TABLE 1 Water conten ents and freezing points of selected foods Freezing point CO) ™ ddee | 0.910 -27 ss ePere 1,700 -22 1) (see Table 1.2). A substantial at of other pects kr kg"! K') and a high latent heat of erystalistion (3413 amount of eneray is thereire nese to remove sensible and latent Heat 1 form Se crystals, components fe fond (eft) mat ao be remove efor he) can aia aller amounts and require removal of a relatively small amount of Heat or exystallisation to take place. Enerzy for freezing is supplied as electrical energy, which is used to compress refigerans in mechani! Teese equipment oF (0 compre yeaa, Theoretical sche of mechani rfigeraton ears Ft Ttitid Ces al Section 19.1 ‘The latent hes specific heat (4.18 foods they are present in 21.1.1. Ice crystal formation “The initial freezing point of a food may be described as ‘the temperature at which a minate crystal OF se: S505 BE SRE ovum with the Sounding. water However before an fee ecival can forty 3 66 \et= 08 Os Heel ea present, Nucleation therefore precedes ice erystal formation, There are two types of nucleation hones Tt ‘nucle- ce the chance orientation 4nd combination of water molecules) and heterogeneous nucleation (ie fonTasany tee hucleus around suspended particles or ata cell wall). Energetically itis easiec for water molecules 19 BNBF=I= 1G existing, nuclei in preference to forming new nuclei and heterogencous nucleation is more likely to oceur in Foods, roo colle contain soluies such as carbohydrates, salts and other compounds that affect the Wy nwt Eee troche, In animal or plant issues, water is both intracellular and extracellular; the extracellular fiuids bavs 8 IOHEE ERD: een airs asnind the Tne iee crystals form there, Higher rates of heat transfer produce Larees numbers 5 is nd fas freezing therefore produces a large number of small ice crystals. This has beneficial effesis sn eas food +) The time taken for the temperature of a food to passthrough the “erica zone) (FIs: Bl): Wk ‘determines both the number and the size of ice crystals, However, large differendss iy lar freezing rates due to differences in the composi quality (Section 21 is the freezing rate, therefore crystal size are found with simil: foods that have received different prefreezing treatments. If the temperature is monitored at the thermal centre of a food (the point that cools a characteristic curve is obtained (Fig. 21.2). The six components of the curve are as follows: «AWS: The food is cooled to below its initial freezing point (0) which, with the exception of Pure WEES always elow O°€ (Table 21-1) At point S, the water remains liquid, although the temperature is below the freezing point. ‘This phenomenon is known as ‘supercooling’, which may be as much as 10°C Below the freezing point, and is the nuleation begins. The length of the supercooling period depends on the type of food and the rate at tion of foods and even in similar most slowly) as heat is removed, period in whic which heat is removed. © S—B: The temperature rises rapidl tion is released. ¢ B—C: Heat is remove the temperature therefor the increase in solute concentration in t Once stable nuclei have formed, they conti formed (Fig. 21.14). ly to the freezing point as ice erystals begin to form and latent heat of erystallisa~ 4 from the food at the same rate as before, but itis latent heat being removed as ice forms and ve vomains almost constant atthe freezing point. The freezing point is gradually depressed by he unfrozen liquor and, as more ice is formed, the temperature falls slightly. ue to grow and itis during this stage that the major part of the ices- REDMI 13¢ 5cgan PART | IV Processing by remeal of heat ‘A proportion of the water remains unfrozen at the temperatures used in commercial freezing: on te Pe ad composition ofthe fr and the temperate of rage, For example = 20°C the percentage of frozen water is 886 in lamb, 91% in fish and 93% in egg all E-F: If freezing is continued below commercial temperatures, ice formation and solute io more water can be frozen. The temperature falls as sensible heat is removed from the point F is known as the ‘glass transition temperature’ of the amorphous « solute-dependent concentration is reached, the physica state of the unfrozen liquid el uid to a brittle, amorphous solid glass (see also Section 1.3.3), For the majority of the freezing plateau the rate of ice erystal growih is €0 rate of mass transfer (of water molecules moving to growing exystals and of docs not control the rate of erystal growth except towards the end ofthe f concentrated. Kis and! Sun (2011) review different aspects of the nucleation ‘modelling approaches, methods used to study the characteristics of fee crystal techniques (Section 21.2.4) to improve the erystallisation of water. 4 21.1.2 Solute concentration ‘of the unfrozen liquor. As the temperature falls, individual solutes at which a crystal of a solute exists in equilibrium with the unfrozen cose it is ~5°C, for suerose: —14°C, for sodium chloride: ~21.13°C ficult to identify individual euteetic temperatures in the complex mi temperature’ is therefore used. This is the lowest eutectic =55°C, for meat: ~50°C to = 60°C and for bread: ~70°C (D: sible unt this temperature i reached. Commercially, foods taining solutes is therefore always present. sg [As food is frozen below point E in Fig. 21.2, the that encompasses the ice crystals, This can be rep water (Fig. 21.3) where A=B: cooling to the freezing point; B-C: supercooling: C=D: ice crystal growth; D=E; the concentration of solutes in the temperature (0); ‘ E-F: the concentrated phase does not solid until the concentration curve meets the glass FIGURE 21.3. Simplified ‘ature fora solute in water Adapted Techniques. Woodhead