electrocatalysts. Apart
structure, large surface area, abundant surface terminations, and from those applications, MXenes have become highly desirable mate­
excellent photoelectronic properties [16–26]. Generally, Mn+1AXn (n = rials in recent years as co-catalysts or precursors for photocatalytic
1–3) precursors are usually etched to prepare Mn+1XnTx (MXenes, environmental remediation and energy conversion.
Fig. 1), where M represents a transition metal (e.g., Ti, Nb, Ta, and Mo), A literature investigation revealed that a small number of reviews
A represents group 13 and 14 elements from the periodic table (e.g., Si, have summarized the progress in the preparation and applications of
Ga, and Al), X stands for C and/or N elements, and Tx is –O, –F, –OH, etc. MXenes, and only a few of them refer to MXene-based and MXene-
[27–33] Experimentally, the composition and surface properties of derived photocatalysts in photocatalytic environmental remediation

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.128099
Received 4 October 2020; Received in revised form 29 November 2020; Accepted 8 December 2020
Available online 14 December 2020
1385-8947/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 1. MAX phases Mn+1AXn forming elements. Adapted with permission from Ref. [30]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 2. Timeline of MXenes of etching methods since the first discovery of Ti3C2 by Gogotsi’s group in 2011. Adapted with permission from Ref. [44]. Copyright
2017, American Chemical Society.

and artificial photosynthesis. The significant difference of these two prospective outlook for future research is proposed from the current
types of photocatalysts is that a certain component in the latter is from research challenges at the forefront of environmental and energy
the oxidization of MXene precursor. Importantly, research on MXenes science.
for photocatalysis is progressing rapidly. In this review, we summarize
the latest progress on the preparation and applications of 2D MXene- 2. Preparation of MXene-based photocatalysts
based and MXene-derived photocatalysts in the photocatalytic field.
First, we introduce the synthesis process of MXene-based and MXene- For the past few years, the construction of composites has been an
derived photocatalysts in detail. Then, we present a systematic review effective way to synthesize highly efficient photocatalysts. Owing to
of recent studies addressing the environment and energy applications of their unique characteristics, MXenes have been regarded as promising
MXene-based and MXene-derived photocatalysts, including organic research objects for the preparation of photocatalysts. The most widely
pollutant degradation, water splitting for H2 evolution, CO2 reduction, used methods for the synthesis of MXene-based and MXene-derived
nitrogen fixation, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production, antibacterial photocatalysts include mechanical/ultrasonic mixing, electrostatic
application, desulfurization and denitrogenation in fuels. Finally, a self-assembly, hydrothermal/solvothermal treatment, and calcination

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of CdS/Ti3C2 composite. SEM images of (b) Ti3C2, (c) CdS and (d) CdS/Ti3C2 composite. Adapted with permission from
Ref. [49]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. TEM images of (e) Ti3C2, (f) g-C3N4 and (g) Ti3C2/g-C3N4. Adapted with permission from Ref. [50]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 4. (a, b) TEM images of 2D/2D Ti3C2/Bi2WO6 composites. Adapted with permission from Ref. [54]. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH. (c) Schematic diagram of the
preparation process and (d) SEM image of Bi2WO6/Nb2CTx. Adapted with permission from Ref. [56]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (e) Schematic diagram for the
fabrication process and (f) SEM image of 2D/2D Ti3C2/g-C3N4 composite. Adapted with permission from Ref. [58]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic diagram of preparation process and (b) SEM image of C/TiO2. Adapted with permission from Ref. [64]. Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. (c)
Schematic diagram of preparation process and (d) TEM images of LDC-S-TiO2/C. Adapted with permission from Ref. [65]. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH. (e) Schematic
diagram of the preparation of Ti3C2-TiO2 nanoflowers and (f-h) their corresponding morphology obtained at different temperatures. Adapted with permission from
Ref. [71]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

processes. Interestingly, due to their electrostatic interactions, semiconductors

with positive charges are easy to assemble with MXenes with a large
2.1. Mechanical/ultrasonic mixing and electrostatic self-assembly number of negative charges, leading to the generation of 0D/2D, 1D/2D,
or 2D/2D MXene-based photocatalysts. As monolayer MXenes tend to
The mechanical/ultrasonic mixing strategy is the simplest method aggregate together, they are usually sonicated before a mixing proced­
for preparing MXene-based photocatalysts. To keep the intimate contact ure. Su et al. [48] synthesized 0D P25 and 2D monolayer Ti3C2Tx
between MXene and the photocatalyst, strong mechanical stirring and/ composites, assisted by ultrasonic mixing. During the electrostatic self-
or high-power ultrasonic vibration is usually used [45]. For instance, Li assembly process, the P25 particles were uniformly dispersed on the
et al. [46] prepared the chlorophyll-a (Chl) derivative and multilayer monolayer Ti3C2Tx. Recently, Li et al. [49] constructed 1D/2D CdS/
Ti3C2Tx composites (Chl/Ti3C2Tx) by mixing the two components until Ti3C2 composites by an electrostatic self-assembly process, as shown in
dry. The 2D-layer structure of Chl/Ti3C2Tx did not change significantly Fig. 3a. Several characterizations proved that the Ti3C2 nanosheets and
after the mixing of Chl and Ti3C2Tx in varied proportions, and the 2%- CdS nanowires were well-combined using electrostatic attraction, and
Chl/Ti3C2Tx composite exhibited the highest H2 yield. Similarly, Chen the CdS nanowires were well-distributed on the Ti3C2 nanosheets
et al. [47] fabricated a Ti3C2Tx-based 3D hydrogel, which was obtained (Fig. 3b–d). Recently, the construction of 2D/2D-structured photo­
via stirring the Ti3C2Tx colloidal solution, graphene oxide colloidal so­ catalysts has attracted much attention, and the 2D/2D structure has
lution, and Eosin Y solution for 0.5 h, then keeping the mixtures at 70 ◦ C favorable effects on photocatalytic properties. Compared with 0D/2D
with the protection of N2 gas. and 1D/2D structures, the 2D/2D structure has more touch areas and

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 6. (a) Photocatalytic reduction of 4-NA with different samples, (b) photocatalytic mechanism of CdS/Ti3C2. Adapted with permission from Ref. [108]. Copyright
2018, Elsevier. (c) CO2 production rate of HCHO and CH3COCH3 and (d) cycling tests over Bi2WO6/Ti3C2 nanocomposites, (e-f) optimized adsorption structures: (e)
HCHO and (f) CH3COCH3 on Ti3C2 (0 0 1) slab. Adapted with permission from Ref. [109]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

intimate interfacial contact, which could improve the effective electron air atmospheres. Thus, MXene-based photocatalysts are commonly ob­
utilization. Typically, 2D Ti3C2 and 2D g-C3N4 are treated with ultra­ tained by calcination under an N2 atmosphere. Yang et al. [58] syn­
sound and mechanical stirring to build the 2D/2D Ti3C2/g-C3N4 com­ thesized Ti3C2/g-C3N4 composites by calcining a mixture of multilayer
posite (Fig. 3e–g) [50]. As shown in Fig. 3g, the contact between the two accordion-like Ti3C2 and urea, where urea not only released NH3 gas to
components is very intimate and an interfacial junction is formed. exfoliate multilayer Ti3C2 into nanosheets, but also simultaneously
generated g-C3N4 in situ on the Ti3C2 surface (Fig. 4e and f). Using this
calcination method, tedious ultrasonic exfoliation of Ti3C2 was avoided
2.2. Hydrothermal/solvothermal and calcination strategies and the yield of ultrathin Ti3C2 was greatly improved. Yi et al. [59] also
embedded few-layer Ti3C2 into alkali-treated g-C3N4 via a calcination
The hydrothermal/solvothermal method is carried out in a sealed process and constructed van der Waals heterostructures. Recently, Li
container under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions, which et al. [60] also employed the polymerization characteristics of g-C3N4 to
is beneficial for producing composites with highly crystalline and prepare a Ti3C2/g-C3N4 composite. After calcination of melamine, uni­
controlled morphologies. Recently, many MXene-based photocatalysts form and thin g-C3N4 was immobilized on the surface or intercalated
(e.g., CuFe2O4/Ti3C2 [51], MoS2/Ti3C2 [52], and BiPO4/Ti3C2 [53]) into the layered structure of Ti3C2. The above research suggests that
were prepared via a hydrothermal process. In particular, the hydro­ during the formation of g-C3N4, urea decomposition may be more
thermal/solvothermal method has been widely used for preparing 2D/ beneficial to the exfoliation of accordion-like Ti3C2 than melamine
2D MXene-based composites. Two-dimensional materials such as LDHs, decomposition.
Bi2WO6, and MoS2 are often constructed with the 2D monolayer Ti3C2
MXene. For instance, Cao et al. [54] synthesized 2D/2D Ti3C2/Bi2WO6
3. Preparation of MXene-derived photocatalysts
composites using electrostatic attraction and a hydrothermal strategy.
Fig. 4a and b shows the distinguishable interface between Ti3C2 and
Calcination and hydrothermal oxidation strategies are most widely
Bi2WO6, indicating the formation of a 2D/2D heterojunction. Recently,
adopted for the preparation of MXene-derived photocatalysts by the in-
Chen et al. [55] used an in-situ metal organic framework (MOF)-derived
situ oxidation of the MXene precursors. In recent decades, TiO2 has been
strategy to prepare 2D/2D Co-Co LDH/Ti3C2Tx composites. During the
the most-investigated semiconductor photocatalyst owing to its envi­
synthesis process, Co2+ was likely to adsorb on the surface of Ti3C2Tx,
ronmental friendliness, low cost, redox potential, and outstanding
followed by the formation of the zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-
photostability. However, individual TiO2 still has two disadvantages
67) MOF. Thereafter, Co-Co LDH/Ti3C2Tx was obtained through a sol­
that are difficult to overcome: a wide band gap and a high photo­
vothermal process at 120 ◦ C for 1 h. To date, only a few studies on non-
generated carrier recombination rate. Many efforts have been made to
Ti3C2-based composite photocatalysts have been reported. For instance,
expand the light response range and improve the utilization rate of
Cui et al. [56] synthesized 2D/2D Bi2WO6/Nb2CTx hybrid nanosheets
photogenerated carriers by using a series of strategies including metal/
via a facile hydrothermal process. A schematic illustration of the syn­
non-metal doping, co-catalyst loading, and heterojunction construction
thetic process is shown in Fig. 4c. Fig. 4d indicates that Bi2WO6 nano­
[61–63].
sheets are tightly associated with 2D Nb2CTx nanosheets, and the novel
flower-like structure was beneficial for enhancing the specific surface
area, thereby providing more photocatalytic active sites. 3.1. Calcination oxidation
In addition, the calcination strategy has also been explored for the
synthesis of MXene-based photocatalysts. Calcination is a heat treatment Recently, 2D Ti-based MXenes have been considered as excellent
procedure under controlled temperature and atmosphere, and it is often candidates for the synthesis of TiO2 and TiO2-based photocatalysts. For
used to produce g-C3N4 photocatalysts [57]. It is well known that instance, Yuan et al. [64] first reported a 2D-layered carbon/TiO2 (C/
MXenes are easily oxidized under high temperature and either oxygen or TiO2) composite created by oxidizing CO2 with Ti3C2 (Fig. 5a), and the

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 7. (a) Charge-transfer process and (b) band alignments of TiO2-Ti3C2. Adapted with permission from Ref. [110]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. (c)
MO degradation over different photocatalysts, (d) charge transfer and (e) degradation mechanism of In2S3/TiO2/Ti3C2. Adapted with permission from Ref. [111].
Copyright 2018, Elsevier. (f) Band gap structures and degradation mechanism of CdS/Ti3C2/TiO2. Adapted with permission from Ref. [112]. Copyright 2019, Royal
Society of Chemistry. (g) Photocatalytic degradation of MO and (h) recycling experiment over MoS2/TiO2/Ti3C2, (i) charge separation and transfer in the MoS2/TiO2/
Ti3C2. Adapted with permission from Ref. [113]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

layered structure was well preserved (Fig. 5b). For this oxidation Z-scheme favored the transfer of electrons. Up to now, limited number of
mechanism, the CO2 molecules break the Ti-C bonds in Ti3C2 at 700 ◦ C, papers involving non-Ti3C2 MXenes composite photocatalysts are re­
resulting in the formation of TiO2. They subsequently improved the ported. For example, based on the oxidizable property of Nb2C MXene, a
synthesis method and successfully obtained carbon- and sulfur-doped Nb2O5/C/Nb2C composite was synthesized through CO2 oxidation [69].
TiO2 composites (LDC-S-TiO2/C) through the sulfur intercalation of Amorphous carbon was generated between Nb2O5 and Nb2C, and a
Ti3C2 and two-step oxidation processes (Fig. 5c and d) [65]. Since the Schottky junction was generated, which improved the charge transfer
report of the above two papers, TiO2/C derived from Ti3C2 began to and carrier separation. Nb2O5/C/Nb2C/g-C3N4 heterojunctions were
receive much attention. Huang et al. [66] obtained 2D-layered N-doped also obtained by calcining the Nb2O5/C/Nb2C and melamine mixture at
TiO2@C using the Ti3C2 as C and Ti source. Ti3C2 with a negative charge 550 ◦ C under N2 atmosphere [70].
can easily be combined with N-containing compounds (positively As well known, the morphologies of photocatalysts play a very sig­
charged melamine or cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) through nificant role in the catalytic performance. Li et al. [71] reported Ti3C2-
electrostatic attraction, and the composites were changed in situ into N- TiO2 nanoflowers by multistep reaction processes (Fig. 5e). First,
doped TiO2@C by calcination in a CO2 atmosphere. In addition, Kong Na2Ti3O7-Ti3C2 composites were obtained under hydrothermal condi­
et al. [67] prepared orderly layer-by-layered TiO2/carbon superstruc­ tions (140 ◦ C, 12 h). Then, Na2Ti3O7-Ti3C2 composites were formed by
tures (NPT-TiO2/C) based on defect engineering of Ti3C2 through a replacing Na+ with H+ in a diluted HCl solution. Finally, the Ti3C2-TiO2
nitriding-pretreatment. The introduction of N into Ti3C2 not only nanoflowers were successfully fabricated by calcining at different tem­
maintained the 2D structure but also increased the interlayer spacing by peratures (Fig. 5f–h).
5.1 Å, which was very beneficial to the subsequent intercalation of TiO2
nanoplates by high-temperature oxidation. The experimental results 3.2. Hydrothermal oxidation
confirmed that the layer-by-layered intercalation superstructure could
effectively improve the separation of photogenerated carriers and offer Apart from the calcination strategy, the hydrothermal method is
more active sites. Wu et al. [68] obtained graphene/TiO2/g-C3N4 by often applied for the synthesis of MXene-derived photocatalysts, and
calcining a mixture of Ti3C2 and melamine in an air atmosphere. MXenes can be completely or partly oxidized into TiO2 or TiO2/MXene
Amazingly, graphene on the TiO2 surface as an efficient mediator of the composites. Recently, Li et al. [72] designed 2D/2D/2D Ti3C2/MoS2/

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 8. (a) H2 production over Cuy/TiO2/Ti3C2-12 h, (b) and the corresponding H2 generation mechanism. Adapted with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright
2018, Elsevier. (c) H2 production over Ti3C2/TiO2/UiO-66-NH2 and other different samples. Adapted with permission from Ref. [142]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. (d)
H2 production and (e) H2 generation mechanism over C-TiO2/g-C3N4. Adapted with permission from Ref. [143]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (f) H2 production over P25
and TiO2 composites. Adapted with permission from Ref. [144]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

TiO2 composites by a two-step hydrothermal process. TiO2 nanosheets derived photocatalysts, a typical characteristic of calcination oxidation
were in situ formed in Ti3C2, and the combination of MoS2 with TiO2 is the residual presence of carbon materials, which could be used as a co-
improved the photogenerated charge from the TiO2 (0 0 1) surfaces, catalyst and increase visible-light adsorption, and inhibit the recombi­
thereby enhancing the photocatalytic performance. In addition, they nation of charge carriers.
obtained molybdenum vacancies in MoxS/TiO2/Ti3C2 composites by a
hydrothermal process using NaBH4 as a reducing agent. The existence of 4. Environmental and energy applications
molybdenum vacancies increased the number of active sites and sup­
pressed carrier recombination [73]. Moreover, a two-step hydrothermal 4.1. Water and air purification
method was also used for designing the novel octahedral phase
WS2@TiO2@Ti3C2 photocatalyst, where Ti3C2 and WS2 play important With the rapid improvements of modern industrialization, organic
roles as electron acceptors [74]. Shao et al. [75] hydrothermally syn­ pollutants in water have dramatically increased, causing enormous
thesized Ti3C2/TiO2 decorated black phosphorus (BP) composites. harm to human health and the natural environment. Various methods,
Various characterization indicated that the Ti3C2 and Schottky junction including adsorption, biotreatment, peroxymonosulfate activation,
formed between BP and Ti3C2/TiO2 greatly improved the photocatalytic Fenton oxidation, and photocatalytic degradation have been widely
activity. used for water treatment [79–94]. Among these methods, photocatalysis
In addition to the calcination and hydrothermal methods, other is a promising technology for water remediation.
strategies, such as high-energy ball milling and wet-chemical oxi­ Recently, MXene-based and MXene-derived photocatalysts have
dization, were also used to prepare MXene-derived photocatalysts. For become a focus of research on the photocatalytic degradation of organic
example, Li et al. [76] fabricated TiO2@C composites by a ball milling of pollutants [95]. In particular, a large number of studies indicate that a
Ti2C powders. Cheng et al. [77] treated Ti3C2 sheets with 30% H2O2 at combination of metallic Ti3C2 with other semiconductor photocatalysts
room temperature to fabricate Ti3C2/TiO2-x nanodots. Shortly there­ can be used for various pollutant degradations [96–107]. For example,
after, Sun et al. [78] used hot water (60 ◦ C) to oxidize the Ti3C2 pre­ Xie et al. [108] adopted Ti3C2 as a precursor to build 2D/2D CdS/Ti3C2
cursor and obtained a series of TiO2/Ti3C2@amorphous carbon heterostructures through a facile electrostatic self-assembly process. The
composites. CdS/MXene exhibited excellent photoactivity for the reduction of 4-
In general, the same preparation methods of MXene-based photo­ nitroaniline (4-NA) (Fig. 6a). In comparison with 0D/2D and 1D/2D
catalysts and MXene-derived photocatalysts are hydrothermal and heterostructures, the 2D/2D heterostructure was confirmed to be more
calcination strategies. The significant difference of preparation process efficient, not only maximizing the contact area, but also providing more
for these two kinds of photocatalysts is that the synthesis of the former surface reaction sites for photocatalysis. In this system, Ti3C2 as a Janus
needs to prevent the oxidation of MXenes by controlling the reaction co-catalyst not only effectively transferred the electrons to react with 4-
conditions. Compared with the hydrothermal and calcination strategies, NA, but also inhibited the photocorrosion of CdS with a “Cd2+
the mechanical/ultrasonic mixing and electrostatic self-assembly confinement effect” (Fig. 6b). Recently, Huang et al. [109] revealed that
methods are much simple and convenient to synthesize the MXene- the Bi2WO6/Ti3C2 nanocomposite exhibited outstanding photocatalytic
based photocatalysts under the mild conditions. For the MXene- performance for the decomposition of HCHO and CH3COCH3 gases in

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Table 1 owing to the synergistic effect of the type-II heterojunction and the
Summary of the typical MXene-based and MXene-derived photocatalysts for H2 Schottky junction (Fig. 7c–e). Recently, Liu et al. [112] prepared ternary
evolution performance. CdS/Ti3C2/TiO2 nanohybrids using a combination of calcination and
Photocatalysts Sacrificial Light H2 production References hydrothermal methods. The Ti3C2 layer might act as a charge trans­
reagent source rate mission bridge to form the CdS-TiO2 Z-scheme system, and the CdS/
(μmol⋅g− 1⋅h− 1) Ti3C2/TiO2 composite showed good photocatalytic performance for the
Ti3C2/TiO2 Methanol 200 W 2650 Su et al. degradation of sulfachloropyridazine (Fig. 7f). Later, Jiao et al. [113]
Hg (285 [48] fabricated MoS2/TiO2/Ti3C2 composites for organic pollutant degrada­
<λ<
tion. Interestingly, the results indicated that friction improved the
325 nm)
g-C3N4/Ti3C2 Triethanolamine 300 W 5111.8 Li et al. photocatalytic performance owing to the shear force and pressure from
Xe lamp [189] the rubbing pairs. When the friction time of MoS2/TiO2/Ti3C2 com­
with an posites was 60 min, the removal rates of MO were 95% and photo­
AM-1.5 catalytic repeatability of the composite was excellent for the 2D
filter
MoS2/Ti3C2 Methanol 300 W 6144.7 Zhang et al.
structure, and compositive effect of the heterojunction and Schottky
Xe lamp [52] junction (Fig. 7g-i).
(λ > 420
nm) 4.2. Photocatalytic H2 evolution
LDC-S-TiO2/C Methanol 300 W 333 Yuan et al.
Xe lamp [65]
(λ > 400 Over the past several decades, energy shortages and global climate
nm) change have become worldwide issues affecting human life. As is well
MoxS/TiO2/ Triethanolamine 300 W 10505.8 Li et al. known, H2 gas is an ideal energy source to take the place of fossil fuels
Ti3C2 Xe lamp [73]
because of its clean combustion product (H2O) and much higher energy
(200 < λ
< 1200
density [114]. At present, the main methods for preparing H2 include
nm) water electrolysis, coal gasification, electrocatalysis, and photocatalysis
WS2/TiO2/ Triethanolamine 300 W 3409.8 Li et al. [115–124]. Among them, photocatalytic H2 evolution has been
Ti3C2 Xe lamp [74] considered a promising strategy because of its sustainability and nearly
with an
complete lack of secondary pollution. To date, numerous types of pho­
AM-1.5
filter tocatalysts have been investigated for H2 evolution, such as metal sulfide
CdS/Ti3C2 Lactic acid 300 W 2407 Xiao et al. [125–129], TiO2 [130], BaTiO3 [131], Sr2Ta2O7 [132] and g-C3N4
Xe lamp [138] [133]. However, these photocatalysts still exhibit fast recombination of
(λ > 420 photogenerated carriers and low light utilization capacity [134–136],
nm)
CdS/MoS2/ Na2S/Na2SO3 300 W 9679 Chen et al.
which hinders their practical use. Therefore, the development of novel
Ti3C2 Xe lamp [139] photocatalysts for H2 evolution is imperative and meaningful.
(λ > 420 Recently, metal sulfide and MXene composites have been regarded as
nm) promising candidates for photocatalytic H2 evolution [137]. For
CdLa2S4/Ti3C2 Na2S/Na2SO3 300 W 11182.4 Cheng et al.
instance, Xiao et al. [138] fabricated a 1D/2D CdS/Ti3C2 heterojunction
Xe lamp [140]
(λ > 420 by an in situ solvothermal method. Benefiting from the advantages of
nm) Ti3C2 as well as intimate contact and the Schottky junction between CdS
Ti3C2/TiO2/ Na2S/Na2SO3 300 W 1980 Tian et al. and Ti3C2, the optimal 1D/2D CdS/Ti3C2 exhibited a 7-fold increase in
UiO-66-NH2 Xe lamp [142] the photocatalytic H2 evolution compared with pristine CdS nanorods.
(350 < λ
< 780
Other metal sulfides have also been used to prepare MXene-based
nm) composites. Chen et al. [139] found that the CdS/MoS2/Ti3C2 compos­
C-TiO2/g-C3N4 Triethanolamine 300 W 1409 Han et al. ite possessed a H2 yield of 9679 μmol⋅g− 1⋅h− 1, which was ascribed to the
Xe lamp [143] superior conductivity of Ti3C2 and the layered structure. Very recently,
(λ > 420
Chen et al. [140] synthesized CdLa2S4/Ti3C2 composites, which showed
nm)
Cu2O/TiO2/ Methanol 300 W 1496.53 Peng et al. a maximum H2 yield of 11182.4 μmol⋅g− 1⋅h− 1, which was much higher
Ti3C2 Xe lamp [196] than that of pure CdLa2S4. They also considered that the superior con­
ductivity of Ti3C2 promoted carrier separation. These studies suggested
that the MXene-based photocatalysts significantly enhanced the H2 yield
comparison with the performance of a single component (Fig. 6c and d), in comparison with the single semiconductor photocatalysts, which was
which was attributed to the high-efficiency carrier separation and strong mainly due to the function of MXenes in charge transfer.
chemical adsorption of Ti3C2 for HCHO and CH3COCH3 (Fig. 6e and f). Apart from MXene-based photocatalysts, MXene-derived photo­
The electrons on Ti3C2 reacted with O2 to generate •O−2 , and the holes catalysts, including partly and completely oxidized MXenes, have also
(h+) reacted with H2O to form •OH, finally decomposing the HCHO and attracted significant research interest in H2 evolution. Peng et al. [141]
CH3COCH3 into CO2 and H2O molecules. prepared Cu/TiO2/Ti3C2 composites using a hydrothermal oxidization
Meanwhile, Peng et al. [110] designed a hybrid of 2D Ti3C2 and TiO2 and photodeposition approach. As shown in Fig. 8a, Cu/TiO2/Ti3C2
with exposed {0 0 1} facets, which showed a much higher removal rate showed a H2 yield of 2200–3800 μmol⋅g − 1 over 300 min, which was ten
than that of particulate-TiO2/Ti3C2 under the same conditions. The times higher than that of TiO2/Ti3C2 under the same reaction time. In
exposed {0 0 1} facets of TiO2 and the Schottky junction between TiO2 addition, there was no distinct decrease in H2 output after the recycling
and Ti3C2 significantly improved the photocatalytic degradation of tests over Cu/TiO2/Ti3C2, demonstrating its excellent photocatalytic
methyl orange (MO) (Fig. 7a and b). Apart from MXene-based or MXene- stability. The mechanism study further indicated that zero-valent Cu
derived binary composites, investigation of ternary heterostructures has acted as the electron mediator and Ti3C2 as the hole mediator,
become a research hotspot in the field of photocatalysis. Wang et al. improving the transfer and separation of charges (Fig. 8b). Tian et al.
[111] synthesized a ternary In2S3/TiO2/Ti3C2 composite using an in situ [142] reported that Ti3C2/TiO2/UiO-66-NH2 showed an outstanding
hydrothermal method. Importantly, the photocatalytic degradation photocatalytic H2 yield owing to the synergistic effect of Schottky
ability of In2S3/TiO2/Ti3C2 was better than that of pure In2S3 and Ti3C2 junctions and type-II heterojunctions (Fig. 8c). In recent years, the

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 9. (a) SEM image, and (b, c) the photocatalytic CO2 reduction of TiO2/Ti3C2 composite. Adapted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier. (d-
f) Adsorption configurations of N2 in Ti3C2 (0 0 1) surface, (g) NH3 yield rate over different samples, (h) photocatalytic N2 reduction mechanism of AgInS2/Ti3C2.
Adapted with permission from Ref. [170]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. (i) Photoluminescence spectra and (j) photocurrent tests of g-C3N4 and TiO2@C/g-C3N4. Adapted
with permission from Ref. [171]. Copyright 2018, The Royal Society of Chemistry.

dispersed carbon material obviously extended the light absorption range

Table 2 and inhibited the carrier recombination. These studies would provide a
Summary of the typical MXene-based and MXene-derived photocatalysts for CO2 novel way to prepare TiO2-based photocatalysts with excellent perfor­
reduction and nitrogen fixation. mances. The photocatalytic H2 evolution performances of the typical
Photocatalysts Light source Production rate References MXene-based and MXene-derived photocatalysts are summarized in
(μmol⋅g− 1⋅h− 1) Table 1.
Ti3C2/Bi2WO6 300 W Xe lamp CH4 (1.78), CH3OH Cao et al.
(0.44) [54]
TiO2/Ti3C2 300 W Xe lamp CH4 (4.4) Low et al. 4.3. Photocatalytic CO2 reduction and nitrogen fixation
[156]
Ti3C2-OH/P25 300 W Xe lamp CO (11.74), CH4 Ye et al.
(16.61) [182]
In recent decades, tremendous efforts have been focused on photo­
Ti3C2/g-C3N4 300 W Xe lamp (λ CO (2.24), CH4 (0.04) Tang et al. catalytic CO2 reduction to simultaneously solve the greenhouse effect
> 420 nm) [197] and the energy shortage. Various photocatalysts have been widely
AgInS2/Ti3C2 300 W Xe lamp (λ NH3 (38.8) Qin et al. studied for converting CO2 into CH4, CO, CH3OH, HCHO, and HCOOH
> 400 nm) [170]
[145–154]. However, CO2 reduction with photocatalysts still remains a
TiO2@C/g- 300 W Xe lamp (λ NH3 (250.6) Liu et al.
C3N4 > 420 nm) [171] challenge owing to the low utilization rate of carriers, low thermody­
namic stability of CO2 molecules, and poor adsorption and activation of
CO2 molecules [155]. Thus, the development of photocatalysts with
carbon in Ti3C2 has attracted much attention for H2 production. For highly efficient CO2 reduction activity is urgently needed. Recent
example, Han et al. [143] synthesized C-TiO2/g-C3N4 photocatalysts by research indicates that MXene could act as a co-catalyst for photo­
calcining a mixture of g-C3N4 and Ti3C2, and Ti3C2 was used as the only catalytic CO2 reduction, which was done by Low et al. [156] with the
carbon precursor. From Fig. 8d, it is clear seen that C-TiO2/g-C3N4 TiO2/Ti3C2 composite. The TiO2 was tightly anchored on Ti3C2 and the
exhibited a significantly enhanced H2 yield in comparison with pure g- composites showed a rice crust-like structure (Fig. 9a). The optimized
C3N4 and C-TiO2, which was mainly attributed to the interface hetero­ TiO2/Ti3C2 composite showed much higher CH4 production rate than
junction (Fig. 8e). Meanwhile, Wang et al. [144] successfully obtained that of commercial TiO2 and it also presented excellent photostability
highly efficient TiO2/C composites derived from Ti3C2. Photocatalytic (Fig. 9b and c). The experimental results and theoretical calculations
H2 evolution results indicated that the ordered structure was beneficial proved that the ultrahigh conductivity and light adsorption properties of
for improving the utilization of carriers (Fig. 8f). Moreover, photo­ Ti3C2 facilitated the separation of carriers.
electrochemistry tests further confirmed that the addition of uniformly Nitrogen, as a component of proteins and nucleic acids, is an

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 10. (a) H2O2 production rate over different samples, (b) cycling runs for the H2O2 production over the Ti3C2/porous g-C3N4. Adapted with permission from
Ref. [50]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. SEM images of the (c and d) P. aeruginosa and (e and f) S. aureus before and after photocatalytic treatment with Ti3C2/Cu2O.
Adapted with permission from Ref. [174]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (g) Photocatalytic mechanism of the desulfurization and denitrification over the Ti3C2/g-C3N4.
Adapted with permission from Ref. [175]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

indispensable element for all living organisms. Although the content of 4.4. Other photocatalytic applications
N2 is very high in the atmosphere, living organisms usually utilize the
nitrogen element in the form of ammonia (NH3) or NO−3 . Industrial NH3 In addition to the above applications, MXene-based photocatalysts
production uses the Haber-Bosch process with high temperature and exhibit promising application prospects in other fields owing to their
high pressure (350–550 ◦ C, 150–350 atm) over the catalysts [157]. Ni­ excellent properties⋅H2O2 is regarded as a promising clean energy
tric oxide (NO) emissions from thermal power plants and automobile alternative to hydrogen energy. Yang et al. [50] found that the Ti3C2/
exhaust are very large, and they can be converted into NO−3 , which is a porous g-C3N4 composites showed a high H2O2 production rate (2.20
meaningful strategy to control air pollution and achieve the goal of ni­ μmol⋅L− 1⋅min− 1), and the introduction of Ti3C2 into g-C3N4 not only
trogen fixation. Photocatalysis technology has been confirmed as an boosted the charge separation, but also promoted the production rate of
effective strategy for N2 fixation [158–169]. Recently, MXenes as co- H2O2 under visible light (Fig. 10a and b). Photocatalytic antibacterial
catalyst exhibited promise for photocatalytic N2 reduction. Qin et al. activity is an important application in the catalytic field. For example,
[170] revealed the photocatalytic N2 fixation performance of 0D/2D Ti3C2/Cu2O showed excellent antibacterial activity (Fig. 10c-f), which
AgInS2/Ti3C2 composites by experimental analyses and theoretical cal­ was attributed to the synergistic antibacterial effect of Cu2O surface
culations. The results confirmed that Ti3C2 can effectively activate N2 plasmon resonance (SPR) performance and photocatalysis, and 2D-
molecules (Fig. 9d–f), and the photocatalytic NH3 evolution rate of the layered nanostructures of Ti3C2 [174]. Currently, the desulfurization
AgInS2/Ti3C2 composites was obviously higher than that of single and denitrification of fuels have received increasing global attention. An
AgInS2 and Ti3C2, which was ascribed to the 2D structure of Ti3C2 and optimal Ti3C2/g-C3N4 can obtain 43.7 μg⋅g− 1 of denitrification and
the heterojunction (Fig. 9g and h). Similarly, Liu et al. [171] used 103.0 μg⋅g− 1 of desulfurization, which are equivalent to 245.2 μg⋅g− 1 of
MXene-derived TiO2@C/g-C3N4 composites for NH3 synthesis. The Ti3+ pyridine and 270.7 μg⋅g− 1 of thiophene, respectively [175]. The mech­
species not only improved the light absorption region, but also acted as anism study suggested that h+ and •O−2 acted as the major active species
adsorption sites for N2 and as trapping sites for photogenerated elec­ for the removal of S and N elements in model fuels (Fig. 10g).
trons. Meanwhile, the formed heterojunctions reduced carrier recom­
bination (Fig. 9i and j), thus enhancing the photocatalytic N2 reduction 5. Multifunction roles of MXenes in the photocatalysis
performance. Meanwhile, Ti3C2-based composites not only displayed
outstanding stability but also exhibited enhanced N2 fixation perfor­ 5.1. Facilitating charge separation and transfer
mances [172,173]. The •OH, •O−2 and h+ active species were responsible
for oxidizing NO into NO−2 or NO−3 . In general, the work on MXene-based How to improve the separation efficiency of photogenerated charge
and MXene-derived photocatalysts for CO2 reduction and nitrogen fix­ carriers have been a research hotspot in the photocatalytic field.
ation is very limited, and the yield rate still needs to be improved Generally, MXene as a co-catalyst could restrict the recombination of
(Table 2). photogenerated electrons and hole in the photocatalytic system

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 11. (a) Schematic illustration of photocatalytic H2 evolution mechanism over CdS/Ti3C2 composite, (b) the photocatalytic H2 evolution activities over different
samples. Adapted with permission from Ref. [180]. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. (c) Schematic illustration of photocatalytic degradation of TC-H over Ag3PO4/
Ti3C2 composite and (d) photocatalytic stability tests. Adapted with permission from Ref. [181]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

[176–179]. Experimentally, the Schottky junction could be formed be­ the photocatalytic H2 production rate. Similarly, surface alkalinized
tween the semiconductor photocatalysts and Ti3C2. For instance, Ran Ti3C2 (Ti3C2 − OH) was applied to boost photocatalytic CO2 reduction
et al. [180] found that electrons could transfer from CdS to Ti3C2 in the and CH4 product selectivity [182]. As shown in Fig. 12b, the CO2
CdS/Ti3C2 composites owing to the difference in their Fermi levels (EF) reduction activities of surface-alkalinized Ti3C2 and commercial titania
and the formation of Schottky junctions according to theoretical calcu­ (5TC-OH/P25) composite were obviously higher than those of single
lations (Fig. 11a). Furthermore, owing to the good metallic conductivity P25. Moreover, the main products changed from CO to CH4 after the
and desirable H adsorption free energy of Ti3C2, H+ could be reduced to surface alkalinization treatment. Particularly, the abundant surface
H2, which greatly enhanced H2 yield (Fig. 11b). Coincidentally, a similar terminations as the active sites favor the adsorption and activation of
result was found by Cai et al. [181]. Ag3PO4 possesses relatively high CO2 molecules (Fig. 12c and d). In addition, Sun et al. [183] demon­
carrier recombination rate and is easily reduced into the elemental silver strated that Ti3C2 with –O terminations promoted the separation of
during the photocatalytic process. In view of this, the construction of photogenerated charge carriers and resulted in a dramatical enhance­
Schottky junction and introduction of Ti3C2 as a co-catalyst was applied ment for H2 evolution. Compared with Ti3C2 with –F terminations, the
for enhancing the photocatalytic performance and stability of Ag3PO4 density functional theory (DFT) calculations further demonstrated that
(Fig. 11c). Amazingly, the photocatalytic removal rate of tetracycline the Ti3C2 with –O terminations has relatively low Gibbs free energy and
hydrochloride solution (TC-H) over the Ag3PO4/Ti3C2 composite better H2 evolution reaction activity (Fig. 12e and f). Although MXenes
slightly declined after eight cycles (Fig. 11d), indicating an enhanced with uniform surface terminations have been not synthesized experi­
anti-photocorrosion performance and excellent photocatalytic stability. mentally, it is possible to regulate the relative concentration of surface
terminations for improving photocatalytic performances.
5.2. Providing abundant active sites
5.3. Acting as a precursor of quantum dots
It is well known that the surface properties of materials greatly in­
fluence their adsorption and catalytic activities. 2D heterostructures of 0D quantum dots (QDs), derived from 2D materials, exhibit distinct
MXenes and MXene-derived compounds not only maximize the contact properties in optoelectronic, biological, catalysis, and energy areas
area for other 0D, 1D and 2D materials, but also provide more surface [184]. Compared with 2D-monolayer Ti3C2 sheets, 0D Ti3C2 QDs have
reaction sites for photocatalysis. Usually, MXenes etched by HF solution attracted much more attention because of their good dispersibility,
mainly contain –F terminations whereas those etched by a mixture of better tunability of physicochemical properties, and more abundant
HCl and LiF have more –O terminations. The effect of surface termina­ active edge sites [185–187]. For example, Zeng et al. [188] designed
tions on the photocatalytic property of Ti3C2 composites was investi­ Ti3C2 QDs/Cu2O composites through a facile self-assembly method. A
gated by Ran et al. [180], and the results indicated that the change of –F mass of Ti3C2 QDs were uniformly fixed on the surface of Cu2O nano­
by –O/–OH increased the number of active sites (Fig. 12a), improving wires (Fig. 13a). As shown in Fig. 13b, the CO2 reduction activity of

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 12. (a) The effect of surface F/O ratio on CdS/Ti3C2 composite for photocatalytic H2 evolution. Adapted with permission from Ref. [180]. Copyright 2017,
Springer Nature. (b) Evolution rates of CO and CH4, (c) CO2 adsorption behaviors and (d) models over the Ti3C2 samples before and after surface alkalinization.
Adapted with permission from Ref. [182]. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH. The free energy of (e) –O terminated and (f) –F terminated Ti3C2 with 25% and 50%
coverages of atomic H. Adapted with permission from Ref. [183] Copyright 2018, The Royal Society of Chemistry.

Ti3C2 QDs/Cu2O nanowires/Cu composites was much higher than that functional group, which makes it easy to intimately contact with other
of Cu2O nanowires/Cu and Ti3C2 sheets/Cu2O nanowires/Cu compos­ components.
ites. Mechanism studies indicated that the Ti3C2 QDs in the composites
not only significantly enhanced the stability of the Cu2O nanowires, but 6. Conclusions and outlook
also offered more active sites and greatly improved the light adsorption
and charge transfer (Fig. 13c). For g-C3N4@Ti3C2 QDs composites, the In summary, research on MXene has bloomed since the first work
introduction of Ti3C2 QDs restricted the recombination of charge car­ appeared in 2011. Among the MXene family, Ti3C2 is the most studied in
riers and prolonged their lifetime (Fig. 13d and e), resulting in the the photocatalytic field. As stated in this review paper, a variety of
dramatic enhancement of H2 production (Fig. 13f) [189]. In theory, He synthesis methods including mechanical/ultrasonic mixing, electro­
et al. [190] confirmed that the difference in Fermi levels made the static self-assembly, hydrothermal/solvothermal methods, and calcina­
electrons transfer from C3N4 to Ti3C2 QDs and TiO2 (Fig. 13g–i). First, tion approaches have been adopted for fabricating MXene-based and
the Ti3C2 QDs with relatively low Fermi level were favorable to transfer MXene-derived photocatalysts. Benefiting from the flexible adjust­
photogenerated electrons from other photocatalysts, improving the ability of the elemental composition, unique 2D-layered structure, large
separation efficiency of carriers. Second, similar to the graphene QDs, surface area, abundant surface terminations, and excellent photoelec­
Ti3C2 QDs have a higer specific surface area and more enriched surface tronic properties of MXene, the applications of MXene-based and

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

Fig. 13. (a) TEM images of Ti3C2 QDs/Cu2O nanowires/Cu composites, (b) methanol yield of various samples and (c) photocatalytic mechanism of Ti3C2 QDs/Cu2O
nanowires/Cu composites. Adapted with permission from Ref. [188]. Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH. (d) PL and (e) time-resolved fluorescence decay spectra of g-C3N4
and g-C3N4@Ti3C2 QDs and (f) photocatalytic H2 evolution activity of various samples. Adapted with permission from Ref. [189]. Copyright 2019, American
Chemical Society. Electrostatic potentials of (g) TiO2 (1 0 1) surface, (h) C3N4 (0 0 1) surface, and (i) Ti3C2 (0 0 1) surface. Adapted with permission from Ref. [190].
Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

MXene-derived photocatalysts for environmental and energy applica­ of non-Ti3C2 MXene-based photocatalysts and certain MXenes as semi­
tions, such as organic pollutant degradation, water splitting for H2 conductor photocatalysts may lead to new developments in the photo­
evolution, CO2 reduction, and nitrogen fixation have been widely catalytic field.
investigated in recent years. Based on previous mechanistic studies, Second, despite the excellent progress, MXenes with uniform surface
MXenes are used as charge transmission bridges to improve the sepa­ terminations have been not synthesized yet. Although many studies
ration efficiency of carriers by the Schottky junction or via metallic show that surface terminations significantly affect the electronic struc­
conductivity. The terminations such as − O groups as the active sites tures and properties of MXenes [191], the research on modification of
could favor the adsorption and activation of gaseous molecules. More­ surface terminations to improve the photocatalytic performances of
over, MXenes could provide more reaction active sites and enhance the MXene-based photocatalysts is very limited. Therefore, it is expected
visible light absorption properties of composites. However, compared that the development of novel strategies to accurately control the variety
with the extensive research on other 2D materials, the study of MXenes and concentration of surface terminations of MXenes. In the future
is still in the preliminary stage, and there are some urgent problems to be study, more advanced characterization techniques, such as in situ mi­
solved before their widespread use in the future. croscopy and spectroscopy, need to be explored for qualitatively and
First, MXenes with diverse structures and compositions as well as quantitatively revealing the surface structures of MXenes under the
rich physics and chemistry, offer an outstanding platform for funda­ photocatalytic conditions. Besides, more modeling and experimental
mental and multidisciplinary research on MXene-based and MXene- works from a systematic perspective are required to understand the roles
derived photocatalysts. However, the mostly employed synthesis of of MXene surface terminations in the photocatalysis.
MXenes still suffer from complicated procedures, time-consuming, and Third, MXenes often show the multilayered structure with accordion-
low yield, and the synthesis of MXenes using bottom-up approaches is like morphology and the exfoliation of MXenes usually presents single-
very limited. The design of a cost-effective, efficient, and environmen­ or few-layered nanosheets. Usually, MXene nanosheets and QDs tend to
tally friendly method for large-scale synthesis of MXenes is desired. aggregate in aqueous solution. To overcome this shortage, MXenes with
Regardless of intensive research efforts and considerable progress to different morphologies (e.g. 3D architectures, porous structures) are
date, MXenes other than Ti3C2 has yet to be extensively studied and only needed, which could enable more specific surface areas for interfacial
Y2CF2 MXene as an n-type semiconductor photocatalyst was directly interaction of compositions and providing more active sites for separa­
used for photocatalytic application. Therefore, the further investigation tion of charge carriers in the photocatalytic process [192,193].

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Q. Zhong et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 409 (2021) 128099

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Declaration of Competing Interest 106811.
[20] R.A. Soomro, S. Jawaid, N.H. Kalawar, M. Tunesi, S. Karakus, A. Kilislioglu,
M. Willander, In-situ engineered MXene-TiO2/BiVO4 hybrid as an efficient
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
photoelectrochemical platform for sensitive detection of soluble CD44 proteins,
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Biosens. Bioelectron. 166 (2020), 112439.
the work reported in this paper. [21] F. Shahzad, S.A. Zaidi, R.A. Naqvi, 2D transition metal carbides (MXene) for
electrochemical sensing: a review, Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1–17 (2020).
[22] K. Rajavel, Y.G. Hu, P.L. Zhu, R. Sun, C.P. Wong, MXene/metal oxides-Ag ternary
Acknowledgement nanostructures for electromagnetic interference shielding, Chem. Eng. J. 399
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[23] K. Rajavel, X. Yu, P. Zhu, Y. Hu, R. Sun, C. Wong, Exfoliation and defect control of
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation two-dimensional few-layer MXene Ti3C2Tx for electromagnetic interference
of China (NSFC No. 51472194) and the Natural Science Foundation of shielding coatings, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 (2020) 49737-49747.
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