Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-021-01091-x

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Identification of thermal hotspots through heat index determination

and urban heat island mitigation using ENVImet numerical micro
climate model
T. A. N. T. Perera1,2 · T. M. D. Nayanajith1 · G. Y. Jayasinghe1,3 · H. D. S. Premasiri4

Received: 20 September 2020 / Accepted: 2 January 2021 / Published online: 18 January 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
Achieving environmental sustainability by improving the urban microclimate is a key principle in mitigating the urban heat
island (UHI) effect. This study aimed to (a) investigate the outdoor thermal comfort by establishing Heat Index (HI) values to
identify thermal hot spots and (b) model green infrastructure possibilities to alleviate UHI in Colombo urban metropolitan in
Sri Lanka using ENVImet climate model. Daytime temperature and humidity values of 14 urban locations were collected to
determine HI to recognize thermal urban hotspots in Colombo area. A pretested comprehensive random-stratified question-
naire survey has been conducted to appraise the thermal discernment of the general public. ENVImet microclimate model
was accompanied to test the temperature reduction levels in different bioclimatic green infrastructure scenarios [Two belts
­(R1), three belts (­ R2), four belts (­ R3), five belts (­ R4)] in the selected study site. Five sites (Borella, Colombo Fort, Maradana,
Wellawaththa, Liberty junction) were identified as thermal hotspots in Colombo metropolitan. HI values were fluctuated
within 33.82–40.35 °C range and the highest average day time HI value was observed at Maradana (40.35 °C) and the lowest
HI was observed at Thummulla (33.82 °C). Survey results revealed that 89.3% people are affected with thermal uncomfort-
ability and 5% were affected with heat-related skin diseases. Inserting trees into curbsides ­(R4) reduced temperature remark-
ably by 2.07 °C in the urban metropolitan. Therefore, the proposed green infrastructure scenario has proved to be the most
suitable way to improve the thermal comfort conditions of urban environment, as it can reduce the UHI effects.

Keywords ENVImet · Heat index · Green infrastructure · Outdoor thermal comfort · Thermal hotspot · Urban micro-
climate

Introduction Deterioration of the outdoor environment of the tropical cit-

ies due to rapid urbanization (Emmanuel 2005) results in
Global warming due to climate change is projected to extend series of problems (Bose and Chowdhury 2020; Sarkar and
the amount of heat days, nights and heat season span in most Chouhan 2020).
of the densely populated areas of tropics (Barros et al. 2012). Health issues have been increasing as people stay longer
periods of discomfort conditions as the stress of disorders
associated with heat will increase with high temperatures
* T. A. N. T. Perera (Corvalan et al. 2005; Sandifer et al. 2015). The significant
[email protected] escalation of urban development projects created a complex
1 phenomenon known as urban heat island (UHI): an UHI is a
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty
of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka strong overheating of a densely built up area compared to its
2 rural surroundings (Battista et al. 2019; Sirisena et al. 2018;
Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty
of Technology, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka Stemn and Kumi-Boateng 2020). Conventional human-made
3 materials used in urban environments such as pavements or
Melbourne School of Land and Environment, The University
of Melbourne, 500 Yarra Boulevard, Richmond 3121, roofing tend to reflect less solar energy, and absorb and emit
Australia more of the sun’s heat compared to trees, vegetation, and
4
Air Quality Unit, National Building Research Organization, other natural surfaces. Often, heat islands build throughout
Colombo 05, Sri Lanka the day and become more pronounced after sunset due to

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the slow release of heat from urban materials (Hibbard et al. with dense population (Deosthali 2000). Colombo city is
2017; Environmental Protection Agency 2008). It was first one of the hot humid cities in South Asian region. It is the
described in 1818 by the occurrence of high temperature in commercial capital of Sri Lanka is extending over 37 km2
the earth surface and atmosphere of urban areas than their of land extent (Sevanatha 2019). It lies low country wet
surrounding rural areas (Zhao et al. 2018). Modifying urban zone of Sri Lanka. Modern urban development and plan-
areas by removing land cover can cause the rise in atmos- ning projects have converted Colombo into a highly urban-
pheric and surface temperature by several degrees (4–6 °C) ized city in South Asian region with a resident population of
(Jain et al. 2020; Xi et al. 2012). Further, energy consump- 737,865 and a floating population of nearly 100,000 encom-
tion for air conditioning can be minimized by thermally passing the highest population density within the island (De
comfortable outdoor atmosphere as it has a positive impact Silva and De Silva 2019; Johansson and Emmanuel 2006).
on the indoor environment (Ishola et al. 2016; Manawadu Researches on outdoor thermal comfort in tropical climates
and Liyanage 2008). There is an imperative need to improve are limited. The studies that are related with thermal comfort
the outdoor thermal comfort at public spaces and permit for assessment have been revealed that there is a discrepancy
creation of improved urban climate conditions within the between calculated and subjectively perceived thermal com-
enduring urbanization (Ranagalage et al. 2017). Spatial pat- fort (Johansson et al. 2018).
tern of green spaces play a major role to reduce UHI (Ghosh However, the main aim of those comfort studies has been
and Arijit 2018). the perception of outdoor thermal comfort and came to know
The ways in which green and blue space infrastructure that how urban design influences on thermal comfort (Kwon
is applied in future urban growth strategies, particularly in and Lee 2017). Studies have been showed that the configu-
countries expected to experience rapid urbanization, war- ration and composition of green cover as well as the urban
rants greater consideration in urban planning policy to mit- structure affect more on UHI (Ghosh and Arijit 2018). There
igate the adverse effects of the UHI and enhance climate is a necessity to identify current outdoor thermal comfort
resilience (Gunawardane et al. 2017; Stewart and Oke 2009). status and know the correlation between structural urban
Vegetation can mitigate air temperature, intercept incoming design and outdoor thermal comfort in tropical climates to
solar radiation and preventing it from penetrating into street develop climate conscious urban design guidelines (Al-Asir
canyons (Galenieks 2017; Matzarakis et al.1999; Zölch et al. et al. 2009). Further, feasibility to mitigate UHI effect by
2016). According to the Akbari et al. (2009) vegetation has inserting green infrastructure to the curb sides should be
the ability to reduce air temperature up to 5 °C by the evapo- identified. Therefore, the initial study will assess the pos-
transpiration. Improving urban micro-climate with the aid sibility to mitigate the UHI by inserting vegetation with
of green spaces can purify air, water and improve psycho- numerical computer simulation model (ENVI-met-LEON-
logical functions of city dwellers. Providing peaceful and ARDO) software developed by Michael Bruse, of the Uni-
cool environment to the city dwellers help to reduce stress, versity of Bochum, Germany (Elnabawi et al. 2013; Herath
extending elderly life span and developed social integration et al. 2017; Jeong et al. 2015; Kittas et al. 2015).
among dwellers (Nasehi and Imanpour namin 2020). The There are plenty of studies have been conducted to assess
heat index (HI apparent temperature) is an index that com- urban heat island effects and possible solutions in the world
bines air temperature and relative humidity, in shaded areas, with the numerical simulations (Khan and Chatterjee 2016;
to posit a human-perceived equivalent temperature, as how Rangarajan et al. 2019). The numerous possible sustainable
hot it would feel if the humidity were some other value in building-mitigation strategies were studied using the micro
the shade. The HI is a better indicator for assessing the risk scale numerical model, ENVI-met, utilizing microclimatic
of environmental heat sources and the places which most simulations. ENVI-met simulates the temporal variation of
vulnerable to heat strokes, heat waves and sunburns due to many micro-scale thermo physical properties, generating a
high HI are called thermal hotspots (Alahmer et al. 2011; 3D (2 × 2 × 2 grid cell in meters), non-hydrostatic model of
Anderson et al. 2013). In support of mitigation plans, iden- the relationship between building atmosphere-vegetation
tification of thermal hot spots and cold spots are significant (Berardi and Wang 2016). In the simulation methodology
and accord with land surface temperature (Mavrakou et al. there are three main stages. The organization through the
2018). file directory, Simulation parameters (microclimate data and
The temperature that measured by the thermometer, wind build elements) are modeled and edited using the plant and
speed, relative humidity and radiation are the four major surface material database to create the area input file (.INX)
meteorological factors that affect to the HI. Studies in Pune- and the simulation file (.SIM) and finally the assessment
India and Colombo-Sri Lanka showed that outdoor thermal of the outcome files (.EDT/.EDX) and their visualization
comfort expressed in the temperature – humidity index (LEONARDO).
(Pune) as well as the relative strain index (Colombo) has This paper reveals the micro-climatic changes and the
been decreased during recent decades as cities have grown outdoor thermal comfort of Colombo metropolitan area

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Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226 211

Fig. 1  Selected case studies for the research a Seafront area, b Waterfront area, c Park, d Low rise building square, e High rise building square, f
Neighborhood square

through establishing HI values. Objectives of the present Study area and data collection
study are (a) to compare HI variations in different urban
designs in Colombo metropolitan area, (b) to assess the The basic types of sites were identified as (A) neighborhood
occupants perception on outdoor thermal comfort in square, (B) low rise building square, (C) high rise building
Colombo metropolitan area, (c) to develop HI distribution square, (D) seafront area, (E) waterfront area and (F) park
map for Colombo metropolitan area, (d) to simulate the (Fig. 1) according to their design structures of surround-
effects of green infrastructure using ENVImet climate model ings. Fourteen (14) measurement sites (Fig. 2) were chosen
to minimize heat index in urban area. purposively within the city of Colombo for outdoor thermal
comfort assessment. Sites were chosen to represent densely
populated central areas in day time as well as the high-rise
Materials and methodology business areas (Table 1). Colombo city (­ WL4)1 lies on 14 m
above sea level and average wind speed is 4.5 m/s. There is
The research consists of in-situ experimental study with a a significant rainfall throughout the year (2348 mm) and the
development of HI distribution map and a questionnaire average annual temperature is around 26 °C in Colombo.
survey. In addition, a simulation study was conducted to
evaluate different green infrastructure scenarios to reduce Historical data collection
temperature in urban context with different site structures.
The study was conducted within Colombo metropolitan The mean monthly day time temperature and RH data for
region in west coast of Sri Lanka. 10-years time period (2008–2017) was collected from the
meteorological department data base of Colombo weather

1
WL4 Wet zone low country.

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Fig. 2  Study area

station. After that HI values for each month were calculated total study area covering 14 sites. Consecutive positions were
for ten-year time period. sited along each transects, in some cases appropriate spots
could not continually be established therefore some gaps were
Meteorological (temperature and RH) measurements in transects (Fig. 2) (Watkins et al. 2002). Data was recorded
in 15 min intervals near pedestrian height (1.1 m) to avoid the
Extech HT200 heat stress meter [± 1.0 °C (resolution 0.1 °C) influence of warm surfaces.
accuracy level for temperature and ± 3% (resolution 0.001%) Accuracy testing (Fig. 3) of the equipment was done using
accuracy level for Relative Humidity—RH] was used to meas- air temperature data of Extech HT200 heat stress meter and the
ure temperature and RH, morning to evening (1100–1600 h) digital temperature logger data in the department of meteorol-
during four months period; August to end November. Eight ogy—Sri Lanka.
transects were selected to mount 20 data loggers to represent

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Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226 213

Table 1  Selected sites for the thermal comfort assessment

No Location Latitude Longitude Surface Site description

1 Meteorological department 6.904805 79.872397 Grass cover Low rise building square
2 Borella 6.914114 79.876742 Concrete pavements High rise building square
3 Gallface 6.922997 79.845564 Concrete pavements with grass Seafront area
4 Maradana 6.929025 79.866249 Concrete pavements Low rise building square
5 Gangaramaya 6.917054 79.854898 Concrete pavements Waterfront area
6 Wellawaththe junction 6.875216 79.861636 Concrete pavements High rise building square
7 Narahenpita 6.896845 79.878958 Concrete pavements Low rise building square
8 Thummulla junction 6.897818 79.860606 Concrete pavements Neighborhood square
9 Viharamahadevi park 6.914199 79.860488 Grass cover Park
10 Fortrailway station 6.933024 79.850510 Concrete pavements Low rise building square
11 Liberty junction 6.910152 79.850735 Concrete pavements High rise building square
12 Maligakanda 6.960487 79.865284 Soil surface Low rise building square
13 Kirulupana 6.878411 79.877386 Concrete pavements Low rise building square
14 Jethawanaramaya temple 6.944471 79.865249 Sand surface Low rise building square

Thermal comfort assessment (quantitative

assessment)

The excel algorithm was developed based on the following

equation (Eq. 1) to calculate the HI values. The HI has an
error of ± 1.3°F since this equation was obtained by mul-
tiple regression analysis. The calculated values were com-
pared with the USA NOAA HI software values to enhance
the accuracy of the calculation.
Further, HI values published by meteorological depart-
ment of Sri Lanka (Table 2) considered as reference value
to identify the hotspots. Heat index distribution map was
developed using Arc GIS 10.1 software to visualize thermal
Fig. 3  Correlation between weather station data and Extech HT200 hotspots in the study area.
heat stress meter data (R2 = 0. 9498) Equation 1: Heat index equation (Rothfusz 1990).

Heat Index (HI) = −42.379 + (2.04901523 < < T) + (10.1433127 < < RH)
− (0.22475541 <<T < < RH) − (6.83783 << 10−3 <<T2 ) − (5.481717 <<10−2 << RH2 )
+ (1.22874 << 10−3 << T2 << RH) + (8.5282 << 10−4 << T << RH2 )
− (1.99 << 10−6 << T2 << RH2 ),

Table 2  Heat Index guidelines published by Meteorological Department of Sri Lanka

Heat Index(°C) Level of warning

27–38 Normal
39–45 Caution Fatigue is possible with prolonged exposure and activity. Continuing activity could result in Heat cramps
46–52 Extreme caution Heat cramps and Heat exhaustion are possible. Continuing activity could result in Heat stroke
> 52 Danger Danger: Heat cramps and Heat exhaustion are likely; Heat stroke is probable with continued activity

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Table 3  Considered meteorological parameters for the simulation parameters were considered in the modeling based on the
study climatic record of the Department of Meteorology—Sri
Condition Maradana Lanka.
Temporal variations of the temperature, relative
Simulating duration 12 h
humidity, wind direction and wind speed were considered
Start time 0700 h
during a day in the study period (Table 3).
Wind speed (m/s) 2.2
Wind direction 270°
Simulation of urban microclimate
RH in 2 m (%) 75
Specific humidity at model top 9
An experimental simulation study was conducted with the
Roughness length at the measuring site 0.1
intention of identify the possible temperature reduction in
Initial temperature 28 °C
different green options using ENVImet version 4.4.5 soft-
ware. ENVImet version 4.4.5 was used to create the 3D
model of selected area with deciduous plants.
where, HI is the Heat Index (°C), RH is the relative humidity
According to the Sugathapala and Jayathilake (2012),
(%), T is the temperature (ºC).
2.5 km can be used or tree planting on roadsides with 8 m
frequency in Colombo city, Sri Lanka. Further, 312 decidu-
Questionnaire surveys (qualitative assessment) ous trees would be able to sequestrate 6240 kg of maximum
­CO2 amount from the atmosphere per annum. Therefore, as
Questionnaire survey was done to assess the dwellers green options, inserting deciduous trees on curb sides were
thermal comfort and their opinion to the thermal com- consider in terms of increasing thermal comfort ability of
fort. Pretested questionnaire was carried out as face-to selected urban area which has high heat index value. Four
face interviews among the people who expose more into alternative vegetation scenarios were simulated through
outdoor environment in the similar selected regions. Their ENVImet software on the basis of these microclimate
personal opinions, awareness, comfort ability, and aware- parameters and the structure of urban morphology. Feasi-
ness of the HI were evaluated. bility of temperature reduction was tested with the software
One hundred and seventy (168) convenient samples with different green belt layouts along road sides. Four case
were considered according to purposive sampling method studies (two belts—R1, three belts—R2, four belts—R3, five
and all possible working individuals were included to belts—R4) were selected according to the available space in
denote people in different occupancy levels. Most of the the area and site characteristics (Guo et al. 2019). Outdoor
(26%) occupants were in 21–35 age category and they temperature variation throughout a day with each instance
were exposed to the outdoor environment frequently. Gen- was then analyzed and compared with existing site condi-
der variation of interviewed occupants indicated 67% of tions (Table 4).
male responses and 32% female responses for the survey. All the cases were modeled in ENVImet software into
60 × 60 × 30 grid size with five nesting grids. Plant data base
was developed with same deciduous plant for all cases with
Modeling urban microclimate trunk height (15 m), crown width (7 m), ­CO2 fixation type
­(C3), Leaf Area Density (2) and Albedo (0.18) which appro-
The simulation study was conducted to examine the effect priate to tropical climate. Simulation was run for 24 h in hot
of vegetation in the curb sides to the urban microclimate. humid day and consider day time thermal performances for
To this end the, study has found out the variations in the further discussion.
thermal comfort conditions and the heat index according
to the specific urban structure in Colombo area. Among
them highly uncomfortable area was Maradana and it Results and discussion
shows high HI value (40.35 °C). In general the profile
of the Maradana area is regarded as by inadequate veg- Historical data analysis
etated zones with constricted lanes together with con-
gested street way, source of pollutants. Microclimatic Analyses of historical variations of instrumental temperature
data from the nearby meteorological station (Department records are important for the investigation of regional effects
of Meteorology—Sri Lanka) was used for the model to of global warming (IPCC 2014). The maximum and mini-
examine how the urban microclimate is created on cur- mum HI values for the last ten decades have been observed
rent conditions and to simulate how the vegetation can respectively in April, 2016 (40.13 °C) and January, 2012
improve the thermal comfort. Relevant meteorological (30.99 °C). The reference HI value was 38 °C according to

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Table 4  Categorization of the Factor Characteristics of the site Mean HI 95% Lower
14 study locations according to value °C bound for Mean
HI values HI

Maradana Concrete pavements, low rise building square 40.35 39.44

Borella Concrete pavements, low rise building square 40.06 39.14
Fortrailway station Concrete pavements, low rise building square 39.06 38.34
Liberty junction Concrete pavements, high rise building square 38.87 38.09
Wellawaththe junction Concrete pavements, high rise building square 38.86 38.15
Narahenpita Concrete pavements, low rise building square 38.55 37.82
Kirulupone Concrete pavements, low rise building square 38.02 37.25
Gallface Concrete pavements with grass, seafront area 37.63 37.26
Jethawanaramaya temple Sand surface, low rise building square 36.38 35.73
Gangaramaya Concrete pavements, waterfront area 36.08 35.44
Maligakanda Soil surface, low rise building square 35.61 35.09
Meteorological department Grass cover, low rise building square 35.17 34.64
Viharamahadevi park Grass cover, park 34.56 34.15
Thummulla Junction Concrete pavements, neighborhood square 33.82 33.34

Fig. 4  Heat Index fluctuation in Colombo city a) Heat Index fluctuation during 2008–2017

the guideline HI values of Meteorology Department in Sri 0 and 4 °C (World bank 2020).According to the Fig. 4a there
Lanka. was an increasing trend in HI in last decade at a rate of
HI value in Colombo city for last ten decade has been 0.0165 °C. Therefore, there was a significant trend of air
fluctuating between 35 and 40 °C and the average air temper- temperature increment in future Colombo city. According to
ature of the city for last 100 years (1901–2001) was 27.25 °C the World Health Organization, over 150,000 lives annually
(Manawadu and Liyanage 2008). According to the (Jaya- are affected by the trends towards temperature (Patz et al.
wardena et al. 2018) in southern western coastal Sri Lanka 2005; Perera et al. 2020). Normally temperature variances
showed significant increasing trend in minimum tempera- have been observed in different rates in different climatic
ture during 1980–2015. Difference between maximum day zones in Sri Lanka. According to Sujeewa (2011) the high-
time temperature and minimum night time temperature has est warming rate (1.8 °C/century) at night was recorded in
been showed decreasing trend during this period. During Nuwara eliya which situated in high elevation while lowest
1986–2005 monthly temperature change fluctuates between rate (0.33 °C/century) was recorded in Colombo. Further,

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the highest day time temperature (1.65 °C/century) was

observed in coastal region and the lowest rate has been
observed in Baticalo (0.32 °C/century).
The most thermally uncomfortable month was May
(38.15 °C) and it was 0.15 higher than the reference HI value
(38 °C) (Fig. 4b). Similarly January was the most thermally
comfortable month (32.02 °C) and it was 5.98 °C lower than
the reference HI value (38 °C). The results were consistent
with previous studies and its shows over 60% of the weather
stations in Sri Lanka showed significant increasing trends
in the percentage of warm nights during past few decades
(Jayawardena et al. 2018). Several research studies (Bessah
et al. 2018; Dawit et al. 2019) around the world also sup-
ported our research results.

Thermal comfort assessment (quantitative

assessment)

According to the Steadman (1979) HI algorithm was devel-

oped by investigating the performance of different algo-
rithms using daily weather data including mean air tem-
perature, and mean RH. Most HI algorithms produce values
correlated with Steadman’s original apparent temperature.
By a procedure that depends on the assumptions, the model
is reduced to a relationship between dry bulb temperature
(at totally different humidity’s) and also the skin’s resistance
to heat and moisture transfer. Since these resistances are
directly associated with skin temperature, have a relationship
between air temperature and RH versus skin (or apparent)
temperature (Opitz-stapleton et al. 2016). As a results of
this procedure, there’s a base RH at which an understand- Fig. 5  Day Time HI values for study sites a Average day time HI val-
able temperature feel like the same air temperature. Increas- ues. b Maximum day time HI values (Reference HI value showed in
ing (decreasing) RH and temperature leads to increasing Orange color line—38 °C)
(decreasing) HI and HI will be below the air temperature
(Opitz-stapleton et al. 2016).
According to the HI equation the average HI values area. Use of asphalt roads, concrete, and bricks which
of the 14 study sites were ranged between 33.82 and have high albedo absorb solar radiation and re-emit to the
40.35 °C (Fig. 5a). The lowest HI value was observed in environment cause to increased temperature (Khan and
Thummulla junction (33.82 °C) and the highest HI value Chatterjee 2016).
was observed in Maradana railway station (40.35 °C). Further, in previous studies the HI has been used as a
According to the statistical analysis results, the HI value measure of heat exposure and for the identification of ther-
of Borella Maradana railway station, Colombo Fort, Well- mal hotspots in United States, (Zanobetti and Schwartz
watta junction and Liberty junction were significantly 2006), Europe (Michelozzi et al. 2009), Australia (Khalaj
greater (p < 0.005) than the reference HI value (38 °C) of et al. 2010), Bangladesh (Burkart et al. 2011), South Korea
Meteorology Department of Sri Lanka. Therefore, these (Kysel and Kim 2009) and South American cities (Bell et al.
locations were the thermal hotspots in Colombo metro- 2008).
politan area. When considering urban morphology in According to the Rajib et al. (2011) HI values were varied
Maradana, Borella and Colombo fort area, were consists between 42 and 50 °C and highest HI value (60 °C) showed
with concrete pavement and low rising buildings while in month May in summer. Further in tropical Vietnam the
Wellwatta junction and Liberty junction were high rise heat index in most months in a year were exceeds 32–37 °C
buildings with concrete pavements. Albedo of the con- in previous few decades (Opitz-Stapleton et al. 2016). In
struction materials (concrete) of the building, pavements Australia eat indices range between 28.8 and 31.7 °C and it
and the roads can be caused high temperature around the

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Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226 217

was range between 21.7 and 28.7 °C in Iran (Yasmeen and Questionnaire survey results (qualitative
Liu 2019). assessment)
The highest day time HI value can be observed in
Maradana railway station site followed by Borella study site. Total of 150 out of 168 occupants (89.3%) had perceived
The lowest day time HI value can be observed in Thummulla the uncomfortable thermal condition in the study sites.
junction and Viharamahadevi Park. However, the green Although this emphasize the thermal perception of the
vegetation around the road and pavement could decrease respondents, majority of participants (96%) were not aware
the thermal effects of nearby buildings and environment. about the HI parameter. According to the survey, people who
According to the Bowler et al. (2010) large parks with trees stay near Thummulla, Viharamahadevi Park and Gangarama
has cooler environment in the day time. Average day time study sites which consists with trees, grass covers and water
HI value in Gall face (37.63 °C) was less than the reference front areas were felt thermal comfort (Fig. 8). Obviously
HI value (38 °C) as cooling effect due to the sea breeze was nearby vegetation and water sources could be help in reduc-
considerable in the afternoon, especially in coastal areas ing thermal effect in the neighboring environment. Previous
(Saaroni et al. 2000). studies have been showed significant maximum reduction of
According to the maximum day time HI values (Fig. 5b) temperature in waterfront forests and waterfront impervious
only two sites (Thummulla junction and Viharamahadevi pavements between 3.50 and 2.1 °C (Shi et al. 2020).
Park) were still comfortable at their worst cases as it was not Majority of the people were felt “hot” (39.3%) during the
exceeded the reference HI value of 38 °C. Both places’ urban day time thus there was a tendency of decreased thermal
morphology rich with vegetation and grass cover may reduce comfort with increasing HI index. According to the studies
thermal uncomfortability. However, the low rise residen- of Emmanuel et al. (2007), Johansson et al. (2013), Ndetto
tial building recorded the highest day (37 °C) temperature and Matzarakis (2013) and Yahia et al. (2018) in warm-
whereas the suburban area was 34 °C in Putrajaya city (Qaid humid climates have shown that the outdoor environment
et al. 2016). According to the Qaid et al. (2016) boulevard was very uncomfortable during daytime, especially between
and the high-rise residential building were 4 °C cooler than 11:00 a.m. and 16:00 p.m. The studies by Lin et al. (2011),
the low-rise building in day time. Further, usual land surface Kántor et al. (2012), Ng and Cheng (2012) and Cohen et al.
temperature in Athens were between 39.35 and 40.92 °C and (2013) had discussed similar results with considering HI
when it becomes hotspots it has been increased nearly by values.
2 °C (Mavrakou et al. 2018). Figures 9, 10 and 11 depicts the preferred micro climatic
Following Contour map shows the HI distribution of conditions of the individuals in the study area. Majority of
Colombo area within the study period (Fig. 6). Accord- people need cooler micro climatic conditions than the cur-
ing to the map calculated HI values were divided into rent micro climatic conditions in Colombo city. Especially
eight ranges from 33.82 to 40.34 °C. The highest HI val- people who interviewed in Liberty junction, Kirulupana,
ues were concentrated within the center of Colombo city Maligakanda, Maradana, Narahenpita and Wellawaththa
including Maradana, Colombo Fort and Borella. Studies junction preferred cooler micro-environment (Fig. 9).
in Pune, India (Deosthali 2000) and Colombo, Sri Lanka All respondents except near Viharamahadevi Park, need
(Emmanuel 2005) showed that outdoor thermal comfort in shade environment than the existing conditions (Fig. 10).
Colombo, expressed in the different indices, have decreased Borella, Colomo fort, Galle face, Jethwanaramaya and Mali-
and HI value has increased during recent decades as cities gakanada need shadier environment to avoid the high heat
grown. According to the Yang and Santamouris (2018), the exposure. Preferred wind conditions in study sites changed
cities of Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai in India, Dhaka in with the site specific characteristics (Fig. 11) and respond-
Bangladesh and Colombo in Sri Lanka is becoming urban ents in coastal area (Gall face site) preferred less windy con-
heat islands. ditions and respondents in high temperature areas (Maradana
There was a significant difference of HI values between railway station) preferred high wind conditions. However,
each study sites (p < 0.005) according to the site morphology demand for lower air temperature, more shade and more
(Table 3). The highest HI value was observed at low-rise wind towards cooler climate is increased simultaneously
buildings and concrete pavements (Maradana 40.35 °C) and with the HI parameter.
the lowest HI at Thummulla area that consist with shady According to study conducted in Guayaquil, the warm-
trees (33.82 °C). The highest HI fluctuation were observed humid city of Ecuador revealed that most of the questioned
from 36.22 to 45.01 °C in Borella and the lowest one was people preferred cooler, more shade, less humidity and more
observed from 36.65 to 39.57 °C in Gall face within the wind conditions and the importance of promoting urban
study period (Fig. 7). design which creates shade and ventilation. This includes
the use of elements such as shading devices, arcades and

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218 Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226

Fig. 6  Heat Index distribu-

tion map for 14 study sites in
Colombo city

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Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226 219

Fig. 7  HI fluctuation of each study sites according to the structure

Fig. 9  Respondent preference of micro climatic conditions (Tempera-

ture)

Fig. 8  Respondents thermal perception analysis

shading trees and consider the prevailing wind direction

(Johnsson et al. 2018).
Further, Least number of people (5%) were affected with
Fig. 10  Respondent preference of micro climatic conditions (Shade)
the heat related skin diseases such as sun burns and rashes. A
similar study conducted in Europe, evidenced that high heat
exposure was correlated with mortality data and various skin Model simulation results
diseases data in 17 European countries including France,
Portugal, Spain, Italy and etc. (Di Napoli et al. 2018). Maradana urban area which consists with concrete pave-
According to Ahmadi and Baaghideh (2020) increasing air ments and low rise building squares was selected for simu-
temperature is effects the range of thermal bioclimatic niche lation study as it showed highest HI value among 14 study
for humans and its changing in terms of temporal and spatial sites, similarly it was higher than the reference HI value
aspects. (38 °C) of Meteorology Department of Sri Lanka (Fig. 12).
Previous studies on ENVImet model validation have
been done for tropical (Ghaffarianhoseini and Berardi
2015; Qaid and Ossen 2015) and sub-tropical (Gusson

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220 Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226

Albedo values of the building materials, pavements and

the roads can be caused high temperature in Maradana. Use
of asphalt and concrete infrastructures which have high
albedo values absorb solar radiation and re-emit to the envi-
ronment effect to amplified hotness (Huttner et al. 2008).
Non shaded asphalt surfaces indicated a large variance in
temperature in a range of 39.00–49.70 °C (Takkanon and
Chantarangu 2019). With the green vegetation it had been
dropped by 3.80 °C in Bangkok. Previous studies have been
proposed diverse materials for exterior surfaces with low
albedo values ranging from 0.41 to 0.77 (Levinson and
Akbari 2002; Sailor 2006). According to Priyadarsini et al.
(2008), densely located tall buildings influence the wind
velocity formerly decreased cooling effect.
Most of the buildings in this area were consists with
glass windows and causes solar radiation blocking. Long
solar wave then reflected to the environment back there-
fore, escalation high temperature inside the buildings and
Fig. 11  Respondent preference of micro climatic conditions (Wind) massive usage of air conditioners (Palomar et al. 2019).
Further, excess use of air conditioner caused increasing
temperature in the environment as it absorbing indoor heat
and Duarte 2016) environmental conditions. Another and releases it to outside (Okwen et al. 2011). Human
study in Changwon, South Korea showed R2 as 0.52 for gathering of Maradana is obvious and therefore high C ­ O2
urban context simulation and 0.69 in Toronto for humid emission is generating high thermal uncomforting (Nuruz-
continental climate (Song and Park 2015; Wang 2016; zaman 2015).
Herath et al. 2017) showed 0.78, 0.80 and 0.91 R2 val- Significant day time temperature reduction in different
ues for asphalt, cement and grass in 1.5 m height above green modeling options were showed and the peak of the
ground in Colombo—Sri Lanka. Therefore, this software temperature was recorded at “1400 h” (Fig. 14). Insert-
can be used to simulate outdoor thermal environment in ing green belts to the curb sides as 2 belts ­(R1) showed
Maradana area. maximum temperature reduction by 1.34 °C at 13.00 h
Existing condition (R) of the Maradana was modeled when compared with existing condition. The average tem-
to represent existing microclimatic conditions and mod- perature range between 30.75 and 34.64 °C. Further, R ­ 2
eled with deciduous trees in two belts ­(R1), three belts ­(R2), showed temperature variations within 30.72–34.14 °C and
four belts ­(R3), five belts ­(R4), to compare the temperature maximum temperature reduction by 1.89 °C at 13.00 h.
reduction with existing conditions (Fig. 13). Existing city Maximum temperature reduction of 2.07 °C has been
modeling (R) results average temperature between 31.52 and showed by R ­ 4 while R
­ 3 showed temperature reduction
35.88 °C while the highest temperature value of 35.88 °C by 1.97 °C when compared with existing condition (R).
at 14.00 h. Average temperature range between 31.51–34.14 °C and
30.97–33.81 °C in R ­ 3 and ­R 4 green belts, respectively.

Fig. 12  Maradana study site

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Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226 221

Fig. 13  2D view of ENVImet

3D model with different green
belts.One plate with two belts
­(R1), two plates with three belts
­(R2), three plates with four belts
­(R3), four plates with five belts
­(R4)

­ 3, ­R4 were 3.79%, 5.34%, 5.49% and 5.76%, respectively

R
when compared to existing condition.
Through comparative analysis, it is concluded that in
terms of temperature reduction in Maradana urban area,
two belts < three belts < four belts < five belts. Best tem-
perature reduction (2.07 °C) strategy for this area was five
belts of deciduous trees in roads by separating into four
plates. Temperature reduction of each green belts option
can be clearly identified by temperature contour maps
which analyzed by LEONARDO visualizing tool (Fig. 15).
It is recommended that road construction should be per-
suaded to this type of road greening planning layout to get
maximum performances of vegetation in cooling effect.
Vegetation can reduce heat in the environment by Car-
Fig. 14  Temperature reduction in different green options. Existing
(R) One plate with two belts (­R1), two plates with three belts (­R2),
bon sequestration, transpiration and photosynthesis. In
three plates with four belts ­(R3), four plates with five belts ­(R4) Vadodara city in India, vegetation in sidewalks removed
73.59 tons of ­CO2 (Kiran and Kinnary 2016). Further, the
evapotranspiration can intensify the humidity of the area.
The maximum temperature in ­R3 and R­ 4 were showed as Raise of actual amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
34.14 °C and 33.81 °C at 14.00 h. Each green belts have can increase the relative humidity and then contrariwise
been showed temperature reduction percentage of R
­ 1, ­R2, decrease the air temperature (Chen et al. 2009; Pretzsch
et al. 2015). Temperature reduction by single Celsius or in

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222 Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226

Fig. 15  Temperature profile in Maradana by LEONARDO Existing (R) One plate with two belts ­(R1), two plates with three belts ­(R2), three
plates with four belts ­(R3), four plates with five belts (­ R4)

fraction would be vital in outdoor thermal comfort boost showed temperature reduction of 0.48 °C from plant with
as it helps to reduce energy consumption year around. Out- LAD 2 and 0.58 °C reduction with LAD 5. According to
door temperature reduction by 2.07 °C in Maradana city the (Daramola et al. 2018) thermal hotspots distribution
would be reduce annual energy cost by more than $19 mil- and increase in the average Land Surface Temperature over
lion per building. According to the Konopacki and Akbari Ibadan as there was a decrease in vegetated surfaces that
(2002), 1.1 °C reduction has been shown in Houston, dampen the land surface temperature.
Texas, USA and reduce annual energy cost by $82 mil- Therefore, the study in Maradana revealed that proper land-
lion. Further, increasing vegetative area by means of LAD scape and urban planning with green belts can be intensified
causes temperature reduction as well. Kittas et al. (2015) thermal comfort of urban dwellers.

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Modeling Earth Systems and Environment (2022) 8:209–226 223

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