UNIT 5

What is a newsgroup?

A newsgroup is a discussion about a particular subject consisting of notes written to a central

internet site and redistributed through Usenet, a worldwide network of news discussion groups.
Usenet uses the Network News Transfer Protocol, or NNTP.

Usenet was created in the 1980s as a way for researchers and academics to share information
and ideas. Although newsgroups are not as popular as they used to be, they still have a
dedicated community of users who enjoy connecting over shared interests. Usenet remains a
valuable resource for researchers and academics.

How does a Usenet newsgroup function?

The newsgroup functions as a distributed system, meaning that the messages, or articles, are
stored on multiple servers around the world rather than on a central server.

From there, newsgroups are organized into subject hierarchies, with the first few letters of the
newsgroup name showing the major subject category and subcategories represented by a
subtopic name. Many subjects have multiple levels of subtopics. Some major subject categories
include news, rec (recreation), soc (society), sci (science), comp (computers) and so forth --
there are many more.

Users can post to existing newsgroups and respond to previous posts. They can also create
their own new newsgroups, but it requires some technical knowledge and permission from the
server's administrator.

How do you access a newsgroup?

To access a newsgroup, a user typically needs a Usenet client, which is a program that allows
users to connect to a Usenet server and read and post messages. Some popular Usenet clients
include Thunderbird and Unison.
How do you post a message in a newsgroup?

When a user posts a message to a Usenet newsgroup, the message is sent to the server to
which the user is connected. The server then forwards the message to other servers in the
Usenet network. This process is known as propagation.

As the message propagates, it is stored on servers around the world, making it available to
users who wish to read it. The messages in a Usenet newsgroup are typically organized in a
threaded format, meaning that they are grouped together based on the subject of the message.

When a user posts a message, it becomes the "root" of the thread. Other users can then reply
to the message, creating a "branch" of the thread. This allows for a more organized and
easy-to-follow discussion.

What are some of the challenges of using a

newsgroup?

Some common issues concerning the use of Usenet newsgroups include spam, viruses and
inappropriate content. Spam messages, or unsolicited commercial messages, can flood a
newsgroup and make it difficult for users to find relevant information.

Viruses can also be spread through Usenet messages, potentially causing harm to a user's
computer. In addition, some users might post inappropriate or offensive content, making the
newsgroup a hostile or unsafe environment for other users.

Usenet servers have implemented some measures such as filtering or moderated groups to
help mitigate these issues, but it remains a concern for many users.

Are newsgroups moderated?

Some newsgroups are moderated by a designated person who decides which postings to allow
or to remove. Most newsgroups are unmoderated, however; newcomers to newsgroups are
requested to learn basic Usenet "netiquette" and to get familiar with a newsgroup before posting
to it.

The rules can be found when you enter Usenet through your browser or an online service, but
some general considerations are as follows:

First, when taking part in newsgroups, remember that other people are reading your messages
and might react to what you post. Be respectful of others and familiarize yourself with the rules
and guidelines for posting before participating.

It's also important to remember that newsgroups are public forums, and any information you
post will be visible to everyone. It's best to avoid posting sensitive or personal information. Make
sure you double-check the accuracy of any facts or figures you post, as incorrect information
can lead to confusion and negative reactions.

Finally, take the time to read other people's posts before replying or starting a new thread. This
will help you avoid repeating information that has already been discussed and ensures
everyone can take part in the conversation with fresh ideas.

Newsgroups were initially created in 1979 by some university students to exchange messages.
Users can subscribe for free by submitting an email address, and the group generally consists
of several topics/categories based around a main theme. The user/subscriber can post a
message in a particular topic/category, which is either automatically visible in open newsgroups,
or can only be viewed by approved members in moderated groups. All subscribers participating
or following a particular topic/newsgroup will be notified of new messages and updates.
Moreover, news/stories/topics in the newsgroup can be read through a downloadable news
reader application.
Newsgroups have been around almost since the dawn of the Internet, enabling scientists to post
questions (and answers) to other scientists. Today, newsgroups resemble virtual coffee houses,
where people get together to discuss subjects of mutual interest. Newsgroups ICMAP/F1/ZAQ
Newsgroups • There are literally thousands of newsgroups covering every topic, from
computers, social issues, literature and science, to recreation, entertainment, hobbies and
current affairs. • You can find job postings, business and health care advice, announcements
about events, referrals, political and religious discussions. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Newsgroups • Newsgroups provide a way to quickly meet and communicate with people who
share your interests from all over the world, without ever having to leave your computer. • By the
way, if you're the shy type, you can just read what others are posting without responding. This is
called lurking. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Newsgroups • How does it actually work? • First you will need a newsreader program. Both
Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer 2.0 and later releases have built-in newsreader
programs. • Next, determine which newsgroups interest you and subscribe to them.
ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

The History of Newsgroups • Newsgroups had their humble beginnings in an academic

environment in 1979, when a couple of Duke University graduate students connected some
computers together to exchange information with the UNIX community. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Searching Newsgroups • To read or participate in a newsgroup you have to subscribe to it.

One way to start, is to review a complete list of newsgroups available to you from your Internet
service provider (ISP). (Note that not all ISPs carry all newsgroups. ) • A more efficient way is to
search using the tools, such as Yahoo and Lycos. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

telecommunications network

Telecommunications network, electronic system of links and

switches, and the controls that govern their operation, that allows for
data transfer and exchange among multiple users.

When several users of telecommunications media wish to communicate with one another, they
must be organized into some form of network. In theory, each user can be given a direct
point-to-point link to all the other users in what is known as a fully connected topology (similar to
the connections employed in the earliest days of telephony), but in practice this technique is
impractical and expensive—especially for a large and dispersed network. Furthermore, the
method is inefficient, since most of the links will be idle at any given time. Modern
telecommunications networks avoid these issues by establishing a linked network of switches,
or nodes, such that each user is connected to one of the nodes. Each link in such a network is
called a communications channel. Wire, fibre-optic cable, and radio waves may be used for
different communications channels.

Types of networks

Switched communications network

A switched communications network transfers data from source to destination through a series
of network nodes. Switching can be done in one of two ways. In a circuit-switched network, a
dedicated physical path is established through the network and is held for as long as
communication is necessary. An example of this type of network is the traditional (analog)
telephone system. A packet-switched network, on the other hand, routes digital data in small
pieces called packets, each of which proceeds independently through the network. In a process
called store-and-forward, each packet is temporarily stored at each intermediate node, then
forwarded when the next link becomes available. In a connection-oriented transmission scheme,
each packet takes the same route through the network, and thus all packets usually arrive at the
destination in the order in which they were sent. Conversely, each packet may take a different
path through the network in a connectionless or datagram scheme. Since datagrams may not
arrive at the destination in the order in which they were sent, they are numbered so that they
can be properly reassembled. The latter is the method that is used for transmitting data through
the Internet.

Broadcast network

local area networks (LANs)

Simple bus networks, such as Ethernet, are common for home and small office configurations.
The most common ring network is IBM's Token Ring, which employs a “token” that is passed
around the network to control which location has sending privileges. Star networks are common
in larger commercial networks since a malfunction at any node generally does not disrupt the
entire network.
A broadcast network avoids the complex routing procedures of a switched network by ensuring
that each node’s transmissions are received by all other nodes in the network. Therefore, a
broadcast network has only a single communications channel. A wired local area network
(LAN), for example, may be set up as a broadcast network, with one user connected to each
node and the nodes typically arranged in a bus, ring, or star topology, as shown in the figure.
Nodes connected together in a wireless LAN may broadcast via radio or optical links. On a
larger scale, many satellite radio systems are broadcast networks, since each Earth station
within the system can typically hear all messages relayed by a satellite.

Telecommunications network, electronic system of links and switches, and the controls that
govern their operation, that allows for data transfer and exchange among multiple users.

A simple closed telecommunications networkNetwork switches, or nodes, enable users

(stations) to link to any number of network users through communications channels.
telecommunications network
See all media

Related Topics:
computer network circuit-switched network switched communications network broadcast
network packet-switched network
When several users of telecommunications media wish to communicate with one another, they
must be organized into some form of network. In theory, each user can be given a direct
point-to-point link to all the other users in what is known as a fully connected topology (similar to
the connections employed in the earliest days of telephony), but in practice this technique is
impractical and expensive—especially for a large and dispersed network. Furthermore, the
method is inefficient, since most of the links will be idle at any given time. Modern
telecommunications networks avoid these issues by establishing a linked network of switches,
or nodes, such that each user is connected to one of the nodes. Each link in such a network is
called a communications channel. Wire, fibre-optic cable, and radio waves may be used for
different communications channels.

Network access

Since all nodes can hear each transmission in a broadcast network, a procedure must be
established for allocating a communications channel to the node or nodes that have packets to
transmit and at the same time preventing destructive interference from collisions (simultaneous
transmissions). This type of communication, called multiple access, can be established either by
scheduling (a technique in which nodes take turns transmitting in an orderly fashion) or by
random access to the channel.

Scheduled access

In a scheduling method known as time-division multiple access (TDMA), a time slot is assigned
in turn to each node, which uses the slot if it has something to transmit. If some nodes are much
busier than others, then TDMA can be inefficient, since no data are passed during time slots
allocated to silent nodes. In this case a reservation system may be implemented, in which there
are fewer time slots than nodes and a node reserves a slot only when it is needed for
transmission.
A variation of TDMA is the process of polling, in which a central controller asks each node in
turn if it requires channel access, and a node transmits a packet or message only in response to
its poll. “Smart” controllers can respond dynamically to nodes that suddenly become very busy
by polling them more often for transmissions. A decentralized form of polling is called token
passing. In this system a special “token” packet is passed from node to node. Only the node
with the token is authorized to transmit; all others are listeners.

Random access

Scheduled access schemes have several disadvantages, including the large overhead required
for the reservation, polling, and token passing processes and the possibility of long idle periods
when only a few nodes are transmitting. This can lead to extensive delays in routing information,
especially when heavy traffic occurs in different parts of the network at different times—a
characteristic of many practical communications networks. Random-access algorithms were
designed specifically to give nodes with something to transmit quicker access to the channel.
Although the channel is vulnerable to packet collisions under random access, various
procedures have been developed to reduce this probability.

Carrier sense multiple access

One random-access method that reduces the chance of collisions is called carrier sense
multiple access (CSMA). In this method a node listens to the channel first and delays
transmitting when it senses that the channel is busy. Because of delays in channel propagation
and node processing, it is possible that a node will erroneously sense a busy channel to be idle
and will cause a collision if it transmits. In CSMA, however, the transmitting nodes will recognize
that a collision has occurred: the respective destinations will not acknowledge receipt of a valid
packet. Each node then waits a random time before sending again (hopefully preventing a
second collision). This method is commonly employed in packet networks with radio links, such
as the system used by amateur radio operators.

It is important to minimize the time that a communications channel spends in a collision state,
since this effectively shuts down the channel. If a node can simultaneously transmit and receive
(usually possible on wire and fibre-optic links but not on radio links), then it can stop sending
immediately upon detecting the beginning of a collision, thus moving the channel out of the
collision state as soon as possible. This process is called carrier sense multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD), a feature of the popular wired Ethernet. (For more information
on Ethernet, see computer: Local area networks.)

Spread-spectrum multiple access

Since collisions are so detrimental to network performance, methods have been developed to
allow multiple transmissions on a broadcast network without necessarily causing mutual packet
destruction. One of the most successful is called spread-spectrum multiple access (SSMA). In
SSMA simultaneous transmissions will cause only a slight increase in bit error probability for
each user if the channel is not too heavily loaded. Error-free packets can be obtained by using
an appropriate control code. Disadvantages of SSMA include wider signal bandwidth and
greater equipment cost and complexity compared with conventional CSMA.

Different communication requirements necessitate different network solutions, and these

different network protocols can create significant problems of compatibility when networks are
interconnected with one another. In order to overcome some of these interconnection problems,
the open systems interconnection (OSI) was approved in 1983 as an international standard for
communications architecture by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT). The OSI model, as
shown in the figure, consists of seven layers, each of which is selected to perform a well-defined
function at a different level of abstraction. The bottom three layers provide for the timely and
correct transfer of data, and the top four ensure that arriving data are recognizable and useful.
While all seven layers are usually necessary at each user location, only the bottom three are
normally employed at a network node, since nodes are concerned only with timely and correct
data transfer from point to point.

Data recognition and use

The application layer is difficult to generalize, since its content is specific to each user. For
example, distributed databases used in the banking and airline industries require several access
and security issues to be solved at this level. Network transparency (making the physical
distribution of resources irrelevant to the human user) also is handled at this level. The
presentation layer, on the other hand, performs functions that are requested sufficiently often
that a general solution is warranted. These functions are often placed in a software library that is
accessible by several users running different applications. Examples are text conversion, data
compression, and data encryption.

User interface with the network is performed by the session layer, which handles the process of
connecting to another computer, verifying user authenticity, and establishing a reliable
communication process. This layer also ensures that files which can be altered by several
network users are kept in order. Data from the session layer are accepted by the transport layer,
which separates the data stream into smaller units, if necessary, and ensures that all arrive
correctly at the destination. If fast throughput is needed, the transport layer may establish
several simultaneous paths in the network and send different parts of the data over each path.
Conversely, if low cost is a requirement, then the layer may time-multiplex several users’ data
over one path through the network. Flow control is also regulated at this level, ensuring that
data from a fast source will not overrun a slow destination.

Data transfer

The network layer breaks data into packets and determines how the packets are routed within
the network, which nodes (if any) will check packets for errors along the route, and whether
congestion control is needed in a heavily loaded network. The data-link layer transforms a raw
communications channel into a line that appears essentially free of transmission errors to the
network layer. This is done by breaking data up into data frames, transmitting them sequentially,
and processing acknowledgment frames sent back to the source by the destination. This layer
also establishes frame boundaries and implements recovery procedures from lost, damaged, or
duplicated frames. The physical layer is the transmission medium itself, along with various
electric and mechanical specifications.

Mailing List History

The way most people keep up to date on network news is through subscription to a number of
mail reflectors (also known as mail exploders). Mail reflectors are special electronic mailboxes
which, when they receive a message, resend it to a list of other mailboxes. This in effect creates
a discussion group on a particular topic.

Who invented mailing lists?

Early forms of mailing lists were invented almost as soon as email was invented. It quickly
became apparent that by combining several email addresses together into a single address,
one email could be easily sent to a group of people in one action.

The first mailing lists carried on the ARPANET were based on the first email program SNDMSG.
Some of the early and most popular mailing lists included the following:

human-nets. Human factors and their relation to networks.

network-hackers. Internet programming and protocol issues.
sf-lovers. Science fiction literature.
wine-tasters. Wine tasting.
Google Groups has some interesting historical logs of SF-lovers, human-nets, and other
ARPANET mailing lists from the early 1980’s. In fact, it was these lists that inspired Jim Ellis and
Tom Truscott to develop the Usenet to provide similar functionality for organizations that weren’t
connected to the ARPANET.
A version of mailing lists was also created on the BITNETnetwork to enable thousands of
researchers in organizations around the world to exchange information. BITNET also copied
most of their mailing lists to the Usenet newsgroups.

For many years there have been three mailing list software applications that run most mailing
lists (see more information at the linked pages):

Listserv history. Originally conceived by Ira Fuchs and Dan Oberst and implemented by Ricky
Hernandez to support BITNET lists. Revised version developed in 1986 by Eric Thomas.
Majordomo history. First version written by Brent Chapman in about 20 hours. John Rouillard
managed it for several versions, and it is now worked on by a free open source software group
of developers across the Internet, and maintained by Chan Wilson.
Listproc history. Listproc was originally developed for Unix computers by Anastasios Kotsikonas
(“Tasos”) at Boston University in the 1980’s. It became very successful, and is now supported by
the Corporation for Research and Educational Networking (CREN).
Historical applications. There have been many other types of mailing list management software
developed over the years, including those listed below:

1.Almanac
2.BMW
3.IDG
4.MReply
5.SmartList
6.Smof
7.TULP

What is Mailing Lists?

Definition and Functionality of Mailing Lists

A mailing list is a method of distributing messages via email to a group of subscribers. It allows
individuals to join a specific list based on their interests, preferences, or affiliations. Once
subscribed, members can receive and send emails to the entire group, fostering discussions,
sharing information, and collaborating on relevant topics.

Mailing Lists • Once you start using the Internet, you'll notice people talking about
joining lists and participating in discussions on various subjects. • While there are
thousands of ongoing newsgroup discussions on different subjects, there are also
thousands of e-mail list discussions happening as well. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ
Mailing Lists • What's the difference? • Newsgroups are public discussions that anyone
with newsreader software can subscribe to and participate in. You read what other
members have written and can post a reply if you choose. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Mailing Lists • A mailing list, on the other hand, is a list of e-mail addresses of people
interested in the same subject. • When a list subscriber sends a message, it goes to
everyone on the list. You can reply to the messages, send new messages, or just lurk,
reading the messages without participating. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Mailing Lists • The key advantage of a mailing list over a newsgroup is that instead of
having to go somewhere to read or retrieve postings, messages are automatically
delivered to your e-mail box. • All of this traffic is automatically managed by programs
called Mailing List Managers (MLMs). ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Mailing Lists • The two most frequently used MLMs are Listserv and Majordomo. •
Mailing lists are often used to provide subscribers with current information. For music
fans, that might include upcoming concert dates or ticket purchasing details.
ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Mailing Lists • Generally, there are two types of lists: • With announcement-type lists,
you receive messages, but can't post to the list yourself. • With discussion-type lists,
everyone on the list can participate. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Mailing Lists • To subscribe, you send a message to the list administrator and your
e-mail address is added to the list. • Subscribing is usually free. After you subscribe, you
will receive a reply giving you details about the list and how to participate. • Soon, you'll
begin receiving mail from other list members. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Mailing Lists • To get off the mailing list, you have to unsubscribe, by sending an e-mail
message to the list administrator. • If you don't want to be overwhelmed with a daily
flood of e-mail messages, subscribe to the digest version, if one is available. A digest
provides a periodic summary of the messages. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Mailing Lists Tips • Subscribe to one or two mailing lists at a time, then wait to see
how many messages you receive before subscribing to any others. • After you
subscribe, you will get a response with instructions on how the list works, and perhaps
most important, how to unsubscribe. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ
Mailing Lists Tips • Turn off the list when you go on vacation. It's like stopping your
newspaper delivery. Some lists have a vacation option. For others, you have to
unsubscribe, then re-subscribe when you return. ICMAP/F1/ZAQ

Benefits of Using Mailing Lists

Mailing lists offer several advantages that make them a preferred choice for many individuals
and organizations. Here are some key benefits:

1.Targeted Audience:

Mailing lists allow you to reach a specific group of individuals who share common interests or
are part of a particular community. This targeted approach ensures that your messages reach
the right people who are more likely to engage and respond.

2.Enhanced Privacy:

Mailing lists provide a level of privacy and control over your communication. Unlike social media
platforms or public forums, mailing lists offer a more secure environment where participants can
freely share ideas without concerns about privacy breaches.

3.Efficient Communication:

With a mailing list, you can efficiently communicate with a large number of individuals
simultaneously. Instead of sending individual emails to each recipient, a single message can
reach everyone subscribed to the list, saving time and effort.

3.Community Building:

Mailing lists foster a sense of community among its members. Through discussions and
interactions, participants can build relationships, exchange knowledge, and establish valuable
connections within their niche or field.
Exploring Newsgroup Services
Definition and Purpose of Newsgroup Services

Newsgroups, on the other hand, are online discussion forums that revolve around specific topics
or subjects. Unlike mailing lists, newsgroups are not email-based but operate through dedicated
servers where participants can read and post messages using specialized software.

Differences between Newsgroup Services and Mailing Lists

While both newsgroup services and mailing lists serve as platforms for information exchange,
they differ in several key aspects:
Communication Format:

Mailing lists use email as the primary communication medium, allowing users to send and
receive messages directly through their email accounts. Newsgroup services, however, use a
web-based or software-based interface where participants access and contribute to discussions.

Access and Participation:

Mailing lists require individuals to subscribe using their email addresses, granting them access
to the messages shared within the list. In contrast, newsgroup services are open to the public,
and anyone can access and contribute to the discussions without any form of subscription.

Archiving and Searchability:

Mailing lists usually retain message archives, which allows users to refer back to past
discussions and search for specific topics. Newsgroup services, on the other hand, often have
limited or no message archiving, making it challenging to retrieve older conversations.

Advantages of Mailing Lists over Newsgroup Services

While newsgroup services have their merits, mailing lists offer unique advantages that make
them a popular choice for many individuals and organizations. Let’s explore some of these
advantages:

Enhanced Privacy and Targeted Audience

Mailing lists provide a higher level of privacy compared to newsgroup services. By subscribing
to a mailing list, participants willingly share their email addresses, creating a controlled
environment where only members can contribute. This privacy ensures that discussions remain
within the intended group, fostering a more secure and trustworthy environment.

Additionally, mailing lists enable you to target a specific audience with shared interests or
affiliations. By joining a relevant list, you can connect with individuals who are more likely to
engage with your messages, increasing the chances of meaningful interactions and fruitful
collaborations.

Efficient Communication and Collaboration

Mailing lists streamline communication by allowing you to send a single message that reaches
all subscribed members. This saves time and effort, especially when conveying important
announcements or updates to a large audience. Furthermore, mailing lists facilitate discussions
and encourage collaboration, making it easier for participants to exchange ideas, share
resources, and seek assistance from the collective knowledge of the group.

Ease of Use and Accessibility

Mailing lists are user-friendly and accessible to individuals with varying technical skills. The
communication process is familiar to most people since it utilizes email, a widely used and
understood medium. This ease of use eliminates the need for participants to learn new software
or interfaces, ensuring a smooth and inclusive experience for all members.

In addition, mailing lists allow participants to receive messages directly in their email inbox,
ensuring they won’t miss important updates or discussions. This convenience makes mailing
lists a preferred choice for individuals who prefer to manage their communications from a
centralized platform.

Mailing Lists Fundamentals

A mailing list is a collection of names and addresses used by an individual or an organization to
send material to multiple recipients. The term is often extended to include the people subscribed
to such a list, so the group of subscribers is referred to as "the mailing list", or simply "the list".

When similar or identical material is sent out to all subscribers on a mailing list, it is often
referred to as a mailshot or a blast. A list for such use can also be referred to as a distribution
list.

On legitimate (non-spam) mailing lists, individuals can subscribe or unsubscribe themselves.

Mailing lists are often rented or sold. If rented, the renter agrees to use the mailing list only at
contractually agreed-upon times. The mailing list owner typically enforces this by "salting"
(known as "seeding" in direct mail) the mailing list with fake addresses and creating new salts
for each time the list is rented. Unscrupulous renters may attempt to bypass salts by renting
several lists and merging them to find common, valid addresses.[5]

Mailing list brokers exist to help organizations rent their lists. For some list owners, such as
specialized niche publications or charitable groups, their lists may be some of their most
valuable assets, and mailing list brokers help them maximize the value of their lists.
Transmission may be paper-based or electronic. Each has its strengths, although a 2022 article
claimed that compared to email, "direct mail still brings in the lion's share of revenue for most
organizations."[6]
A mailing list is simply a list of e-mail addresses of people who are interested in the same
subject, are members of the same work group, or who are taking classes together.[7] When a
member of the list sends a note to the group's special address, the e-mail is broadcast to all of
the members of the list. The key advantage of a mailing list over things such as web-based
discussion is that as the new message becomes available they are immediately delivered to the
participants' mailboxes. A mailing list sometimes can also include information such as phone
number, postal address, fax number, and more.

Electronic mailing list

An electronic mailing list or email list is a special use of email that allows for widespread
distribution of information to many Internet users. It is similar to a traditional mailing list – a list of
names and addresses – as might be kept by an organization for sending publications to its
members or customers, but typically refers to four things:

a list of email addresses,

the people ("subscribers") receiving mail at those addresses, thus defining a community
gathered around a topic of interest.
the publications (email messages) sent to those addresses, and
a reflector, which is a single email address that, when designated as the recipient of a message,
will send a copy of that message to all of the subscribers.

Mechanism
Electronic mailing lists usually are fully or partially automated through the use of special mailing
list software and a reflector address set up on a server capable of receiving email. Incoming
messages sent to the reflector address are processed by the software, and, depending on their
content, are acted upon internally (in the case of messages containing commands directed at
the software itself) or are distributed to all email addresses subscribed to the mailing list.

A web-based interface is often available to allow people to subscribe, unsubscribe, and change
their preferences. However, mailing list servers existed long before the World Wide Web,[8] so
most also accept commands over email to a special email address. This allows subscribers (or
those who want to be subscribers) to perform such tasks as subscribing and unsubscribing,
temporarily halting the sending of messages to them, or changing available preferences – all via
email. The common format for sending these commands is to send an email that contains
simply the command followed by the name of the electronic mailing list the command pertains
to. Examples: subscribe anylist or subscribe anylist John Doe.

Electronic mailing list servers may be set to forward messages to subscribers of a particular
mailing list either individually as they are received by the list server, or in digest form in which all
messages received on a particular day by the list server are combined into one email that is
sent once per day to subscribers. Some mailing lists allow individual subscribers to decide how
they prefer to receive messages from the list server (individual or digest).[9]

At least two types of mailing lists can be defined:

an announcement list is closer to the original sense, where a "mailing list" of people was used
as a recipient for newsletters, periodicals or advertising. Traditionally this was done through the
postal system, but with the rise of email, the electronic mailing list became popular. This type of
list is used primarily as a one-way conduit of information and may only be "posted to" by
selected people. This may also be referred to by the term newsletter. Newsletter and
promotional emailing lists are employed in various sectors as parts of direct marketing
campaigns.

a "discussion list" allows subscribing members (sometimes even people outside the list) to
post their own items which are broadcast to all of the other mailing list members. Recipients
may answer in a similar fashion, thus, actual discussion and information exchanges can occur.
Mailing lists of this type are usually topic-oriented (for example, politics, scientific discussion,
health problems, joke contests), and the topic may range from extremely narrow to "whatever
you think could interest us." In this they are similar to Usenet newsgroups, another form of
discussion group that may have an aversion to off-topic messages.
Historically mailing lists preceded email/web forums; both can provide analogous
functionalities. When used in that fashion, mailing lists are sometimes known as discussion lists
or discussion forums. Discussion lists provide some advantages over typical web forums, so
they are still used in various projects, notably Git and Debian. The advantages over web forums
include the ability to work offline, the ability to sign/encrypt posts via GPG, and the ability to use
an e-mail client's features, such as filters.

Tracking
Mailers want to know when items are delivered, partly to know how to staff call centers. Salting
(or seeding) their lists enables them to compare delivery times, especially when time-of-year
affects arrival delays. It may also provide information about poor handling of samples.

Having seeded entries in an eMail list simplifies tracking who may have "borrowed" the list
without permission.

History
Mailing lists have first been scholarly mailing lists. The genealogy of mailing lists as a
communication tool between scientists can be traced back to the times of the fledgling Arpanet.
The aim of the computer scientists involved in this project was to develop protocols for the
communication between computers. In so doing, they have also built the first tools of human
computer-mediated communication. Broadly speaking, the scholarly mailing lists can even be
seen as the modern version of the salons of the Enlightenment ages, designed by scholars for
scholars.

The "threaded conversation" structure (where the header of a first post defines the topic of a
series of answers thus constituting a thread) is a typical and ubiquitous structure of discourse
within lists and fora of the Internet. It is pivotal to the structure and topicality of debates within
mailing lists as an arena, or public sphere in Habermas wording. The flame wars (as the liveliest
episodes) give valuable and unique information to historians to comprehend what is at stake in
the communities gathered around lists.

Anthropologists, sociologists and historians have used mailing lists as fieldwork. Topics include
TV series fandom, online culture,or scientific practices among many other academic studies.
From the historian's point of view, the issue of the preservation of mailing lists heritage (and
Internet fora heritage in general) is essential. Not only the text of the corpus of messages has
yet to be perennially archived, but also their related metadata, timestamps, headers that define
topics, etc. Mailing lists archives are a unique opportunity for historians to explore interactions,
debates, even tensions that reveal a lot about communities.
List Security

On both discussion lists and newsletter lists precautions are taken to avoid spamming.

Discussion lists often require every message to be approved by a moderator before being sent
to the rest of the subscribers (moderated lists), although higher-traffic lists typically only
moderate messages from new subscribers. Companies sending out promotional newsletters
have the option of working with whitelist mail distributors, which agree to standards and high
fines from ISPs should any of the opt-in subscribers complain. In exchange for their compliance
and agreement to prohibitive fines, the emails sent by whitelisted companies are not blocked by
spam filters, which often can reroute these legitimate, non-spam emails.

Subscription

Some mailing lists are open to anyone who wants to join them, while others require an approval
from the list owner before one may join. Joining a mailing list is called "subscribing" and leaving
a list is called "unsubscribing".

Archives

A mailing list archive is a collection of past messages from one or more electronic mailing lists.
Such archives often include searching and indexing functionality. Many archives are directly
associated with the mailing list, but some organizations, such as Gmane, collect archives from
multiple mailing lists hosted at different organizations; thus, one message sent to one popular
mailing list may end up in many different archives. Gmane had over 9,000 mailing list archives
as of 16 January 2007. Some popular free software programs for collecting mailing list archives
are Hypermail, MHonArc,FUDforum, and public-inbox (which is notably used for archiving the
Linux kernel mailing list along with many other software development mailing lists and has a
web-service API used by search-and-retrieval tools intended for use by the Linux kernel
development community.[citation needed]

List Washing
Listwashing is the process through which individual entries in mailing lists are to be removed.
These mailing lists typically contain email addresses or phone numbers of those that have not
voluntarily subscribed. Only complainers are removed via this process. Because most of those
that have not voluntarily subscribed stay on the list, this helps spammers to maintain a
low-complaint list of spammable email addresses. Internet service providers who forward
complaints to the spamming party are often seen as assisting the spammer in list washing, or, in
short, helping spammers. Most legitimate list holders provide their customers with listwashing
and data deduplication service regularly for free or a small fee.
Mailing List Availability
Mailing list availability refers to the accessibility of mailing lists for individuals or organizations to
subscribe to or participate in. Mailing lists can vary in availability depending on factors such as
their purpose, membership criteria, and management. They can be open to anyone interested,
restricted to certain groups, or moderated to ensure adherence to specific guidelines.

1. Open Mailing Lists: These are freely available to anyone interested. Typically, users can
subscribe or unsubscribe at will without any restrictions. They often cater to broad topics or
communities and may have large memberships.

2. Restricted Mailing Lists: These lists have specific criteria for membership. They might
require approval from a moderator or administrator before joining. Criteria could include
professional qualifications, membership in a particular organization, or adherence to certain
principles or guidelines.

3. Moderated Mailing Lists: Moderated lists are overseen by a designated moderator or group
of moderators. Their role is to review and approve messages before they are distributed to the
list's subscribers. Moderators ensure that discussions stay on-topic and adhere to the list's
guidelines or rules.

4. Private Mailing Lists: These lists are not publicly advertised, and membership is typically by
invitation only. They are often used for closed communities, such as within companies, research
groups, or specific interest groups.

5. Commercial Mailing Lists: Some mailing lists are available for purchase or subscription for
marketing purposes. These lists contain contact information for individuals or organizations who
have opted in to receive promotional messages on specific topics or industries.

6. Archived Mailing Lists: Mailing lists may be available in archived form, allowing users to
access past discussions and messages. Archives can be valuable resources for research,
historical purposes, or reference material.

Overall, the availability of mailing lists depends on their purpose, management, and the
preferences of the list administrators.

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING

Electronic publishing, also known as e-publishing, refers to the digital dissemination of written,
visual, or auditory content via electronic devices and the internet. It encompasses various forms
of content, including books, articles, magazines, journals, newspapers, newsletters, blogs, and
multimedia presentations. Electronic publishing has transformed the way content is created,
distributed, and consumed, revolutionizing the publishing industry.

Key aspects of electronic publishing include:

1. Digital Formats: Content is created and distributed in digital formats such as PDF, EPUB,
MOBI, HTML, and various multimedia formats. These formats allow content to be easily
accessed and consumed across a wide range of electronic devices, including computers,
e-readers, tablets, and smartphones.

2. Global Accessibility: Electronic publishing enables content to be instantly accessible to a

global audience. Readers can access digital publications from anywhere with an internet
connection, breaking down geographical barriers and expanding the reach of publishers and
authors.

3. Interactivity and Multimedia: Electronic publications can incorporate interactive elements,

multimedia components, and hyperlinks, enhancing reader engagement and providing a richer
user experience compared to traditional print media. Features such as embedded videos, audio
clips, animations, and interactive graphics add value to digital content.

4. Instant Distribution: Unlike traditional print publishing, where physical copies need to be
manufactured, shipped, and stocked in stores, electronic publishing allows for instantaneous
distribution. Content can be published and made available to readers instantly through online
platforms, reducing time-to-market and enabling real-time updates and revisions.

5. Cost-Effectiveness :Electronic publishing offers cost savings compared to traditional print

publishing. Eliminating printing, paper, and distribution costs can significantly reduce the
overhead expenses associated with publishing. Additionally, digital distribution platforms often
have lower barriers to entry, allowing independent authors and small publishers to enter the
market with minimal upfront investment.

6. Searchability and Discoverability: Digital publications are easily searchable, making it

simple for readers to find specific topics, articles, or authors within a publication. Furthermore,
electronic publishing platforms often incorporate features such as keyword tagging, metadata
optimization, and recommendation algorithms to enhance discoverability and connect readers
with relevant content.

7. Dynamic Content: Digital publications can be dynamically updated and revised, enabling
publishers to respond quickly to feedback, incorporate new information, and keep content
relevant and up-to-date. This agility allows for continuous improvement and iteration, fostering
ongoing engagement with readers.
Overall, electronic publishing has democratized the dissemination of information, empowering
authors, publishers, and readers alike to create, distribute, and access content in innovative
ways.

advantages and disadvantages of electronic publishing:

Advantages:

1. Global Accessibility: Electronic publishing enables content to be accessed globally,

breaking down geographical barriers and reaching a wider audience.

2. Cost-Effectiveness: Digital distribution eliminates printing, paper, and distribution costs

associated with traditional print publishing, resulting in potential cost savings for publishers and
authors.

3. Instant Distribution: Content can be published and made available to readers instantly
through online platforms, reducing time-to-market and enabling real-time updates and revisions.

4. Interactivity and Multimedia: Electronic publications can incorporate interactive elements,

multimedia components, and hyperlinks, enhancing reader engagement and providing a richer
user experience.

5. Searchability and Discoverability: Digital publications are easily searchable, making it

simple for readers to find specific topics, articles, or authors within a publication. Enhanced
discoverability features further connect readers with relevant content.

6. Dynamic Content: Digital publications can be updated and revised dynamically, allowing
publishers to respond quickly to feedback, incorporate new information, and keep content
relevant and up-to-date.

7. Environmental Impact: Electronic publishing reduces the environmental impact associated

with traditional print publishing by eliminating paper usage, ink consumption, and transportation
emissions.

Disadvantages:

1. Digital Divide: Not everyone has equal access to electronic devices or the internet, leading
to disparities in access to electronic publications, particularly in underserved or remote areas.
2. Dependency on Technology: Electronic publishing relies on electronic devices and internet
connectivity. Technical issues such as device malfunctions, software compatibility, or internet
outages can disrupt access to digital content.

3. Copyright Concerns: Digital publications are susceptible to unauthorized copying,

distribution, and piracy, posing challenges for publishers and authors in protecting their
intellectual property rights.

4. Format Compatibility: Different digital formats may not be compatible with all devices or
software platforms, leading to potential formatting issues and usability challenges for readers.

5. Reader Preferences: Some readers may prefer the tactile experience of reading physical
books or print publications over electronic formats, leading to a preference for traditional
publishing methods.

6. Digital Fatigue: Excessive screen time and digital consumption can contribute to digital
fatigue or eye strain for readers, impacting their reading experience and overall well-being.

7. Quality Control: Maintaining quality standards and editorial oversight can be challenging in
the digital publishing landscape, particularly with the proliferation of self-publishing platforms
and user-generated content.

Despite these disadvantages, electronic publishing continues to evolve and innovate, offering
new opportunities for content creators and consumers in the digital age.

chat room
Chat room, virtual space in which Internet users engage in discussion with one another in real
time, often about a specific topic and typically in an informal setting.

The first chat room capable of supporting small group discussions online was Talkomatic,
introduced in 1973 by American computer programmers David Woolley and Doug Brown.
Woolley and Brown developed Talkomatic by using the e-learning system PLATO based at the
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. On the Talkomatic interface, each participant had his or
her own screen section and was able to exchange messages with other users in real time. The
system had a large following among PLATO users and lasted until the mid-1980s. Talkomatic
was reintroduced, this time on a Web-based platform, in 2014.

In 1978 British computer programmer Roy Trubshaw created the chat room Multi-User Dungeon
(MUD), inspired by the popular video game Dungeons & Dragons. Although Trubshaw initially
meant for MUD to be used solely by him and his friends, the concept spread, and other creators
designed their own chat rooms. By the mid-1990s there were upward of 400 MUD chat rooms.
Gaming had been a main focus of the chat rooms initially, but other special-interest groups
developed over time.

In 1988 Finnish programmer Jarkko Oikarinen introduced Internet Relay Chat (IRC), a service
that initially featured just a single network and server. Oikarinen intended for IRC to facilitate
communication between people with similar interests. By 1989 IRC had spread to more than 40
servers worldwide. In 1991 IRC became a channel for information about the Persian Gulf War
for its base of more than 300 users, who were able to view live reports from IRC chat rooms.
That same year IRC chat reports became the sole avenue of information exiting the Soviet
Union because of a media blackout in the state. About the same time, feuds began to emerge in
the IRC world, leading to split-off networks, such as EFnet, Undernet, DALnet, and IRCnet. By
the early 2020s, IRC had come to consist of more than 400 such networks.

IRC uses the client-server model, which indicates that both client and server software are
necessary for its functioning. The IRC client connects to an online server, which enables users
to select a channel on which they can connect with other users. These principles guide modern
chat rooms as well. Many chat rooms require log-on information from users but still offer a level
of anonymity when interacting with other users. Occasionally, users are prompted to download a
software client that enables them to use the chat room. Chat rooms typically offer additional
features, such as private messaging, themed rooms, and customization. As with most Internet
technology, there is potential for abuse, and cyberbullying is an issue that permeates such
spaces as chat rooms, which offer a level of anonymity. Some chat rooms may run scams to
steal user information.

Instant messaging services, such as Slack and Discord, also enable users to communicate with
multiple people in real time in open channels as well as to communicate with others via private
channels and direct messaging. Because of their design and ability to provide one-on-one
interaction, as well as options for voice chat, video chat, and screen sharing, these services
differ from chat rooms.

virtual community

Virtual community, a group of people, who may or may not meet one another face to face, who
exchange words and ideas through the mediation of digital networks.

The first use of the term virtual community appeared in a article by Gene Youngblood written in
1984 but published in 1986 about Electronic Cafe (1984), an art project by artists Kit Galloway
and Sherrie Rabinowitz that connected five restaurants around Los Angeles and an art museum
through a live video link. The term gained popularity after a 1987 article written by Howard
Rheingold for The Whole Earth Review. In The Virtual Community (1993), Rheingold expanded
on his article to offer the following definition:

Virtual communities are social aggregations that emerge from the Net when enough people
carry on those public discussions long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of
personal relationships in cyberspace.

Rheingold’s article and book are cited as the foundational works of cyberculture studies. Many
subsequent commentators have contested Rheingold’s use of the word community and the
terminology used to describe the technosocial phenomena of persistent computer-mediated
relationships; social media and participatory media are also used to describe a very broad
variety of human social activity online.

The first predictions of communities of computer-linked individuals and groups were made in
1968 by J.C.R. Licklider and Robert Taylor, who as research administrators for the U.S. Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) set in motion the research that resulted in the
creation of the first such community, the ARPANET, which was the precursor of the Internet.
Licklider and Taylor wrote,

Even before the ARPANET, in the early 1960s, the PLATO computer-based education system
included online community features. Douglas Engelbart, who ran the ARPANET’s first Network
Information Center, had grown a “bootstrapping community” at the Stanford Research Institute
(SRI), located at Stanford University in California, through use of his pioneering oNLine System
(NLS) before the ARPANET was launched.

By the beginning of the 21st century, the four computer nodes (University of California at Los
Angeles, SRI, University of California at Santa Barbara, and University of Utah) that constituted
the ARPANET community in 1969 had expanded to include some one billion people with access
to the Internet. With several billion mobile telephones with Internet connections now in
existence, a significant portion of the human population conduct some of their social affairs by
means of computer networks. The range of networked activities has greatly expanded since
Rheingold described bulletin board systems (BBSs), chat rooms, mailing lists, USENET
newsgroups, and MUDs (multiuser dungeons) in 1993. In the 21st century people meet, play,
conduct discourse, socialize, do business, and organize collective action through instant
messages, blogs (including videoblogs), RSS feeds (a format for subscribing to and receiving
regularly updated content from Web sites), wikis, social network services such as MySpace and
Facebook, photo and media-sharing communities such as Flickr, massively multiplayer online
games such as Lineage and World of Warcraft, and immersive virtual worlds such as Second
Life. Virtual communities and social media have coevolved as emerging technologies have
afforded new kinds of interaction and as different groups of people have appropriated media for
new purposes.

The emergence of globally networked publics has raised a number of psychological,

sociological, economic, and political issues, and these issues have in turn stimulated the
creation of new courses and research programs in social media, virtual communities, and
cyberculture studies. In particular, the widespread use of online communication tools has raised
questions of identity and the presentation of self, community or pseudocommunity, collective
action, public sphere, social capital, and quality of attention.

A number of different critiques arose as cyberculture studies emerged. A political critique of

early online activism questioned whether online relationships offered a kind of comforting
simulation of collective action. On close inspection, the question of what actually defines a
community has turned out to be complex: American sociologist George A. Hillery, Jr., compiled
92 different definitions. Canadian sociologist Barry Wellman defined community as “networks of
interpersonal ties that provide sociability, support, information, a sense of belonging, and social
identity”—and offered empirical evidence that at least some virtual communities fit these criteria.
As has happened in the past, what people mean when they speak of community is shifting.

As the early digital enthusiasts, builders, and researchers were joined by a more representative
sample of the world’s population, a broader and not always wholesome representation of human
behaviour manifested itself online. Life online in the 21st century enabled terrorists and various
cybercriminals to make use of the same many-to-many digital networks that enable support
groups for disease victims and caregivers, disaster relief action, distance learning, and
community-building efforts. Soldiers in battle taunt their enemies with text messages,
disseminate information through instant messaging, and communicate home through online
videos. With so many young people spending so much of their time online, many parents and
“real world” community leaders expressed concerns about the possible effects of overindulging
in such virtual sociIt is likely that community-centred forms of online communication will continue
to flourish—in the medical community alone, mutual support groups will continue to afford strong
and persistent bonds between people whose primary communications take place online. At the
same time, it is also likely that the prevalence of individual-centred social network services and
the proliferation of personal communication devices will feed the evolution of “networked
individualism.” Cyberculture studies, necessarily an interdisciplinary pursuit, is likely to continue
to grow as more human socialization is mediated by digital networks.

In addition, in an environment where anyone can publish anything or make any claim online,
the need to include an understanding of social media in education has given rise to advocates
for “participatory pedagogy.”

Students of online social behaviour have noted a shift from “group-centric” characterizations of
online socializing to a perspective that takes into account “networked individualism.”

Multi-User Dungeons
A Multi-User Dungeon (MUD) is a computer program which accepts connections from a number
of simultaneous users over a computer network and provides them with access to a shared
'adventure game'; that is, a shared textual virtual environment where players can move between
rooms, interact with each other and manipulate virtual objects; all which is described in text.

While there are many multi-user computer games, this article restricts itself to covering those
with at least a minimal role-playing content. For this reason it ignores games like Doom1.
Although Doom is closer than text-based MUDs to what the immersive virtual reality of the future
may be like, the role-playing aspect is very limited when you are a super space marine who is
controlled via 'fire', 'switch weapon' and 'operate' buttons.

Unlike the recently popularized network combat games, the role-playing MUDs are surprisingly
varied and sometimes extremely sophisticated. While common themes and ideas frequently
recur, in much the same way as they do in tabletop role-playing, the games vary enormously
from one another.

What are MUDs?

The textual reality portrayed by MUDs is perhaps closest in format to the interactive fiction text
games popularized by companies like Infocon Players are given textual and in some games
simple graphical, descriptions of their environment. They are given the ability to interact with the
environment. The environment varies as widely as the setting of tabletop role-playing games
does. Gameplay can vary from exploring educational exhibits to the infamous Genocide game
where the players are placed in a fantasy environment, given weapons - and the last alive wins.

The history of multi-user dungeons

The history of role-playing via computer goes back a surprisingly long way. In 1970 Crowther
and Woods wrote Adventure2, which is held to be the first text-based computer adventure
game. There was very little role-playing, the command set was basic and the goal fixed.
Nevertheless, this was the starting point for computerized fantasv role-playing.

The earliest computer-based games that could be said to have a real role-playing element were
not computer-moderated. From quite early in the history of interactive multi-user computing,
systems supported 'conferences' where people could talk together. Each message scrolled up
the display, tagged with the sender's name. While intended for serious long-distance
discussions, they rapidly acquired recreational use too, and people began playing Dungeons &
Dragons3 over them. Even today, the playing of traditional RPGs over computers on the internet
is quite common.

While not the first such game, MUDl4, which ran at Essex University was probably the greatest
initial influence on the development of MUDs, including giving the genre its name. In 1979 Roy
Trubshaw, then a student at Essex University, wrote the basics of the initial game, unaware that
any other such games even existed.

Richard Bartle took over the game and turned it from a simple interactive environment into a
masterpiece of interactive fiction, with beautifully written prose and consistent, logical game
design. Now over ten years old, the game, in its various expanded forms, is run commerially
around the world.

The Essex MUD was played from numerous sites other than Essex as the ARPANET and the
UK academic computer network took shape. Essex acquired several other games based on the
same system - including a multi-user Fraggle Rock. Its impact on the rest of the world was,
however, muted by the fact it wasn't freely available as source code.

Late in 1987 I was a student at the University College Of Wales in Aberystwyth, and along with
a few other Essex MUD players got involved in a project that later became known as
AberMUD5. Two unplanned events occurred that ignited the explosion of MUDs on the internet.
Firstly we ported the game to a Unix system, and secondly someone asked us for a copy. We
released it with a licence that allowed free non-commercial use, and half the development team
then failed their exams.

AberMUD wasn't that brilliant a game and the program design itself was poor, but it resembled
MUD1 and was freely available. It spread rapidly and soon was influencing other people to look
beyond the ideas of the original MUD. It was very much a self-centred game. You could play as
groups but it was not necessary - and murdering the other players was a lucrative (and highly
popular) business.

Two major shifts in philosophy occurred after this time. Firstly people began to look more
towards traditional role-playing ideas. This gave rise to games such as DikuMUD6 where people
work together as teams of players of different character classes. The system, like that of
AD&D7, is structured in such a way that group play is needed to get anywhere.

Second was the shift to pure role-playing and social interaction, without competition or
advancement. Jim Aspnes' TinyMUD8 was the first game to embody this concept. It was a
simple system that allowed numerous people to interact within a virtual environment. What
made it innovative was that it allowed all the players to add to and expand the game world. It
rapidly became a cult, with games groaning under hundreds of users. The original TinyMUD
game world grew so large that nobody knew it all, and eventually so big that the computer could
not run it. Tradition being what it is, they haul the original TinyMUD world back into existence for
one day each year, as a sort of memorial to itself.

Before TinyMUD the games tended to be goal-driven and competive. You got points or kicks
from hacking your 'friend' to death with an axe. TinyMUD and the many games that have
derived from it have moded away from this. You no longer needed to even see them as games;
they are closed to being conferencing systems and have been used both as pure social
environments and for more serious purposes9.

Perhaps the best serious example is MicroMUSE10. Initially this TinyMUD-derived game was
one person's simulation of a space station. It is now the first of several MUD systems intended
for learning. What started as a game is now becoming recognized for its true flexibility.

Conventional role-playing and MUDs

There are three types of MUDs: computer-moderated games which resemble multi-player
adventure games with a role-playing element; human-moderated games where a number of
referees or judges moderate the rules and the MUD is used merely as a setting for play; and
player-moderated games where consensual decision-making is used to guide the outcome of
conflicts.

All three types have, like tabletop games, a method of character advancement. Some
computer-moderated games call this 'score', whereas human-moderated games often prefer to
follow a published game system's mechanisms for awarding of 'experience points'. In the
consensual role-play of the player-moderated games, there may seem to be no means of
advancement - but in these the advancement is often social. It is the popular players who get
selected to imprint a bronze dragon in games based on Anne McCaffrey's Dragonriders of Pern,
for example.

The settings used in MUDs are similar to traditional games. Over 80 per cent of MUDs listed in
the internet mud-list11 are based on a fantasy theme. A small but increasing number accurately
follow the rules of commercially published game systems (not always with permission) and
games based upon the White Wolf Storyteller games12 are becoming popular and prolific.
Several games are based upon well known fantasy fiction, notably the aforementioned
Dragonriders of Pern and Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels.

The similarities between MUDs and tabletop role-play end all too abruptly once one gets down
to the details. The computer-moderated role-playing MUD suffers very badly in comparison with
a human referee. While the computer can cope happily with an instruction like 'kill the orc with
my axe', players cannot give it detailed instructions about sneaking up on the left side of the orc
with a dagger between their teeth.

Despite this limitation, computer-moderated games can work well; firstly because the players
rapidly adapt to the limited set of rules and options, and secondly because the most obviously
unrealistic and jarring element of tabletop gaming, the rulebook and tables, are hidden from
them.

Human-moderated games do not suffer from this problem of limited options, but they do have
their own difficulties. It may be difficult for players to get hold of one of the game's judges, and
players may be unwilling to resolve situations without the human judges to moderate. The
problems of this type of game are a little like those experienced in live-action role-play, where
large numbers of players can all wander off in different directions.

The player-moderated style of gaming is perhaps closer to traditional role-playing than the
others. It is unusual in that it tends to be a group-written story rather than being guided by one
gamesmaster. Such games often describe themselves as a society in which to interact, rather
than a game with goals. Nevertheless it is very much a role-playing environment, and few
people behave the same way in both reality and the game world. In some cases the game world
has acquired a complete political system and behaves more like a society, with petitions, voting
and an elected body of overseers and controllers (often called 'wizards' after the highest rank in
Essex MUD1). LambdaMOO13 at Xerox Parc is perhaps the classic example of this and has
acquired a complete political system and, predictably, its own good-for-nothing career politicians

Where next?

As electronic telecommunicahons become more affordable and more commercial vendors move
in, many people anticipate a growth in the area of multi-user games and a significant increase in
the quality of such games. Because most games are written by groups of students with limited
time and experience the majority are of truly terrible quality, and are even less consistent than
the first edition Werewolf manual. There are exceptions, most notably Roy Trubshaw and
Richard Bartle's Essex Multi-User Dungeon. This has become a successfill commercial product
in the USA, although success in this country is still limited by the lack of very cheap phone calls.
Another interesting indicator for the future is MicroMUSE, the educational MUD system
providing a learning environment for children. With Vice President Al Gore's vision of a data
highway to every school and college, the future for educational MUDs can be nothing but bright.

Alan Cox did support work for Adventure International UK writing single-player text adventures.
His first game, Blizzard Pass, was released as part of a starter pack for the ZX Spectrum 128K.
He is the main author of AberMUD, the first multi-user game to be released freely to the internet.
Further work included the game driver and support work for HorrorSoft's Personal Nightmare
and . He continues to release MUD systems the latest being AberMUD5. He works for the
Institute for Industrial Information Technology on networking products, and in his spare time on
the Linux project.

Malcolm Campbell is active in the running of two role-playing MUDs, and got involved in MUDs
just too late to play Essex MUD. He has been following and contributing to research on virtual
communities for four years.