THIS VERSION WAS REALIZED WITH THE SUPPORT

OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR ADAPTATION TO

CLIMATE CHANGE AND STRATEGIC RISK
M A N A G E M E N T ( D ACG E R) O F T H E M I N I S T R Y O F
PUBLIC WORKS, TRANSPORTATION, HOUSING
A N D U R B A N D E V E L O P M E N T ( MO PT VD U) .

FIRST EDITION

E L S A L V A D O R , C . A ., 2 0 1 9
 Geotechnics and Seismic
Considerations Manual
with a risk management approach for road infrastructure in
Central America

Topic: Slopes

First edition, 2019

CAPITULO 1 2
 PRESENTATION

In 1997, the Sectorial Council of Transport Ministers of Central America or COMITRAN identified
the need to formulate technical regulations to enhence infrastructure resiliency in the face of
natural phenomena caused by climate change. This is to ensure and optimize the logistics of
people and goods and safeguard the safety of users and the large investments in the
construction and maintenance of road infrastructure which is key to the social and economic
development of Central America.

In this regard, priority has been given within the strategic areas addressed by COMITRAN to
reduce the vulnerability of its infrastructure with the inclusion ofclimate change adaptation
and risk management. It is important to note that, among the natural phenomena most
affecting the region are hydrometeorological, seismic and volcanic. For this reason,
COMITRAN promotes structural (infrastructure) and non-structural (technical regulations)
measures, to ensure the connectivity and development of the region.

In 2016, joint work was initiated by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA),
COMITRAN and SIECA with the main objective of developing regulations to link various
aspects of risk in the design and planning of road projects and contributing to enhance the
resilience of infrastructure before the natural phenomena appear in the Central American
region.

In this context, the Department of Adaptation to Climate Change and Strategic Risk
Management (DACGER) of the Ministry of Public Works of El Salvador and GENSAI Project
Phase II together with SIECA developed the required regulation upon the instruction of
COMITRAN abd involved geotechnical elements and seismic variables in the design and
planning of Central American’s road infrastructure.

This Manual was prepared jointly by a Central American consultant, experts from the Ministries
of Transport in the region and with the support of Japanese specialists with cooperation funds
granted by JICA office in El Salvador, to ensure the quality of this regional instrument and
countries takeing ownership of it within their government and private offices.

With the aim of supporting the reduction in the vulnerability of road infrastructure in the region,
it is a pleasure to present the "Geothechnics and Seismic Considerations Manual with a risk
management approach for road infrastructure in Central America. Topic: slopes. ", is a
technical document that countries in the region now have which serves as a conceptual
guide with geotechnical methodologies consistent with the seismic variable, to be used in the
planning stage and design of roads and slopes in the Central American road network.

1 I
 Geothenics and Seismic Considerations Manual with a Risk Management
Approach for Road Infrastructura in Central America
Topic: Slopes
This document was executed with the technical and financial cooperation of the Japan
International Cooperation Agency, JICA, through GENSAI Project Phase II, in support of DACGER
and SIECA.
Project management Melvin Enrique Redondo
General secretary, SIECA

Coordination by SIECA Roberto Carlos Salazar Figueroa

Director of Transportation, Infrastructure and Logistics
César Augusto Castillo Morales
Head of Mobility and Logistics Department

Counterpart MOPTVDU El Salvador Eliud Ayala

Minister of Public Works, Transportation, Housing and Urban Development
Emilio Ventura
Vice Minister for Public Works, MOPTVDU
William Roberto Guzmán
Director DACGER-MOPTVDU
Aleyda Montoya
Subdirector for Geotechnics DACGER-MOP
Deyman Pastora
Subdirector for Bridge and Culvert for DACGER-MOPTVDU
Alonso Alfaro
Technician DACGER-MOPTVDU
Mónica Gutiérrez
Technician DACGER-MOPTVDU
Brenda Calero
Technician DACGER-MOPTVDU

Coordination by JICA Kazuo Fujishiro

Chief Representative, JICA El Salvador
Shizuka Kamiya
Project Formulation Advisor
Dera Cortés
Program Officer
Technical Cooperation
GENSAI Project PHASE II Mikihiro Mori
Chief Adviser, GENSAI Project Phase II

Head of Consulting Alfredo Suriano Buezo

Consultant

Regional Technical Group Antonio Romero Castro Costa Rica

Ruy Dotti Sanabria Costa Rica
Mónica Gutiérrez El Salvador
Brenda Calero El Salvador
Juan Carlos Galindo Guatemala
Víctor Barrios Guatemala
Hugo Fernando Martínez Honduras
Hammerly Argueta Honduras
Marco Pérez Nicaragua
Maycol Rugama Nicaragua
Porfirio Rangel Moreno Panamá
Álvaro Chong Arosemena Panamá

Edition and Design Violeta Aguilar

Technician DACGER-MOP
Mónica Olivar
Civil Engineering Student - UES

First Edition, Year 2019

El Salvador, March 2019

1 II
 Contents
1. CHAPTER 1 GENERAL ASPECTS .................................................................................................. 15
General Aspects ........................................................................................................................ 3
Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 12
Background ............................................................................................................................. 17
Objectives................................................................................................................................ 18
Scopes ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Diagnosis ................................................................................................................................. 20
2. CHAPTER 2 PRELIMINARY ACTIONS FOR GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES ............................................. 25
Criteria to be considered by the designer before road planning............................................ 28
Surface survey of the section where the engineering work will be carried out ..................... 29
2.2.1 Identification of the section and study area ........................................................................... 30
2.2.2 Geological Recognition ........................................................................................................... 30
2.2.3 Approximate measurements in the field ................................................................................ 30
2.2.4 Location of permanent, intermittent and ephemeral streams .............................................. 32
2.2.5 Identification of mass movement sites ................................................................................... 34
Documentary Research ........................................................................................................... 38
2.3.1 Thematic Maps........................................................................................................................ 38
2.3.2 Structural maps ....................................................................................................................... 40
2.3.3 Geological structure maps ...................................................................................................... 42
2.3.4 Shapes and georeferencing. Datum 84 UTM projection ........................................................ 46
2.3.5 Landslide record ...................................................................................................................... 49
Geotechnical Study Planning .................................................................................................. 49
2.4.1 Determination of types of field soundings ............................................................................. 50
2.4.2 Test Pits ................................................................................................................................... 51
2.4.3 Quantification ......................................................................................................................... 52
2.4.4 Scope of tests for mass movements ....................................................................................... 53
2.4.5 Minimum tests proposed ........................................................................................................ 54
3. CHAPTER 3 GEOTECHNICAL STUDY FOR SLOPES ......................................................................... 55
Research in situ ....................................................................................................................... 57
3.1.1 Water Table............................................................................................................................. 58
3.1.2 Hydrogeological conditions..................................................................................................... 60
3.1.3 Lithology and geological structure .......................................................................................... 61
3.1.4 Definition of the type of failure in rock and soil ..................................................................... 73
3.1.5 Geological-geotechnical cartography at scale between 1:2000 and 1:500 ............................ 74
Test pits in weathered soils or rocks ....................................................................................... 75
Vertical or inclined probes ...................................................................................................... 80
3.3.1 Rotation probes ...................................................................................................................... 80
3.3.2 Percussion probes ................................................................................................................... 81
3.3.3 Probes with a helical auger ..................................................................................................... 85

1 III
 3.3.4
Geotechnical geological witnesses ......................................................................................... 86
3.3.5
Stratigraphy............................................................................................................................. 87
3.3.6
RQD ......................................................................................................................................... 88
3.3.7
Instrumentation for on-site geotechnical testing ................................................................... 89
Piezometers, Tests for Permeability and Flow-pass Detection .............................................. 91
3.4.1 Piezometer .............................................................................................................................. 91
3.4.2 Permeability test in drilling hole ............................................................................................. 93
3.4.3 Registration of groundwater for the detection of the flow path ........................................... 95
Surface geophysics .................................................................................................................. 97
3.5.1 Electrical methods................................................................................................................... 97
3.5.2 Seismic methods ..................................................................................................................... 98
3.5.3 Other methods ........................................................................................................................ 99
Laboratory work .................................................................................................................... 101
3.6.1 Classification of soils ............................................................................................................. 102
3.6.2 Granulometric distribution ................................................................................................... 108
3.6.3 Condition of soils: porosity, vacuum index, specific weight, humidity, Saturation grade
(others) ................................................................................................................................. 109
3.6.4 Shear strength ....................................................................................................................... 111
Contents of the geological/geotechnical study .................................................................... 112
4. CHAPTER 4 SLOPES STABILITY ANALYSIS AND STABILIZATION METHODS .................................. 117
Stability analysis .................................................................................................................... 119
4.1.1 Types of movement in mass. ................................................................................................ 119
4.1.2 Geological and geotechnical model ...................................................................................... 122
4.1.3 Methods of stability analysis of a slope ................................................................................ 124
4.1.4 Determination of the type of the instability process: conditioning factors and triggers ..... 149
Stabilization methods. .......................................................................................................... 154
Slope protection and stabilization work ............................................................................... 155
Drainage and sub-drainage work on slopes .......................................................................... 171
4.4.1 Surface drainage ................................................................................................................... 171
4.4.2 Underground drainage .......................................................................................................... 176
RMR application example ..................................................................................................... 181
5. CHAPTER 5 HIGHWAY SLOPE COUNTERMEASURES MAINTENANCE AND CONTROL ................... 183
Delimitation of the maintenance area in situ. ...................................................................... 185
Monitoring of active landslides............................................................................................. 189
Control of active landslides. .................................................................................................. 197
Erosive processes. ................................................................................................................. 203
Maintenance plan ................................................................................................................. 221
6. CHAPTER 6 RISK MANAGEMENT.............................................................................................. 232
Risk analysis........................................................................................................................... 234
Geological hazards or geohazards. ....................................................................................... 240
6.2.1 Floods .................................................................................................................................... 241

1 IV
 6.2.2 Volcanoes (pyroclastic flows, lahars, lavas ash).................................................................... 242
6.2.3 Earthquake ............................................................................................................................ 243
6.2.4 Landslides and rock falls. ...................................................................................................... 244
6.2.5 Debris/Mud flows. ................................................................................................................ 245
6.2.6 Hurricanes ............................................................................................................................. 246
7. REFERENCE SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................. 257
8. ANNEXES ................................................................................................................................ 265

1 V
 Index of Tables

Table 1.1 Summary of Main Storm Events in Central America .................................................... 5

Table 1.2 Main Seismic Events ............................................................................................................ 10
Table 1.3 Road Geohazards, by Location, Movement, and Materials Type........................ 13
Table 1. 4 Example of Road Geohazard Risk Management Strategies, by Road
Strategies.................................................................................................................................................. 14
Table 1.5 Procedure for Setting the Design SDP for Non-seismic Damage of a Road
Location. .................................................................................................................................................. 15
Table 1.6 Procedure for setting the Design PGA for Seismic Damage of a Road Location
.................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 1.7 Information provided by the countries ......................................................................... 22

Table 2. 1 Phases before geotechnical studies ............................................................................ 28

Table 2. 2 Criteria to be considered by the designer before planning the road ................ 29
Table 2. 3 Approximate measurements in the field ..................................................................... 31
Table 2. 4 Mass displacement1........................................................................................................... 34
Table 2. 5 Mass transportation2 .......................................................................................................... 34
Table 2. 6 Contact lines and basic structural symbols ................................................................ 45
Table 2.7 Determination of test types in the field ......................................................................... 51

Table 3. 1 Parameters and properties that define the terrain conditions ............................. 57
Table 3.2 Geological formations and their behavior against water ....................................... 59
Table 3.3 Type of aquifers according to their structure and operation. ................................ 59
Table 3.4 Hydrogeological parameters characteristic in geological formations ............... 60
Table 3.5 Methods of evaluation of hydrogeological parameters ......................................... 60
Table 3.6 General classification of the various geological materials for engineering ....... 61
Table 3.7 General classification of intrusive igneous rocks ........................................................ 62
Table 3.8 General classification of extrusive igneous rocks ....................................................... 63
Table 3.9 Type of metamorphic rocks ............................................................................................. 64
Table 3.10 Characteristics of sedimentary rocks........................................................................... 65
Table 3.11 Types of sedimentary rocks............................................................................................. 66
Table 3.12 Classification of residual soils.......................................................................................... 67
Table 3.13 Geological structures and geotechnical problems ................................................ 68
Table 3.14 Types of discontinuities .................................................................................................... 68
Table 3.15 Discontinuities and requirements .................................................................................. 69
Table 3.16 Description of spacing in discontinuities..................................................................... 70
Table 3.17 Description of continuity of discontinuities................................................................. 70
Table 3.18 Description of the roughness ......................................................................................... 70
Table 3.19 Opening description ........................................................................................................ 70

1 VI
Table 3.20 Classification based on the strength of the rock ..................................................... 71
Table 3.21 Approximate estimation and classification of the resistance to simple
compression of soils and rocks from field index ............................................................................ 72
Table 3.22 Description of leaks in discontinuities .......................................................................... 73
Table 3.23 Definition of the type of failure in rock and soil ........................................................ 73
Table 3.24 Cartographic representation of the basic elements in geotechnical maps .. 74
Table 3.25 Registration in soil pits ....................................................................................................... 76
Table 3.26 Sampling procedure for altered and unaltered materials.................................... 77
Table 3.27 Information for the registration of geotechnical testimony in drilling ................ 78
Table 3.28 Comparison between SPT and the angle of internal friction in granular soils . 83
Table 3.29 Comparison of soil type and resistance in granular soils ....................................... 84
Table 3.30 Shows the resistance tests in situ ................................................................................... 85
Table 3.31 Soil survey record............................................................................................................... 86
Table 3.32 Rock sounding record...................................................................................................... 87
Table 3.33 RQD values and their quality ........................................................................................ 89
Table 3.34 In situ tests: geotechnical properties and type of material .................................. 90
Table 3.35 In situ resistance tests ....................................................................................................... 90
Table 3.36 In situ deformability tests ................................................................................................. 91
Table 3.37 Format for permeability test in a drilling hole ............................................................ 94
Table 3.38 Classification of electrical methods and procedure .............................................. 97
Table 3.39 Classification of geophysical methods ..................................................................... 100
Table 3.40 Types of tests carried out in laboratory on soil and rock ..................................... 102
Table 3.41 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) ................................................................... 104
Table 3.42 AASHTO Soil classification System ............................................................................... 105
Table 3.43 Calculation to determine the group index.............................................................. 105
Table 3.44 Soil classification according to its granulometry. ................................................... 106
Table 3.45 Properties of the rock matrix and methods for its determination ...................... 106
Table 3.46 Classification of rock masses by the number of families of discontinuities ..... 107
Table 3.47 Description of the block size according to the number of discontinuities ..... 107
Table 3.48 Classification of rock masses according to the size and shape of the blocks
.................................................................................................................................................................. 107
Table 3.49 Evaluation of the degree of weathering of the rock mass ................................. 108
Table 3.50 State properties of coarse-grained soils ................................................................... 110
Table 3.51 Properties of fine soil conditions .................................................................................. 110
Table 3.52 Parameters to estimate the concentration of solids and water ....................... 110
Table 3.53 Shows the general content of a geological-geotechnical study..................... 112

Table 4. 1 Classification of mass movement types based on the recognition of the

geological factors that condition mass movements. ............................................................... 120
Table 4. 2 Forms of collapses of rock strata and numerical analysis methods, GENSAI
2018. ........................................................................................................................................................ 121
Table 4. 3 Criteria of rupture in rocky massifs and data necessary for its application..... 124

1 VII
Table 4.4 Maximum thickness of the slipped mass ................................................................... 129
Table 4.5 Geotechnical Classification RMR (Rock Mass Rating)............................................ 133
Table 4. 6 Adjustment factor for joints (F1, F2, F3) for SMR proposed by Romana (1985)
.................................................................................................................................................................. 135
Table 4. 7 Adjustment factor according to Excavation method ........................................... 136
Table 4. 8 Description of the SMR classes. .................................................................................... 136
Table 4. 9 Frequency of possible instabilities ................................................................................ 136
Table 4. 10 Suggested support method by the SMR .............................................................. 137
Table 4. 11 Values of coefficient K recommended in the pseudo-static analysis. ........... 142
Table 4. 12 Horizontal seismic coefficients for the pseudo-static method of slopes, Costa
Rica .......................................................................................................................................................... 143
Table 4. 13 Types of sites proposed by the Seismic Code of Costa Rica, 2010. (CSCR-
2010) ........................................................................................................................................................ 143
Table 4. 14 Seismic coefficient by zones for El Salvador ........................................................... 144
Table 4. 15 Effective peak acceleration coefficients Aa and Av for the Republic of
Panama .................................................................................................................................................. 144
Table 4. 16 Seismicity index for the Republic of Guatemala. ................................................. 145
Table 4. 17 Amplification factors by soil type for Nicaragua, RNC-7 .................................... 146
Table 4.16 Factor de zona sísmica para Honduras .................................................................... 147
Table 4.19 Conditioning factors and triggers of slopes ............................................................. 150
Table 4.20 Classification of landslides, presenting form and stabilization method........... 155
Table 4.21 Main works of slope protection with structure and purpose .............................. 158
Table 4.22 Critical angles in important slopes in rocks .............................................................. 159
Table 4.23 Geometric standards of cuts in small slopes according to the type of soil and
rock .......................................................................................................................................................... 160
Table 4.24 Steps to follow in the design of retaining walls to stabilize landslides .............. 162
Table 4.25 Granulometric limits for aggregate combination for shotcrete ........................ 164
Table 4.26 Design criteria for rock block trap trench ................................................................ 165
Table 4.27 Rockfall Risk Classification System (RHRS)................................................................. 166
Table 4.28 Distances that represent the lowest design value using the posted speed limit
on the damaged road section. ...................................................................................................... 168
Table 4.29 Presents methods for water removal according to the granulometry of the
soil / rock ................................................................................................................................................ 179
Table 4.30 RMR geotechnical classification example .............................................................. 182

Table 5.1 Most common exterior signs of the different types of faults. ................................ 186
Table 5.2 Control structures in mass movements. ....................................................................... 197
Tabla 5.3 Sistemas que tienden a lograr un equilibrio de masas .......................................... 198
Table 5.4 Methods that attempt to prevent infiltration and erosion. ................................... 198
Table 5.5 Systems tending to control water and its effects. .................................................... 199
Table 5.6 Containment structures. .................................................................................................. 199
Table 5. 7 Soil improvement. ............................................................................................................. 200

1 VIII
Table 5.8 Actors that produce mass movements. ..................................................................... 200
Table 5.9 Options for movement evasion..................................................................................... 202
Table 5.10 Typical gradient for cutting slopes. ............................................................................ 204
Table 5.11 Classification of erosion control treatments. ........................................................... 205
Table 5.12 Advantages and disadvantages through various types of plants. .................. 205
Table 5.13 Types of erosion that develop on the surface of a slope. ................................... 206
Table 5. 14 Treatments for the restoration of slopes by soil erosion. ...................................... 207
Table 5.15 Techniques of slope stabilization and erosion control through bioengineering.
.................................................................................................................................................................. 210
Table 5.16 Inspections of structures on slopes. ............................................................................ 222
Table 5.17 Damage record (page 1 of 2) .................................................................................... 225
Table 5. 18 Damage registration study (sheets 2 of 2) .............................................................. 226
Table 5.19 Maintenance classified by soil type on slopes with planned vegetation cover.
.................................................................................................................................................................. 227
Table 5.20 Summary of maintenance after executing seeding work (maintenance
classified by method of execution) ................................................................................................ 227
Table 5.21 For visual inspection (structures) ................................................................................. 229

Table 6. 1 Geological and meteorological processes that can cause risks....................... 236
Table 6.2 Hazard scales to landslide* ............................................................................................ 236
Table 6.3 Factors to estimate the landslide danger of a slope/hillside. ............................... 237
Table 6.4 Landslide hazard estimation of slope/hillside. ........................................................... 239

Index of Figures

Figure 2. 1 Location of streams of the first, second, and third order Source:
https://es.slideshare.net/lviasusviasus/cuencas-reconocimiento ........................................... 33
Figure 2.2 It shows a partially weathered rock plane with landslide along with the
contact. Source: Aguacatán, Guatemala .................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.3 Drain concentration in a road cutting ......................................................................... 35
Figure 2.4 Traction cracks caused by filtration and hydrostatic pressure. Taken on road
CA-14 Guatemala ................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 2.5 Concentration of fractures in road cut slope. ........................................................... 36
Figure 2. 6 Road CPA-Cope- Marta, District of La Pintada, Province of Coclé, Panama
Km 2+500 .................................................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 2. 7 Roads in Aguacatán Guatemala km 343 + 380 RN7W. ......................................... 37
Figure 2.8 Indicates the maximum slope line of a structural plane ......................................... 37
Figure 2.9 Actual dip and apparent dip ......................................................................................... 38
Figure 2.10 Types of stress in rock masses ........................................................................................ 44
Figure 2.11 Fault of normal type with the vertical maximum principal stress from top to
bottom ...................................................................................................................................................... 44

1 IX
Figure 2.12 Reverse type fault with the vertical minimum principal stress from top to
bottom ...................................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 2.13 Strike-slip fault with the vertical intermediate principal stress from top to
bottom ...................................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 2.14. Strike-slip fault indicating the angle of the principal stress about the principal
fault shear and the distance generated by other types of faults such as the Riedel (R').
Note that at 90 ° of the principal fault and the distension zone (σ3) generated. .............. 44
Figure 2.15 An anticlinal fold lying down the compression zone (σ1) ..................................... 44
Figure 2.16 graphic comparison between a global and a local ellipsoid. Source:
IDECA, 2013 48
Figure 2.17 Sliding at km 71 + 050 border El Florido, Honduras CA 11..................................... 51
Figure 2.18 Morphology of the slope of the km 71 + 050 fault of the CA 11. In the section
of 6-7 (red color) slipping slip of 2.44 m inside the road (section of 7-8). Section of 2-3
construction of pits and location of the water Table at -2.2 m and 15 m from the level of
the road .................................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 2.19 Pit with presence of water at -2.2 m depth, in clayey soil.................................... 52
Figure 2.20 Location of slope soundings. Suarez, 2009. .............................................................. 53

Figure 3. 1 Phreatic level, superficial part of a phreatic layer .................................................. 58

Figure 3. 2 Names of the water according to the state in which it is in soil .......................... 60
Figure 3. 3 Residual soil in weathered metamorphic rock. Roatán, Honduras. ................... 67
Figure 3. 4 Correlation for the Schmidt hammer between compression strength, rock
density, and rebound (Miller, 1965) .................................................................................................. 71
Figure 3. 5 Example of a diagram for the representation of geotechnical data from
drilling or testing. Source: González and others 2002. ................................................................. 75
Figure 3. 6 Process of the quartering of altered samples. Crespo, 1980. ............................... 76
Figure 3. 7 Diamond crowns. R & R perforations. .......................................................................... 81
Figure 3. 8 Long-year rotation machine 38 .................................................................................... 81
Figure 3. 9 Widia crowns. R & R perforations. ................................................................................. 81
Figure 3.10 Percussion sounding. Geotec, S de R.L. .................................................................... 82
Figure 3.11 Soil compactness, a survey conducted in Roatán, Honduras ............................ 82
Figure 3.12 Profile and lithological columns ................................................................................... 88
Figure 3.13 Process to measure and calculate the RQD. González (2002) .......................... 89
Figure 3.14 Monitoring of groundwater (piezometer) ................................................................. 92
Figure 3.15 Example of the result of the underground water register .................................... 96
Figure 3.16 Equipment for electrical probes. Courtesy of: Applied Geoscience................ 98
Figure 3.17 Electrical laying and electrode driving in electric soundings, Courtesy of
Applied Geoscience ............................................................................................................................ 98
Figure 3.18 Thrust of electrodes for electrical probes. Courtesy of Applied Geoscience 98
Figure 3.19 Classification of seismic methods. ............................................................................. 100
Figure 3.20 Plasticity Charter of Casa Grande. (González de Vallejo 2002) ...................... 103
Figure 3.21 Classification chart silty-clayey fraction AAHSTO. ................................................ 105
Figure 3.22. Soil failure criterion. González and others 2002 .................................................... 111

1 X
Figure 3.23 Failure envelope and the Mohr circle. State possible (a and b) and
impossible (c). ....................................................................................................................................... 112

Figure 4. 1 Calculation methods for slope stability analysis. Source: Own elaboration
based on Suarez, J. ............................................................................................................................. 125
Figure 4. 2 Mass divided into slices or vertical stripes on a slope. .......................................... 127
Figure 4. 3 Infinite slope, colluvium (yellow color) that slides on rocky massif (orange
color). Source: Own elaboration based on: Suárez Días, Jaime ........................................... 129
Figure 4. 4 Hypothesis n °. 3 for the location of the water Table on the slope;
corresponding to the outcrop of the same at a distance 4H from the coronation of the
slope. Source: Hoek y Bray, 1981 ..................................................................................................... 131
Figure 4. 5 Abacus n °. 3 of Hoek and Bray for circular failure in soils. .................................. 132
Figure 4. 6 Seismic location of Costa Rica. Source: Seismic Code of Costa Rica, 2010. 143
Figure 4. 7 Seismic zoning of the Republic of El Salvador, (MOP) 1997 ................................ 144
Figure 4. 8 Seismic zoning of the Republic of Guatemala, (AGIES) 2010 ............................ 145
Figure 4. 9 Seismic zoning of the Republic of Nicaragua......................................................... 146
Figure 4. 10 seismic zones of the Republic of Honduras. .......................................................... 147
Figure 4. 11 Schematic representation of a sliding block. Source: Newmark, 1965 ......... 148
Figure 4. 12 Sliding block in a fault plane...................................................................................... 148
Figure 4. 13 Classification of Surface Drainage Installations, GENSAI, 2018 ........................ 172
Figure 4. 14 Drainage channel with soil-cement mixture, GENSAI, 2018 ............................. 173
Figure 4. 15 Details of the drainage channel of Berm, GENSAI, 2018. Source: Prepared by
the authors based on the Association of Roads of Japan (JAEA), 2009. Guidelines for
cuts and earth movements in roads and stability of slopes. ISBN 978-4-89950-415-6 ...... 173
Figure 4. 16 Structural image of the drainage channel, JICA, 2018 ..................................... 175
Figure 4. 17 Drainage channel design example, JICA, 2018 .................................................. 176
Figure 4. 18 Schematic diagram of horizontal drainage efficiency, JICA, 2018 ............... 177
Figure 4. 19 Effective disposal of horizontal drainage holes, JICA, 2018 ............................. 179

Figure 5. 1 Design of control points for the monitoring of the movement of landslide.
Source: GENSAI II project contribution. ......................................................................................... 190
Figure 5.2 Direction displacement of control points in km 18.5. Source: DACGER 2012 . 190
Figure 5.3 Scheme of extensometer............................................................................................... 191
Figure 5.4 Example of extensometer fixed data set (GENSAI project/DACGER 2018) .... 191
Figure 5.5 An example of a simple deformation detection plate with an artisan
extensometer. (DACGER 2012)........................................................................................................ 192
Figure 5.6 Monitoring procedure of the simple deformation detection plate through an
artisan extensometer (GENSAI Project/ DACGER, 2018) .......................................................... 193
Figure 5.7 Deformations in S1 (DACGER 2012) ............................................................................ 193
Figure 5.8 Pipe with strain gauges. (GENSAI Project/ DACGER, 2018). ................................ 194
Figure 5. 9 Installation of the pipe meter with strain gages with groundwater level
monitoring. (GENSAI Project/ DACGER,2018) .............................................................................. 194

1 XI
Figure 5.10 An example of the guide pipe for the borehole inclinometer (GENSAI
Project/ DACGER,2018) ..................................................................................................................... 195
Figure 5.11 Monitoring of the Borehole Inclinometer (GENSAI Project/ DACGER, 2018) 195
Figure 5.12 Example of borehole inclinometer monitoring ...................................................... 196
Figure 5.13 Approaches to tackle the problem of slope erosion. ......................................... 210

Figure 6. 1 Alteration profile of residual soil and basal rock. ................................................... 237
Figure 6.2 Course and dip of a geological formation. ............................................................. 239
Figure 6.3 Relation between the dip of discontinuities and the inclination of the slope.
.................................................................................................................................................................. 239
Figure 6.4 Flood due to channel change due to storm 12E, Usulután Salinas Sisiguayo, El
Salvador 2012 (MOP El Salvador) .................................................................................................... 241
Figure 6.5 San Miguel volcano in El Salvador. (MOP El Salvador).......................................... 242
Figure 6.6 View of the lahars from the Volcano of Guatemala (General Directorate of
roads, Guatemala.) ............................................................................................................................ 243
Figure 6.7 Landslide induced by earthquake in "La Leona" Curve CA-01. 2001. El
Salvador (MOP El Salvador) .............................................................................................................. 244
Figure 6.8 Collapse of rocks induced by rains on the national route RN-15. June 2018.
(MOP El Salvador) ................................................................................................................................ 244
Figure 6.9 Road landslide to the turns, Chalatenango 2016. (MOP El Salvador) .............. 245
Figure 6.10 Debris flow in Joateca, El Salvador 2018. (MOP El Salvador) ............................ 246

1 XII
 ABBREVIATIONS

AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

AENOR: Spanish Association for Standardization and Certification
AGIES: Guatemalan Association of Structural and Seismic Engineering
ASTM: ASTM International

ASIA: Salvadoran Association of Engineers and Architects.

BCR: Cost-benefit Ratio
CEPAL: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean.
CEPREDENAC: Center of Cordination for the Prevention of Disasters in Central
America and Republic of Dominica
COMITRAN: Sectoral Council of Central American Transport Ministers
CPTU: Static Penetration Test (CPT, Cone Penetration Test) with Interstitial
Pressure Measurement (CPTU)
DACGER: Department of Adaptation to Climate Change and Strategic Risk
Management
DIN: Deutsches Institut für Normung. German Standards Institute.
GTR: Regional Technical Group
IDECA: Spatial Data Infrastructure for the Capital District
IGN: National Geographic Institute
JICA: Japan International Cooperation Agency
NCDC: National Center for Climatic Data, United States Department of
Commerce
NHC: National Hurricane Center of the United States
NSE: Structural Safety Standards
MOP: Ministry of Public Works
MOPTVDU: Ministry of Public Works, Transportation, Housing and Urban
Development
NPV: Net Present Value
PGA: Peak Ground Acceleration
RMR: Rock Mass Rating. Geo-mechanical classification index of rock masses
according to Bieniaswki.

RQD: Rock Quality Designation.

SDP: Safety Degree of probability
SEGOB: Secretary of Government
SGG: Geological Society of Guatemala
SMR: Slope Mass Rating. Slope method proposed by Romana from the RMR.
SIECA: Secretariat of Central American for Economic Integration.

1 XIII
USAID: United States Agency for International Development.
USGS: United States Geological Survey
USD: United States Dollar

1 XIV
1. CHAPTER 1 GENERAL ASPECTS

CHA-06, Section Las Vueltas, Ojo de Agua, Chalatenango, El Salvador

 MANUAL DE CONSIDERACIONES GEOTÉCNICAS Y SÍSMICAS PARA LA INFRAESTRUCTURA VIAL CENTROAMERICANA

General Aspects

Road infrastructure consititutes an essential basis for the performance of national and
regional economies, as it affects logistics and the flow of passengers. Roads generate
various significant economic and social benefits.

The economic benefits generated by roads include providing producers access to

consumers and giving consumers the opportunity to buy a higher quantity and quality
product, thus encouraging the growth of the production sector. Socially, road
infrastructure provides connectivity to markets, schools, hospitals and emergency care,
leisure locations, and other conveniences.

During catastrophic disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis or storms, roads have

functions as evacuations routes and for emergency logistics. In the worst scenario, such
as extensive damages along the Pacific coast by the tsunami, inland road networks are
key for resilient recovery. The viewpoints on establishing redundant road network
against natural disasters are important as well.

As stated above, construction of a safe and secure road network is required against
geohazards, which are “events caused by geological, geomorphological, and climatic
conditions or processes which represent serious threats to human lives, property, and
the natural and built environment” (Solheim et al. 2005“International Centre for
Geohazards (ICG): Assessment, Prevention, and Mitigation of Geohazards” Norwegian
Journal of Geology 85: 45–62). They cover almost all hazards affecting road
infrastructure, such as slope slides, slope collapses, earth flows, debris flows, floods,
erosion, and seismic motions. Most geohazards are linked to climate activity such as
rainfall. In Central America, recent climatic changes have increased the intensity of
rainfall and wind rate of storms, increasing geohazard events such as slope
collapse/slide, debris or earth flows, and floods. Through their effects on the road
system, geohazards damage infrastructure, threaten lives and livelihoods and cause
secondary impacts such as disrupting traffic and water and energy supply services.

Road geohazard damage occurs non-seismic events such as mainly storm events, and
from seismic events.

Non-seismic events have a high probability of occurrence (even less than 1.1 - 10-year
return period storm event) and small damage levels (mostly less than one-lane width
road closure or less than a day of inundation). Some of the deep slope slides and road
subsidence/sinkholes occur during the annual peak of groundwater level after the
raining season from December to January or some-days or months after a heavy rainfall
event. Rockfalls or some slope collapses sometimes occur without any trigger of rainfall,
but just through slope loosening or weathering.

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Seismic events have a low probability (10-500 years or more return period of PGA: peak
ground acceleration), but with most substantial damage levels on roads infrastructure,
full-width road closure due to deep slope-side, bridge collapse, and continues damage
on coastal roads due to Tsunamis.

As shown in Table 1.1, from 2009 to 2011, intense storm events were hitting Central
America. It seemed to have calmed after 2011. Considering the historical ranking of
Atlantic Hurricane regarding pressure, Maria in 2017 (which did not make landfall or
cause damage in Central America) and Michael in 2018 were in the top eleven
rankings. Potential of intense storm events are high as of 2 years ago to the present
(HURADAT1).

Storms that had hit Central America are divided into those occurring in the Atlantic
Ocean and those in the Pacific Ocean. The case ratio of a storm originating from the
Pacific Ocean in the last 20 years (1999-2018) was around 40%. Storms from the Pacific
Ocean, even those that did not develop into hurricanes (defined as more than
119km/hour maximum wind rate), are characteristically of long-term rainfall with big
rainfall amount for an event, due to the slow movement of the storm center, causing
flow-type geohazard such as flood or debris flow, and slope collapse/slides.

The hurricanes from the Atlantic Ocean make landfall at the northern latitude of 14
degrees or more (Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belies, or Mexico) in the
Caribbean Sea. Its occurrence is from late September to early November (excluding
Alex on 25 June 25- 2 July 2010).

Tropical Storm/Depression from the Pacific Ocean causes landfalls at north latitude of
13 degrees or more (Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico). They occur from
late May to early July, and late September to early November.

1
HURADAT: Atlantic hurricane best track (National Hurricane Center; Hurricane Research Division, USA)

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Table 1.1 Summary of Main Storm Events in Central America

A period from
Storm
formation to Summary of Damages
Event/Origin
dissipation
14-24 Sept. 1974 Hurricane Fifi / Passed along the northern coast of Honduras,
Atlantic Ocean made landfall on the southern part of Belize and
crossed the central part of Guatemala from west to
east (NHC).
Most of the damages occurred in Honduras, where
there were between 8,000 - 10,000 fatalities (NCDC
2013).
September 18 - Hurricane Paul Made Landfall at the El Salvador/ Guatemala
September 30, 1982 /1982/ Border in a north-northeast direction but suddenly
Pacific Ocean veered to the east and returned to the Pacific
Ocean again (NHC).
Five days of rainfall caused severe flooding and
slope collapse/slide. Throughout Central America,
at least 1,432 people were killed, with most of the
fatalities occurring in El Salvador and Guatemala
(NHC).
22 Oct. – 9 Nov. 1998 Hurricane Mitch Made landfall on the northern coast of Honduras
/Atlantic Ocean and passed through the Pacific coastal areas of El
Salvador and Guatemala (NHC).
There were over 11,000 fatalities in Central America,
with over 7,000 in Honduras alone due to
catastrophic flooding (NCDC 2013).

Damage on Road Infrastructure:

Costa Rica (CEPAL 2013)
Total losses: USD 24 million.
Road damages: over 1,300 km of roads
Bridge damages: more than 126 bridges
Culvert damages: more than 1,000 culverts
El Salvador (CEPAL 2013)
Total losses: USD 850 million
Damaged paved roads: 1,308 km
Damaged unpaved roads: 2,665 km
Bridge collapses: 2
Nicaragua (CEPAL 2013)
Total losses: USD148 million
Damaged paved roads: 1,104 km
Bridge collapses: 22
Bridges with structural damage: 49
Bridges with damage in its ramparts access: 26
Honduras (CEPAL 2013)
Total losses: USD 525 million for damages on road
infrastructure both on direct road infrastructure and
indirectly on parked automobiles.

17-21 May 2005 Hurricane Made landfall along the Gulf in Fonseca in
Adrian/Pacific Honduras, moved in the northwest direction from
Ocean the Pacific Ocean before dissipating several hours
later (NHC).

Damage on road Infrastructure:

El Salvador (Government of El Salvador)
Total losses: USD 12 million for road infrastructure.

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A period from
Storm
formation to Summary of Damages
Event/Origin
dissipation
Numerous road damages occurred through slope
fall/ collapse/slide, flash floods, and fallen trees.
Honduras (Government of Honduras)
Only minor road flooding was reported.
1-5 Oct. 2005 Hurricane Stan/ Made landfall in the east coast of Mexico’s
Atlantic Ocean Yucatan Peninsula from the Caribbean Sea in a NEE
direction, traversing the peninsula to the Gulf of
Mexico, and made landfall again in an SW direction
at the northwest base of the Yucatan Peninsula,
and dissipated in the Mexican Plateau (NHC).

Fatalities occurred in: Costa Rica - 1, El Salvador -

72, Guatemala - 1,513, and Honduras - 6. Total
losses were: Costa Rica – USD 20 million, El Salvador
USD 356 million, Guatemala USD 988 million, and
Honduras – USD 100 million (per government).

Damage on Road Infrastructure:

El Salvador (Government of El Salvador)
Damaged National Highways: 4,680 km
Bridge collapses: 2
Locations of road closures: 12, with one at CA1 near
San Salvador.

4-10 Nov. 2009 Hurricane Ida/ Made landfall northeast coast of Nicaragua on the
Atlantic Ocean Caribbean Sea, turned north and exited to the
Caribbean Sea on the northeast coast of Honduras
(NHC). The damage was the effect of Tropical
Depression E96 which had originated from the
Pacific Ocean.
Fatalities were in El Salvador with 199.
Total losses were: Costa Rica - USD20 million, El
Salvador - USD244 million, Nicaragua - USD2 million
(per government).

El Salvador (Government of El Salvador)

Bridge damages: 55
Locations of road closures:132
29 May – 1 Jun 2010 Tropical Storm Made landfall near the Guatemala -Mexico border
Agatha/Pacific on the Pacific coast in a north-east direction and
Ocean disappeared in Mexico at the base of the Yucatan
Peninsula (NHC).
Fatalities occurred in: El Salvador - 13, Guatemala -
174, Honduras – 18, and Nicaragua - 1.
Total losses were: El Salvador - USD112 million,
Guatemala - USD982 million, and Honduras - USD19
million.
El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras declared
states of Emergency in each country.

Damage on Road Infrastructure:

El Salvador (Government of El Salvador)
Locations of road damages: 53
Bridge collapses: 8
Bridge damages: 45

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A period from
Storm
formation to Summary of Damages
Event/Origin
dissipation
Guatemala (Government of Guatemala)
Locations of road damages: 42
A deep sinkhole occurred at a street in Guatemala
City with 15 fatalities.
25 Jun – 2 Jul 2010 Hurricane Alex Made landfall in Belize and crossed in a west-
/Atlantic Ocean northwest direction to the Mexico/Guatemala
border in the Yucatan Peninsula and exited to the
Gulf of Mexico (NHC).
Fatalities occurred in: El Salvador - 6, Guatemala - 2,
and Nicaragua - 6.
Total losses in USD was USD 21 million in El Salvador.

Damage on road Infrastructure:

El Salvador (Government of El Salvador)
Locations of road damages: 12
Bridge collapses:2
Bridge damages:5
Guatemala (Government of Guatemala)
Location of road damages: 81
23-26 Sept. 2010 Tropical Storm Made landfall in the northern coast of Honduras in a
Mathur /Atlantic west-northwest direction, passed to the Caribbean
Ocean Sea and made landfall again at the southern part
of Belize. It crossed the northern part of Guatemala
in a west-northwest direction and passed Mexico
before disappearing. (NHC).
Fatalities occurred in El Salvador – 3.
Total losses in El Salvador was USD27 million
(Government of El Salvador).

Damage on Road Infrastructure:

El Salvador (Government of El Salvador)
Locations of road damages:12
bridge collapse: 1
bridge damage:1
12 Oct. 2011 Tropical Declared as a tropical depression only on 12
Depression 12E October, but the area of weather disturbance
/Pacific Ocean formed on 6 October and affected Central
America until late 13 October. Made landfall in the
Guatemala/Mexico border along the Pacific
Ocean from south to north and dissipated in the
West Sierra Madre Mountain Range (NHC).
Fatalities occurred in: El Salvador - 35, Honduras - 9,
Nicaragua – 5.
Damage in El Salvador was USD243 million (each
government)

Damage on Road Infrastructure:

El Salvador (Government of El Salvador)
Damages on roads: 41
Bridge collapses:8
Bridge damages:41
The total loss in road infrastructure was USD205
million, out of which USD172 million were for roads
and USD33 million for bridges.
Nicaragua (Government of Nicaragua)

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A period from
Storm
formation to Summary of Damages
Event/Origin
dissipation
Bridge collapses:6

20-26 Nov. 2016 Hurricane Made landfall in southeastern Nicaragua at

Otto/Atlantic approximate 19km of the Nicaragua-Costa Rica
Ocean cross border and passing the border (historical first
over to the Hurricane hit Cost Rica). The hurricane exited on the
Pacific Ocean Eastern Pacific near the Gulf of Papagayo, Puerto
Sandino Nicaragua (NHC).

Nicaragua (Government of Nicaragua)

Fatalities 4, missing person 5
Costa Rica (Government of Costa Rica)
Fatalities 10, total losses - USD192 million
4-9 Oct. 2017 Hurricane Made landfall in northeastern Nicaragua, moved
Nate/Atlantic northeast into Honduras and went out to the
Ocean Caribbean Sea at the southeast of Honduras, and
passed Yucatan Channel, Central Gulf of Mexico,
and then landfall into USA (NHC).
Fatalities (missing persons) occurred in: Costa Rica-
14, Guatemala-5 (3), El Salvador - 1, Honduras –
3(3), and Nicaragua-16(1), Panama-7 (each
government).
Road in Costa Rica (Government of Costa Rica)
117 road locations were affected, out of which 40
were not passable.
7-16 Oct. 2018 Hurricane Made landfall northwestward on the northeastern
Michael/Atlantic coast of Nicaragua, exited to the Caribbean Sea
Ocean from the northeast coast of Honduras, turned
northward, passed the Yucatan Strait and made
landfall in the USA (NHC).

Fatalities occurred in: El Salvador - 3, Honduras - 8,

and Nicaragua - 4 (each government)

Source: CEPAL: Economic Commission for Latin America and Caribbean, CEPAL 2013: Assessment of the
Damage Caused by Hurricane Mitch, NCDC: National Climatic Data Center, US Department of
Commerce, NCDC 2013: The Dead List Atlantic Hurricane Since 1780, NHC: National Hurricane Center of
the United States, NHC1995: National Hurricane Center of the United States.

Table1.2 shows the main seismic events (magnitude of more than 7.0 or fatalities 100 or
more from 1968-2018 (50 years).

"The area along the Pacific Ocean is within the orogenic zone of the Pacific Rim with
seismic and volcanic activities. Earthquakes in Central America can be classified
according to its hypocenter and is discussed below. Due to the attenuation of the
distance from the hypocenter, collapse of bridges is a rare case, but due to the fragile
volcanic geology, the sliding of slopes with deep fault is induced.

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A well-known example is the landslide in Las Colinas in the city of Santa Tecla which
was induced by the El Salvador earthquake of January 2001. The landslide was
generated by the paleosol (very degraded soil of volcanic origin) which was extremely
weakened by its saturated condition and covered by a young, permeable and vitreous
pyroclastic flow that triggered a deep and deadly landslide."

Type-S: Subduction zone earthquake in the Pacific Ocean (5 examples))

In the Pacific Ocean, seismic activity origin is an ocean trench earthquake with
subduction of the boundary. Five (5) examples have epicenter ranging from 16 – 72 km
offshore in the Pacific Ocean with the depth of the hypocenter ranging from 24 – 82 km.

Type-S_CO/PA: The boundary of the Cocos/Panama plates has no example.

Type-S_CO/CA: The boundary of the Cocos/Caribbean plates has four examples in El

Salvador and Nicaragua. The January 2001 El Salvador earthquake caused the Las
Colinas landslide, which had a head scarp of 100m width with moving soil distance of
750 min, Santa Tecla had peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 468 gals, and Boulevard
Sur road in Santa Tecla had full-width closure of 800m length. The 1992 Nicaragua
earthquake caused a tsunami reaching heights of up to 9.9 meters about 1000m from
the normal coastline at Masachapa.

Type-S_CO/NA: The boundary of the Cocos/North American plates has one example,
the 2012 Guatemala earthquake, which caused serious damage on the Pan-American
Highway.

Type-OTF: Ocean transforms fault zone earthquake in the Caribbean Sea (two
examples). Seismic origin in the Caribbean Sea was in the boundary zone of the
Caribbean plate and North American plates, which was the Swan Islands Transform
Fault in the Cayman Trench. There are two examples: the 2009 Honduras Earthquake
and the 2018 Swan Islands Earthquake, both of which had the depth of the hypocenter
at 10 km, affecting mostly Honduras. Both cases had tsunami warnings issued, but there
was no observation of high tide.

Type-I: Inland earthquake (6 examples). Inland earthquakes had occurred in the plate
boundary zones of the Caribbean/Panama plates in Costa Rica (2 examples) and
Caribbean/North American plates in Guatemala (1 example); inland earthquakes in
the crust of the Caribbean Plate in El Salvador (2 examples) and Nicaragua (1
example). The depths of the hypocenters were mostly 5 – 10 km, excluding the 2012
Costa Rica earthquake which had a depth of 40.8 km, which was possibly the
subduction zone earthquake in the Pacific Ocean even if it was inland of the Nicoya
Peninsula and on the boundary zone of the Caribbean/Panama plates. These three

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examples were the deadliest earthquakes in 50 years from 1968-2018 because these
were shallow and occurred directly underneath a densely inhabited district.

Type-I_CA/PA: Inland earthquake (Continental/oceanic convergent boundary of

Caribbean/ Panama plates) has two examples in Costa Rica and affecting Panama.

Type-I_CA/NA: Inland earthquake (continental rift boundary of the Caribbean/North

American plates) along the active Polochic-Motagua Fault System has one example in
the 1976 Guatemala earthquake which was the deadliest earthquake with around
23,000 fatalities.

Type-I_CRCA: Inland earthquake (crust on Caribbean Plate) occurred inland in the

Pacific Ocean side and had three examples. The 1972 Nicaragua earthquake was the
second deadliest earthquake with between 4,000 - 11,000 fatalities. The 1986 San
Salvador earthquake was the third deadliest with between 1,000 - 1,500 fatalities.

Table 1.2 Main Seismic Events

The magnitude of 7.0 or more, or fatalities of 100 or more in the last 50 years from 1969
Name of event/
Country date of the Seismic Features Summary of Damages
Event/Epicenter
Costa Rica 1991 Limón earthquake (or Type-I_CA/PA, No. of fatalities: 127 (48 in
Bocas del Toro earthquake in M7.7, 10 km Costa Rica, 79 in Panama’s
Panama) / 22 Apr 1991/ depth Bocas del Toro Province)
9.685°N 83.073°W Pandora, Roads and bridges between
Valle La Estrella, Limon the port town of Puerto Limón
Province Costa Rica and the border town of Sixaola
were destroyed.
The earthquake caused a
circa 3-meter tall tsunami

2012 Costa Rica earthquake/ Type-I_CA/PA No. of fatalities: 2

5 Sept 2012/ 9.996°N 85.318°W, M7.6, 15.4 km
in the Nicoya Peninsula, 11km depth
east of Nicoya, 24 km inland (Government of
from the Pacific Ocean Costa Rica)
El Salvador 1982 El Salvador earthquake/ Type-S_CO / CA, No. of fatalities: 8
19 Jun 1982/13.31°N 89.34°W, 6.0 (International Total loss: US$5 million
Pacific Ocean 17 km offshore Seismicological
Centre) M7.0, 82
km depth

1986 San Salvador earthquake/ Type-I_CRCA, No. of fatalities: 1,000-1,500

10 Oct 1986/ M5.4, 7.3km No. of houses damaged:
13.35 ° N 89.34 ° W, depth 60,000
East foot of the San Salvador Total losses: US$1,781 million
volcano, San Salvador.

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Name of event/
Country date of the Seismic Features Summary of Damages
Event/Epicenter
2001 El Salvador earthquake/ Type-S_CO / CA, No. of fatalities: 844 (585 due to
13 Jan 2001/ 12.83 ° N 88.79 ° M7.6, 39 km the Las Colinas landslide in
W, Pacific Ocean 16 km depth. Santa Thecla, Santa Tecla City
offshore of the Usulután PGA: La Libertad reported 750 fatalities or more)
Department. -1109 gal; Santa No. of houses damaged:
Tecla 486 gal 108,226
Total losses: US$1,781 million
Location with road damages:
more than 16,000.
2001 El Salvador earthquake Type-I_CRCA, No. of fatalities: 315
13 Feb 2001/ 13.64 ° N 88.94 ° M6.6, 13 km CA1 had full width closed due
W, Cojutepeque depth to about 500 thousand m3 soil
movement with the depth of
soil covering the road of about
16m
Guatemala 1976 Guatemala earthquake/4 Type-I_CA/NA, No. of fatalities: 23,000
Feb 1976/ M 7.5, 5 km
15.32°N 89.10°W depth Motgua
The northeastern part of the Fault
country. The closest town was
Las Amates in the Izabal
department.
2012 Guatemala earthquake/4 Type-S_CO/NA, No. of fatalities: 42
Nov 2012/ M7.4, 24.1 km The Pan-American highway
13.987°N 91.965°W depth was damaged
The Pacific Ocean, 21 km The Guatemalan president
offshore, roughly 35 km south of declared a 30-day “state of
Champerico, a port and calamity” for the most
beach town in the Retalhuleu affected departments. It was
department in southwestern subsequently extended to 25th
Guatemala. July 2013.
Honduras 2009 Honduras earthquake/ Type-OTF, M7.3, No. of fatalities: 7
28 May 2009/16.73°N 86.22°W, 10km depth Democracia Bridge on CA13
Just north of Honduras’ Bay across the Ulúa river in El
Islands, Caribbean Sea, 30 km Progresso access to San Pedro
from Port Royal Roatan. Sula damaged due to
subsidence /liquefaction.
2018 Swan Islands earthquake Type-OTF, M7.6, No. of fatalities: 0
/10 Jan 2018/ 17.469°N 10km depth Road embankment failure
83.520°W, Caribbean Sea,
44 km East of Great Swan
Island in the Yucatan Basin.
Nicaragua 1972 Nicaragua earthquake/ Type-I_CRCA, No. of fatalities: 4,000-11,000
12 Dec 1972/12.18°N 86.22°W M6.3, 10 km
In Lake Managua of Managua depth
City side, 28 km from the city
center.
1992 Nicaragua earthquake/ Type S-CO/CA, No. of fatalities: 116 including
2 Sept 1992/ 11.742°N M7.7, 45 km those from Costa Rica, mostly
87.340°W, the Pacific Ocean 72 depth due to the tsunami reaching
km offshore of the coast of heights of up to 9.9 meters,
Leon. reaching 1,000 m from the
normal coastline at
Masachapa.

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Name of event/
Country date of the Seismic Features Summary of Damages
Event/Epicenter
2014 Nicaragua earthquake/ Type S-CO/CA, No. of fatalities: 3 in El Salvador
13 OCT 2014/12.576°N M7.3, 40 km
88.046°W, the Pacific Ocean 51 depth.
km offshore of Nicaragua’s
Pacific coast, approximately 42
km west-southwest of the town
of Jiquilillo.
M: Magnitude. PGA: Peak ground cancelation in gal or cm/s2
Source: STACAweb (www.stacaweb.org): Early Warning System for Central America. (Additional
information / modified by the government of each country, USGS: United States Geological Survey.

Concepts

Classification of road geohazards

Road geohazard damage in Central America can be classified as proposed in Table

1.3. For simplification of terminology, road damage includes collapse and temporary
traffic disturbances with no damage to road infrastructure such as inundation. This
classification addresses the typical types of geohazard adversely affecting roads,
categorizing them based on the combination of location, movement, and the
materials involved.

The road location refers to a geographically distinguishable portion of the road

normally less than 1 kilometer. The road locations with slopes are classified into road
location with mountainside slope and road location with valley side slope.

The standard risk management method is different for each type of movement,
location, and material involved in a geohazard affecting a road infrastructure. This
technical manual focuses on slopes with “mountainside fall or collapse,” “valley-side
collapse,” and “slide” considering non-seismic risk such as storm impacts, and seismic
risk.

Flow-type geohazard such as debris flow and inundation are covered in another
manual, “SIECA/COMITRAN/JICA 2016: Hydrologic and Hydraulic Technical
Consideration Manual for Road Infrastructure in Central America”.

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Table 1.3 Road Geohazards, by Location, Movement, and Materials Type

Road
Material factors structures
Location and (e.g.,
movement bridge, Remarks
type Soil road
Bedrock Water embankme
Debris Earth
nt)

Fall from the

Rockfall or Collapse of
mountainside Debris collapse Earth collapse N/A
collapse structures
or collapse

Collapse of the Provide

valley side or Rock collapse Debris collapse Earth collapse Collapse of technical
N/A
erosion of the or river erosion or river erosion or river erosion structures procedure in this
river manual

Slide of
road
Slide Rock slide Debris slide Earth slide N/A embankme
nt/ bridge
foundation
Provide
technical
Flash flood procedure in
Flow N/A Debris flow Earthflow or N/A another
inundation hydrologic/
hydraulic
manual

Road
subsurface
Subsurface
N/A N/A N/A N/A erosion
erosion
(sinkhole/
settlement)

Seismic motion
including Collapse of
N/A N/A N/A N/A
liquefaction, structures
tsunami

Source: Own elaboration, GENSAI Project Phase II JICA

Note: The classification limits of the risk movement and the types of materials are transitional. Some
damages involve complex types of risks.

Basic concepts of road geohazard risk reduction

Geohazard risk reduction for new roads is to avoid costly locations for new road
alignments through proper planning to avoid cost overruns, construction delays, and
costly operation and maintenance. It can also help manage the negative social and
environmental impacts of new roads and to plan the new road functions in
coordination with local geohazard mitigation objectives.

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Geohazard risk management for existing roads involves identifying and prioritizing
important road locations to plan viable risk reduction measures and implement the
measures by priority using indicative feasibility indexes such as benefit-cost ratio (BCR)
or net present value (NPV).

Strategies for the different risk management level of roads

Risk management levels change by road strategies as appropriately shown in Table 1.4.

Table 1. 4 Example of Road Geohazard Risk Management Strategies, by Road Strategies

Stages Expected measures for
Strategically important roads Ordinary Roads
High volume
Low to medium volume
No detour or alternative roads
Existence of detour or alternative road
Strategically important (e.g., logistic
corridors connecting ports, airports to No strategic importance
main cities; designated emergency
logistic or evacuation route)
Institutional Designation as an important strategic No designation as a strategically
setup road. important road
Concept Functioning under all weather Acceptance of traffic suspension under
conditions. abnormal weather conditions

Design/ A higher level of design safety degree Ordinary level of design safety degree
Construction of probability (SDP) against geohazard, of probability (SDP) against geohazard,
utilizing indicative feasibility index. utilizing indicative feasibility index.
Operation and Functionally operational even under Temporary road closing is a
Maintenance extreme weather such as during storms. precondition for efficient road
geohazard risk management. An
efficient recovery maintenance system
(staffing, machinery, etc.) are required
to be set up
Source: Own elaboration

Promotion of projects for road geohazard risk reduction utilizing integrated

consideration of non-seismic and seismic risk reduction

This manual summarizes technologies for non-seismic hazards such as storms, and
seismic hazards on road slopes. The main purposes of this manual are to promote
efficient investments for geohazard risk reduction on roads by providing risk estimation
and indicative cost-benefit analysis results. Most measures contribute to risk reduction
for both non-seismic and seismic causes: slope protection measures,
structure/foundation reinforcement, groundwater drainage works for ground stability
and road geohazard information system. The effect of these measures is evaluated as
the increase in the Safety Degree of Probability (SDP) in years or a return period of

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geohazard damage events on a road location. The annual risk reduction benefits of a
road location can be estimated as the total of non-seismic and seismic risk reduction.
Effective risk reduction investments for both non-seismic and seismic risks show high
investment efficiency and is expected to be promoted.

The risk is estimated as the integral of the probability and potential loss due to road
damage events of a location, such as potential annual loss under the current situation
(currency per year).

First, evaluate the risk of a road location and then design based on the safety degree
of probability (SDP) as the risk reduction target. The SDP is expressed as occurrence
probability in years or return period (years), which is inverse of the annual exceedance
of probability (%/year).

We can calculate using the design SDP the potential annual loss with planned
measures (currency per year) and annual risk reduction benefits as the difference of
the potential annual loss under the current situation minus the planned measures.

Table 1.5 shows the risk reduction target = Safety Degree of Probability (SDP) for Non-
Seismic damage to a road location.

Table 1.5 Procedure for Setting the Design SDP for Non-seismic Damage of a Road Location.
Geohazard
Design SDP for non-seismic road damage
Type
Mountainside fall (1) Maximum SDP of assumed fall or collapse event with measures designed for
or collapse slope stability (e.g., removal of unstable geo-materials, slope protection) or
road protection (e.g., barriers, shelters).
Valley-side (2) The expected number of years of road damage occurrence is estimated as
collapse or the assumed annual rate of expansion of slope failures with measures designed
erosion at the road valley-side.
(3) The hydrological return period for events with measures designed where the
peak flow rates/flow speed of flow-type geohazards (floods, debris flows, etc.)
exceed the flow capacity/hydraulic resistance capacity of the stream.
Slide (4) The probability of slide activation obtained from the following conversion
formula for design Factor of Safety (FoS) for slide-type geohazard.

SDP = 500 x (FoS - 1) *

where
SDP: Safety Degree of Probability (years)
FoS: Factor of Safety as the resistance force divided by the sliding force.
Flow Same as (3) above
Source: Own elaboration, GENSAI Project phase II JICA
Note: (*) Since there is no standard method for converting FoS to SDP, the formula was initially proposed by the JICA
Expert Team for Project GENSAI 2. It is an empirical formula proposed from Japanese cases, not mandatory to follow.
Simply set FoS = 1.2 which is equal to 100-years probability and set FoS = 1 to 0-year probability. FoS = 1.2 is the common
target FoS for slide type slope problems for major arterial roads and cases where slips occur again after a measurement
is very rare. FoS = 1.2 was assumed to be equivalent to 100-years probability, taking into consideration the fact that no
safety case had been verified for more than 100-years after the measures, the unforeseen cases on the natural
conditions for design and quality in the construction have been taken into consideration.

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Table 1.6 shows the design peak ground accretion (PGA) for seismic road damage of a
road location. The design PGA can be converted to the design SDP by using another
analysis result of the PGA-return period of a location.

Table 1.6 Procedure for setting the Design PGA for Seismic Damage of a Road Location
Geohazard Type Design PGA for seismic road damage
Mountainside fall or (1) critical PGA obtained from seismic slope stability analysis for the
collapse countermeasure target geo-materials
Valley-side collapse Same as (1) above

Slide Same as (1) above

Flow (2) Countermeasure target PGA with the scenario of geo-materials
fall/collapse/slide into the stream resulting in flow-type geohazard at the
downstream crossing with the road

Seismic motion, (3) Countermeasure target PGA obtained from seismic structural analysis
including (4) Countermeasure PGA obtained from seismic liquefaction analysis
liquefaction
Source: Own elaboration, GENSAI Project phase II JICA

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Background

The Secretariat of Central American Economic Integration (SIECA), as part of its efforts,
has made the creation of instruments that help the technical integration of the Central
American countries, within which manuals and technical documents have been
prepared for this purpose, carried out by means of cooperation with other institutions,
both regional and international.

One of the institutions with which these works have been carried out has been the
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), an entity with which in 2015 the
agreement was made to carry out the "Manual of Hydrological and Hydraulic
Technical Considerations for the road infrastructure of Central America "for which,
through an agreement of the Council of Ministers of Transport of Central America
(COMITRAN), it was agreed to form a Regional Technical Group (GTR) in which there
was representation of all the Central American countries to carry out the preparation of
this manual and was designated in turn, as technical coordinator, to the Department
for Adaptation to Climate Change and Strategic Risk Management (DACGER) of the
Ministry of Public Works, Transportation, Housing and Urban Development (MOPTVDU) of
El Salvador.

The preparation of the manual ended in February 2016 and always with the
collaboration of JICA, the process of dissemination was carried out in all countries, a
process that lasted between October 2016 and March 2017.

Based on the process above, the need to continue with the elaboration of other
technical documents in other areas related to risk management and adaptation to
climate change of the infrastructure that is the responsibility of the transport ministries of
the Central American region was recognized. Therefore, through agreement No. 100-
2017 of the XXXVIII COMITRAN, held in the city of San José, Costa Rica, in June 2017; the
ministers instruct SIECA to seek mechanisms and the necessary cooperation to continue
to the elaboration of these documents. It is also created through agreement No. 104-
2017 of the XXXVIII COMITRAN, the Regional Commission for Preventive Management of
Risk and Adaptation to Climate Change of Infrastructure (CR-GRACC), which will be
the one that will follow up on these types of topic.

For this reason, in July 2018, an agreement was reached between JICA, SIECA and the
MOPTVDU of El Salvador, to carry out the process of preparing the "Manual of
Geotechnical and Seismic Considerations, with a Risk Management Approach for the
Central American Road Infrastructure. Topic: Slopes” through the “Project for the
Development of Capacities of the Department of Adaptation to Climate Change and
Strategic Risk Management for the Reinforcement of Public Infrastructure in El Salvador
(GENSAI, and II) ", a project that is in a second stage of cooperation in conjunction with

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the MOPTVDU through the DACGER technicians. From this agreement, the CR-GRACC
activates the Regional Technical Group (GTR) with a focus on geotechnical issues,
instructing to support the implementation of the Central American Handbook through
agreement No. 122-2018 of the XXXIX COMITRAN. The process of preparing this manual
was carried out at the DACGER facilities, in the city of San Salvador, between July 2018
and February 2019.

Objectives

Overall objective

Make available to six countries in Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador,

Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama) a technical document that defines concepts to
guide in a regulated manner the actors involved in the planning, design, and
construction of road projects.

Specific objectives

▪ Contribute to the reduction of the vulnerability of the existing and projected

Central American infrastructure, specifically in the issue of slopes.

▪ Promote investment in risk reduction by geohazards in road infrastructure.

Scopes
This manual has been developed to be consistent with all the standards authorized and
applied in each Central American country. However, if there are inconsistencies with
the standards or norms of each country, priority must be given to the standards and
norms of each country.

The manual presents a series of geotechnical guidelines and seismic criteria that
constitute a conceptual and methodological guide for the investigation and
determination of geotechnical and seismic parameters for the technical consideration
in the design and analysis of the stability of road slopes and the protection of these
against the geological type threats.

This manual mainly deals with roads with adjacent slopes, but the technique can also
be applied to reduce the vulnerability in bridges and drains of culverts.

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The manual includes in its annex’s techniques of risk management and evaluation of
the probability of events that generate road damages, potential damages, risks,
benefits of risk reduction, and effectiveness/efficiency of cost-benefit.

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Diagnosis

Regional

In Central America, there is no systematic methodology or specific regulations for the

regulation of slope stability analysis in terms of road infrastructure works and works of
step.

In the formulation of the terms of reference, for construction projects that include the
risk reduction of road vulnerability, Guatemala and El Salvador do not have a reference
document to establish these criteria to evaluate the geotechnical parameters in road
construction, works of step and slopes. Also, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Panama
have not developed a manual of standard specifications for road construction but
refer to the Central American Manual of Specifications for the construction of regional
roads and bridges; 2001, 2nd Edition; 2004.

In all the countries of Central America, the ratification of the permits for the construction
plan for the environmental license and the viability of investment for the road works
depend on other institutions, in addition to the Ministries of Transport. However,
specialized geotechnical institutions that carry out the revision and approval in the
ratification of construction projects, to date, do not exist.

All countries have topographic maps and geological maps on the less detailed scale of
1:250,000 for their territories; A scale of 1:50,000 or more detailed is needed to cover all
territories. Aerial photographs exist at a scale of 1:20,000. All this information is essential
for road vulnerability reduction studies.

The GTR members of El Salvador and Guatemala confirmed that they have an
inventory of recent road damages caused by weather events and damage by
earthquakes and volcanoes to some extent.

Except for Costa Rica, which has a geology department for surveying and interpreting
field information, the rest of the member countries do not have any format to enter and
store data on their lithological characteristics, including the geological structures
obtained through recognition on the field.
All countries have geotechnical criteria, including seismic risk for the construction of
roads and bridges. Only Nicaragua has geotechnical guidelines related to climate
change in a publication called "Geotechnical Guide with a focus on climate change"
that was printed in the year 2017.

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Each country has a special consideration of the geotechnical problems caused by

climatic events and has adopted measures such as adequate drainage system,
protection against erosion, cutting of slopes for a stable angle and improvement of
geomaterials.

The need for this manual arises from an evaluation methodology that considers climate
change for slopes, bridges, and road structures. The evaluation contains three basic
phases: basic geological study, geotechnical exploration, and slope stability analysis.

In the region, there is no technical capacity to assess actual/potential road losses,

including traffic or other indirect losses, as well as the benefits of risk reduction through
proactive measures.

National

Table 1.7 shows a list of documents provided by the countries, as well:

Costa Rica developed manuals and supplemented them with specifications for
road/bridge construction, foundation code, guidelines for the seismic design for
bridges, geotechnical code for bridges.

Guatemala contemplates in its guidelines, the environmental impact without

consideration of climate change; for geotechnical tests uses international standards,
there is a private association of structural engineering and seismic, also have a
geological society where they have knowledge of the geotechnical procedure on
roads but has not formulated a manual for the uses of planning and design for public
works.

El Salvador is using the SIECA Central American manuals for roads and bridges, but
these documents don’t include in the planning and design of measures for slope
geotechnical problems. The technical standard for the design of earthquakes of 1997 is
used, but it is 20 years old, so it does not include the recent experience of seismic
damage in the region.

Honduras has a manual with general specifications for the construction of roads, use
international standards applicable to tests, do not have a specific geotechnical guide
applicable to roads, bridges, and slopes.

Nicaragua, in its technical specifications for road construction, does not detail the
geotechnical analysis, including the NIC-2000 section on excavations and earthworks.

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Panamá is in the process of updating the structural regulation based on the latest
design models, considering the combined loads that can affect a structure, seismic
requirements, etc. Now, it is not clear what guidelines will be, so it is not established if
they include a geotechnical investigation and design criterion. But they have
formulated the manual for the approval for the implementation of projects called
"Manual of Requirements and updated General Standards for the revision of plans,
recommended parameters in the design of the system of streets and storm drains
according to the requirements of the Ministry of Public Works.”

Table 1.7 Information provided by the countries

Country Documents Author
Costa Rica Manual of general specifications for the Ministry of Public Works and Transportation
construction of roads, and bridges; 2010 (MOPT)
Code of foundations of Costa Rica, First Costa Rican Geotechnical Association.
Edition; 1994, Second Edition; 2009 Costa Rica Foundation Code Commission

Guidelines for the seismic design of Federated College of Engineers and

bridges; 2013 Architects of Costa Rica; Permanent
Commission for the Study and Revision of
the Seismic Code of Costa Rica
Geotechnical Code for Slopes of Costa Costa Rican Geotechnical Association,
Rica, first edition; 2015 Costa Rica Editorial Technology
Guatemala National and International Public Government of the Republic of
Bidding Base No. DGCYT-2; 2003 Guatemala, Ministry of Communications,
Infrastructure and Housing
Geotechnical and Microdonation Guatemalan Association of Structural and
Studies NSE 2.1-10 Seismic Engineering: AGIES
Structural Safety Standards for the Guatemalan Association of Structural and
Republic of Guatemala, NSE 2.1; 2018 Seismic Engineering: AGIES
Movements of Hillside in Guatemala National Geographic Institute: IGN
Geological Map of Guatemala National Geographic Institute: IGN
Geotechnics and structural design of Geological Society of Guatemala: SGG
the pavement
El Salvador Central American Manual of USAID, SIECA, COMITRAN
Specifications for the construction of
regional roads and bridges; 2001, 2nd
Edition; 2004
Central American Manual for Risk CEPREDENAC, AECID, SIECA
Management in Bridges; 2010
A basic guide for the elaboration of Government Secretariat, SEGOB, Mexico;
state and municipal atlases of hazards CENAPRED
and risks; 2006
Technical Standard for Earthquake Salvadoran Association of Engineers and
Design; Architects, ASIA
1997
Manual of Protection Works in Slopes GENSAI, MOPTVDU, JICA
Manual for the monitoring of landslides GENSAI, MOPTVDU, JICA
Honduras Pavement design and road Secretariat of State in the Offices of Public
maintenance (Volume IV); 1996 Works, Transportation and Housing.
General specifications for construction Secretariat of State in the Offices of Public
(Volume V); 1996 Works, Transportation and Housing.
International standards applied to trials Summary

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Country Documents Author

Nicaragua Geotechnical Guide (With a focus on Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure of
climate change); 2017 Nicaragua
Topographic Maps of Nicaragua National Geographic Institute
General Specifications for the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure of
Construction of Roads, Streets, and Nicaragua
Bridges;2000
National Construction Regulations RNC- Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure of
07; 2007 Nicaragua
Vulnerable points identified in the Road Various institutions
Network of Nicaragua
Terms of Reference for Studies and Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure of
Designs in the way of Example; 2000 Nicaragua
Technical specifications for construction Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure of
projects (2 sample files)); 2000 Nicaragua
Panamá Structural regulation of Panama; 2014 Technical Board of Engineering and
Architecture, 2014
(Tender) Design and Construction for Ministry of Public Works of the Republic of
the Rehabilitation of the Circunvalación Panama
de Pese-Bahia Honda-El Ciruelo pose
and Rincón Hondo road-the Bancola
Esquiguita province of Herrera; 2018
Manual of Requirements and General Ministry of Public Works -Directorate
Standards updated for the revision of Executive of Studies and Design
plans, recommended parameters in the Department of Review of Plans.
design of the street system and storm
drains according to the requirements of
the Ministry of Public Works.
Source: Own elaboration

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2. CHAPTER 2 PRELIMINARY ACTIONS FOR GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES

CA-1. Los Chorros, Colón, La Libertad, El Salvador

 MANUAL DE CONSIDERACIONES GEOTÉCNICAS Y SÍSMICAS PARA LA INFRAESTRUCTURA VIAL CENTROAMERICANA

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES TO GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES

The preliminary investigation to a geotechnical study is important for the formation of
criteria on the conditions and lithological, hydrological, hydrogeological and seismic
characteristics that a professional or contractor must know before agreeing on a
project; this saves time and future resources.

This section addresses issues related to the previous and viability studies as well as the
preliminary project of a geotechnical study, specifies geological and geotechnical
research works, details criteria that the designer must take into account in project
planning that includes slopes and/or hillsides on roads and guides on the documents
that the professional can consult when carrying out a geotechnical analysis,
documents that allow him to form criteria for the superficial recognition of the area of
interest.

The documentary information and the field visit will forge details about lithological units
and their characteristics, approximate measurements, location of watercourses,
possible mass movements.

The content of geo-structural maps is briefly presented to pursue a rapid kinematic idea
in the interpretation of maps and relationship with the outcropping units in the field visit.
The use of tools such as the Geographic Information System (GIS), the use of GPS for
georeferencing points of interest is other topics described, followed by the types of tests
that can be performed in the field and spatial distribution.

Limitations are presented such as the lack of unified criteria in the Central American
countries in the implementation of field tests, a distance interval of the tests of depth
and horizons, and its descriptions for the construction of new and existing roads.

Table 2.1 shows the phases before geotechnical studies, included in previous studies
and feasibility and preliminary project.

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Table 2. 1 Phases before geotechnical studies

Phases before Characteristic activities Geological-geotechnical research work
the project
Previous and Visit and previous field − Recognition of soils and rocks
viability studies recognition − Faults and structures.
− Hydrological data, drainage
− Geomorphology, slope stability, subsidence,
flooding, etc.
− Geo-environmental problems
− Accesses and situations of investigations in situ.
Revision of information − Topography and relief.
− Hydrology and hydrogeology.
− Regional geological maps.
− Geological history.
− Seismicity and other geological risks
Photo-interpretation − Aerial photography and remote sensing.
− Geomorphology.
− Lithologies and structures.
− Geological risks.
− Cartographies of synthesis.
Preliminary Geological-geotechnical − Lithostratigraphy and structure.
Project cartography (scale 1: − Geomorphology and hydrogeology.
5,000 - 1: 10,000) − Classification and properties of materials.
Hydrological- − Identification of flood zones, karstic, runoff, etc.
hydrogeological data − Regional y local.
Basic geotechnical − Probes and test pits.
research (1) − Geophysical prospecting.
− Laboratory tests.

(1) Basic research: they refer to spaced soundings and identification tests, mainly
Source: González, 2002.

Criteria to be considered by the designer before road planning

Before the road planning, the mechanical behavior of the soils and the rocks, the
knowledge of the techniques of investigation of the subsoil, both mechanical,
instrumental and geophysical, as well as the methods of analysis of the terrain, should
be considered, in Table 2.2, a general sequence of criteria to be considered is listed.

Three types of models must be defined to conceive the full development:

Geological model, involves the lithological units of the area to be studied and
structures with kinematic interpretation, besides defining weathered zones, description
of discontinuities, characterization of the rock mass and hydrology. Generally, drilling at
different depths requires depending on the objective to be achieved. It should
represent sections of two dimensions models or three dimensions models.

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Geotechnical model is based on the geological model. It consists of the interpretation

of the deformation of the soils and rocks in the present units of the area of interest. It
makes a classification about the characteristics of the structures, the tensional state,
and the resistance. It should include failure criteria.

Geotechnical model of behavior represents the response of the land during

construction and after it.

Table 2. 2 Criteria to be considered by the designer before planning the road

Item Criteria
1 Identification of materials and processes in the outline of the project.
2 Definition of geomorphology, structure, lithology, and the conditions of surface and
underground water.
3 Geological-geotechnical conditions of the subsoil.
4 Spatial distribution of materials, structures, and discontinuities

5 Hydrological, tensional and environmental conditions.

Characterization of geotechnical and hydrological properties

6 Characterization of geological materials used in construction, extraction, and

environmental protection work

7 Geological-geotechnical behavior under the conditions of the project

8 Evaluation of the mechanical and hydraulic behavior of soils and rock massifs.
Prediction of the changes of the previous properties over time

9 Determination of the parameters that should be used in stability analysis for

excavations, earth structures, and foundations.

10 Analysis of the terrain conditions to define the best stabilization against leaks,
settlements, slope instability, landslides, etc.

11 Considerations against geological risks and environmental impacts.

12 Verification of the procedure implemented.

Source: Adaptado de González, 2002

Surface survey of the section where the engineering work will be

carried out

The objective of making a visit and prior field recognition is to gather all the information
that allows making a geotechnical study Suitable to the conditions of the site and that
allows obtaining the complementary information that will be required to carry out the
project to be planned.

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2.2.1 Identification of the section and study area

According to basic criteria for road geotechnical studies, the Secretary of State for
Public Works (Secretaría de Estado de Obras Públicas), Dominican Republic, the
section where the engineering work is planned must be identified to define an area of
study, which must cover a wide area on both sides of the possible layout. The width of
the study area should allow identifying the geomorphological units of the area, such as:

o Channels
o Ejection cones (colluvial fans)
o Landslides
o Cracked slopes
o Sliding hillsides
o Swamps
o Flooding areas
o High water Table
- Building materials for the track, and others

2.2.2 Geological Recognition

The surface geological survey must include at least:

- Visual description of the different types of rocks that emerge

- The degree of weathering of the rocks
- Zoning of sets of discontinuities (etc. geological joints) on slopes
- Faults and defects of the rocks
- Visual description of the different types of soil

2.2.3 Approximate measurements in the field

In the field, measurements should be taken, and attention should be paid to certain
considerations, which are shown in Table 2.3, showing in categories the areas that the
professional can obtain approximate information in the field visits.

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Table 2. 3 Approximate measurements in the field

Category Factors Measurements
Height 0 to 5 m 5 to 10 m 10 to 20 m >20 m
Maintenance Minor Moderate High Very High
/
Cleaning
Angl Soil <30° 30°≤ Angle≤40° 40°≤ Angle≤60° >60
Characteristics of the slope

e Rock Category <2 2≤ Angle ≤4 4≤ Angle ≤8 >8

Irregularities None Minor Moderate Higher
Section type Box-shaped Box-shaped Balcony Balcony with
of cut cross section with pavement
pavement faults
faults
Fall Class 1. Class 2. Class 3. Class 4.
catchment 95% to 100 % 65% to 94% 30% to 64% <30%
area
Body Dense/bush Dense Semi naked/ Naked
Vegetation

/herbaceous herbaceous
Crown Populated/arb Populated/ Populated/herb Naked, semi-
oreal Shrubby, semi aceous, semi naked/herba
naked / naked/ ceous
arboreal shrubby.
Weather Annual ≤ 200 200≤ 500≤ >850
average precipitation precipitation
precipitation ≤500 ≤850
(mm)
Infiltration/ Without Humid/wet Dripping Water runoff
present water humidity
Scouring at 0 to 0.3 0.3 to 0.6 0.6 to 1.5 > 1.5
the foot of
each layer
Sedimentary rocks

Degree of 1 to 2 weak 1 to 2 weak More than 2 More than 2

inter- interstrata < 15 interstrata > 15 weak interstrata weak
stratification cm cm < 15 cm interstrata >
15 cm
Channel Depth ≤ 5 cm 5≤ Depth ≤10 10≤ Depth ≤20 Depth >20
formation cm
Width ≤2 cm 2≤ Width ≤5 5≤ Width ≤10 Width > 10
cm cm cm
Very separated Very Very continuous Very
continuous continuous
Geology

Type of rock Homogeneous Small faults / Schists / shear Weak

/ solid strong veins zone < 15 cm pegmatites /
micas / shear
zone> 15 cm
Degree of 0 to 0.30 0.30 to 0.60 0.60 to 1.20 > 1.20
Crystalline rocks

projection
Degree of Recent Weathered/dis Slightly Altered
erosion colored altered/attenu
ated

Block <0.30/<0.50 0.30 to 0.60 to 1.50/<2 >1.50/>6

Discontin

size 0.60/<0.5 to 20 to 6
(m3)
uities

Group 1 1 random 2 >2

of

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Category Factors Measurements

disconti
nuities
Persiste <3m / dip into >3m / dip into <3m / >3m /
nce/ the slope the slope orientation orientation
orientat towards the towards the
ion road road
Crack Closed 0.1 to 1 1 to 5 >5
(mm)
Erosion Recent Weathered/dis Filled with Filled with
conditi colored granular clay material
ons material
Friction Rough Wavy Planar Smooth
planar
Block size (m) <0.30 0.30 to 0.60 0.60 to 1,50 >1.50
Block shape Tabular Cubic Angular cubic Round
smooth/flat
with an
inclination
towards the
road
Landslides/ Cracks in the Considerable Accumulation Deformation
Displacement crown of the cracking and of the material in a step
Blocks

s slope subsidence at the foot of shape

the slope
Weatherizatio B-C Horizon B Horizon A-B Horizon A - Horizon
n profile
Surface runoff Formation of Less than ½ of More than one Detachment
small torrents cut presents half of the cut and
torrents and presents concentratio
channels torrents and n of drag
channels solids in the
foot
Residual soils

Contact soil Presence of Cubic rock Rocks with the Rocks with
on rock fractured rocks projections corrugated the flat
in less than a with size from friction surface planar
quarter of the 30 to 60 cm friction
slope surface
*Source: Proposal of indicators for the management of cut and embankment slopes.
Garnica and others, 2017.

2.2.4 Location of permanent, intermittent and ephemeral streams

The measurement of the position of a stream (defined as the segment of successive

tributaries) within the hierarchy of the drainage network, is the basis for the quantitative
analysis of the network.

The smaller permanent streams are called first-order streams; two first order streams join
to form a second-order stream, two-second order streams join to form third order
streams, and so on, see figure 2.1. Small inflow streams to a higher order sequence do
not change their order number, Strahler, 1964.

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The ephemeral streams are in the highest part of the river basin and as the slope of the
basin descends, and the water Table is located below the riverbed it is an intermittent
stream; the permanent streams are in the lower part of the river basin, and the water
Table is located above the bottom of the channel.

Figure 2. 1 Location of streams of the first, second, and third order

Source: https://es.slideshare.net/lviasusviasus/cuencas-reconocimiento

To a better understanding of each of the types of streams, each of them is defined

below:

The ephemeral stream is one that only carries water when it rains and immediately
afterward.

The intermittent stream is the one that carries water most of the time, but mainly in the
rainy season; its contribution ceases when the water Table descends below the bottom
of the channel.

The permanent stream contains water all the time because even in the dry season it is
continuously supplied since the water Table always remains above the bottom of the
channel.

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2.2.5 Identification of mass movement sites

By mass movement is understood the displacement of the land that becomes a hillside
or a slope, towards the outside of it and in a downward direction.

The classification of mass movements with the engineering perspective described by J.

Montero, 1991 can be seen in Tables 2.4 and 2.5.

Table 2. 4 Mass displacement1

Creeping In rock In soil On slope In soil
Landslide Translational Rotational / Rotational / Translational
(blocks, Translational
wedges)
Lateral propagation In rock In soil
Detachment Overturning, fall, jumping, bearing.
Runoff Collapse
Subsidence Subsidence associated with underground excavations or descent of the
water Table.
1 Its behavior obeys the mechanical laws of solids essentially.

Source: J. Montero, 1991

Table 2. 5 Mass transportation2

Flow Detritus or mud Debris, mud or dirt
Avalanche Of rock Of rocks or detritus Detritus
Varnes Rocks Rocks and detritus Detritus and dirts
2 Its behavior obeys the laws of the hydraulics and mechanics of fluids; transition between water erosion

and mass displacement essentially.

Source: J. Montero, 1991

The following describes a series of criteria that can help identify sites with possible mass
movements:

Steep slopes

The most common cause of steep slope collapses is the sliding along with the contact
with the rock of residual or colluvial soils. The weathered or loose material cannot be
maintained with the same slope as the rock; a rain or cut at the foot of the slope can
activate the sliding of the overlying rock, figure 2.2.

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Sliding plane

Figure 2.2 It shows a partially weathered rock plane with landslide along with the contact.
Source: Aguacatán, Guatemala

Drainage and filtration concentration areas

In a hydrographic basin, the highest part formed by ephemeral tributaries is the area
where the greatest number of streams exists, as the topographic level of the basin
decreases, the number of streams decreases and order increases, passing from
intermittent to permanent streams. Figure 2.3 represents a series of channels of
ephemeral streams in the upper part of the hydrographic basin, interrupted by the
passage of a road. Figure 2.4 shows traction cracks sliding downhill due to soil filtration,
saturation, hydrostatic pressure, and soil weight gain.

Figure 2.3 Drain concentration in a road cutting Figure 2.4 Traction cracks caused by filtration and
hydrostatic pressure. Taken on road CA-14
Guatemala

Source: http://www.estechareproducciones.com/imagen/gunitados-taludes-, concencarreteras.jpg

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Areas of concentration of fractures

The quality of the rock mass is related to the number of fractures that it presents, a rock
mass of very bad quality is one that presents numerous intensely weathered joints with
fillings (Figure 2.5). The spacing is less than 0.05 m, gaps with clay fillings and an RMR
(rock mass rating) equal to 3; Hoek and Brown, 1998.

Figure 2.5 Concentration of fractures in road cut slope.

Source: Aguacatán Guatemala, km 348 +440 RN7W

Strong Slopes

It is considered an extremely strong slope when its inclination is greater than 55%
causing strong denudation processes (rock detachment or superficial part of the
ground), Mora and others, 1992. Or it is susceptible when the soil has an effective
friction angle greater than 30 °; Bieniawski, 1989. Figures 2.6 and 2.7 show cases on
steep roads with a strong slope that have had material detachment.

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Figure 2. 6 Road CPA-Cope- Marta, District of La Figure 2. 7 Roads in Aguacatán Guatemala km 343
Pintada, Province of Coclé, Panama Km 2+500 + 380 RN7W.

Structures with a dip in favor of the slope

To measure a stratigraphic plane the North is taken as reference either from 0 ° to 360 °
(example: N 64 °, N125 °, N240 °) or from North 0 ° to 180 ° and indicating the direction
in which it is measured, West (O) or East (E) (example: N37 ° E, N150 ° W).

The dip of a plane either: stratification, joints or fault plane, is the line of maximum slope
in that plane, figure 2.8 (perpendicular to the direction of the plane) and a horizontal
plane, measured on a vertical plane. See figure 2.9 to see the difference between the
actual dip and apparent dip.

Figure 2.8 Indicates the maximum slope line of a structural plane

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F
i
g
u
r
e

2
.
9

Actual dip and apparent dip

Source: es.slideshare.net/georgehsterling/geologia-estructural-orientacion-de-estructuras

Documentary Research

The documentary research is a fundamental part of the knowledge, analysis, and

procedure before the construction of road work. Through documents that reflect the
geology, hydrology, topography, geomorphology, structures, and history of the area,
among others; the professional can theoretically know some conditions of the site and
formulate empirical criteria of the characteristics that the zone contains, which is basic
in the development of the work.

Due to the importance of cartographic information in documentary research, a

conceptual extension is made of different types of maps that can provide information
for the design of the geotechnical campaign.

2.3.1 Thematic Maps

They are maps based on topographic maps that represent any geographic
phenomenon of the surface of the earth. They pursue well-defined objectives. They
refer to the representation of certain characteristics of distribution, relationship or
regionalization of real objects (soils, geology, vegetation, etc.) or abstract concepts.

To represent numerical variables, they use all kinds of visual resources, such as surfaces
of different colors, arrows to indicate the movement of a phenomenon (flows,
sometimes have a thickness proportional to their magnitude), the drawing of lines
joining points of equal value (isolines), circles not symbols of size proportional to the
numerical value.

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Surface map with a classification of soils and rocks

The delimitation and cartography of rock units or "homogeneous" soils in terms of their
physical and mechanical properties, such as strength, deformability, durability,
permeability, etc., is based on geological properties that have a greater relationship
with geotechnical properties. The mineralogical composition and the lithology are
directly related to the density and plasticity of the soils. In the rocks, the composition
determines the hardness, strength, alterability, etc. The texture and mineralogical
structure are also aspects that provide information about the mechanical behavior of
materials about porosity and density. The hydrogeological conditions provide
information on the consistency of soils and the conditions of alteration in soils and rocks.
In the case of rock masses, the frequency, distribution, and type of discontinuities, the
degree of fracturing and the degree of alteration or weathering provide information
about the resistance, deformability, and permeability. Gonzales et al., 2002.

The geotechnical parameters to be represented in the geotechnical cartographies,

according to the scale and purpose of the map, of the available information and data
are:

- Density
- Porosity
- Consistency and activity
- Permeability
- Simple compression and tensile strength
- Resistant parameters
- Deformability
- Durability or alterability

Also, in the specific maps as thematic or integrated maps, other properties, and
geotechnical aspects are included according to the applications pursued.

Hydrogeological Conditions: They provide information on the consistency of soils and

the conditions of alteration in soils and rocks. In the case of rock masses, the frequency,
distribution, and type of discontinuities, the degree of fracturing and the degree of
alteration or weathering provide information on the resistance, deformability, and
permeability. The hydrogeological aspects are great importance in geotechnical maps
used for planning, exploitation of water resources, and other works that are related to
water conditions.

The hydrogeological data in the geotechnical maps foresee hydrogeological changes

and provide information to control these changes. Among the most important are

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studied: distribution of water and its content in materials, lakes, rivers, confined aquifers,
permeability, water quality, etc.

Los datos hidrogeológicos en los mapas geotécnicos prevén cambios hidrogeológicos

y aportan información para controlar dichos cambios. Entre los más importantes se
estudian: distribución del agua y contenido de ella en los materiales, lagos, ríos,
acuíferos confinados, permeabilidad, calidad del agua, etc.

Geomorphological Conditions: In the geotechnical application, geomorphological

information is needed to develop geotechnical maps, which are great importance
about the physical characterization of the territory. It provides information about useful
processes in engineering works, such as topography, elements of the relief, origin
evolution and age of the geomorphological elements, relationship with hydrogeology,
predictions of erosion processes, movement of hillsides, etc.

Geodynamic Processes: Geotechnical maps should include the dynamic nature of the
geological environment providing information on external and internal dynamic
processes:

- Location and extension of processes

- Age
- Limits and morphological and associated features
- Conditions, causes and conditioning factors
- Forecasts of potential processes

About geodynamic processes, geological risks play a very important role since they
can affect populated areas, infrastructures, and constructions.

2.3.2 Structural maps

This type of maps is the representation in a plane of the different morphologies present
in the terrain

Relief

The relief includes the set of forms present in the terrain, elevations and depressions and
their different lateral relations. They are components of the relief, the mountains, the
valleys, the plains, the slopes, and other elements that create the natural landscape. It
is important to highlight that the relief involves three dimensions equivalent in concept
to the length, width, and height of any regular object, each of these dimensions can
be related to a plane that is perpendicular to the other two.

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El relieve comprende el conjunto de formas presentes en el terreno, elevaciones y

depresiones y sus diferentes relaciones laterales. Son componentes del relieve, las
montañas, los valles, las planicies, los taludes y demás elementos que conforman el
paisaje natural. Es importante resaltar que el relieve involucra tres dimensiones
equivalentes en concepto al largo, ancho y alto de cualquier objeto regular, cada
una de esas dimensiones puede ser relacionada con un plano que es perpendicular a
los otros dos.

Reference Planes

It has been universally accepted to use two vertical planes and one horizontal plane for
the graphic representations of the objects. These planes are intercepted one by one;
and at a point called "origin," all three will be intercepted. The lines of intersection plane
to plane, form axes of rotation (Cartesian axes) that serve as a linear reference, that is,
to measure relative values to the different dimensions.

Topography

The topography includes the set of techniques for measuring and representing areas of
the earth's surface. The form of representation used by the topography is the
topographic map, which is the bounded projection of the land with some
specifications concerning the needs for which it is carried out. A topographic map is
the one that expresses the shape, dimensions, and distribution of the morphological
features of the earth's surface. Such three groups of features are; a) relief, including hills,
valleys, plains; b) hydrography, which includes seas, lakes, rivers, channels, marshes,
etc.; and c) works and constructions, including cities, railroads, roads, etc.

In the topographic map, points on the ground surface are represented; consequently,
the coordinates are geographic and are related to the main north-south and east-west
planes of the planet. The height is the vertical distance to sea level, and its value is
written accompanying the location, in a square at the bottom of the map or at an
angle of the map, called the legend.

Cuts and profiles

The total horizontal distance in a topographic map will depend on the "slope" of the
terrain, understood as such, the angle m formed by the line joining two points A and B
in the ground with the horizontal. Here is a concept that links horizontal distance
between two points and the height difference between them. The determination of the
slope on the map provides useful information about the abruptness of the terrain, which
is very important in civil works and specifically in road construction.

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Geological Cartography

The main elements to show in a geological map are title and scale, UTM coordinates
and longitude and latitude, northern arrow (graphic scale), lithological units and
geological and tectonic symbols, topographic symbols example: rivers, name of the
authors, places of the work, date of mapping, legend, general symbology of the
geological map, block diagram of the lithological units (3D).

2.3.3 Geological structure maps

The purpose of this type of maps is georeferenced those structures as fault planes,
stratification orientations, discordances, folds, etc. that change the behavior of rocks or
soils punctually or prolonged. It is basic in the planning of sampling and laboratory tests;
it improves the criterion of the professional to determine the zones of greater resistance
and zones where it requires intervention through the strengthening of the ground or
unstable rock.

Include a series of tracings depicting failures, main geomorphologic features are

highlighted, as graben or flower structure (anticline structure flanked by two reverse
faults high angle, a product of a compression event).

Main macrostructures that make up the geological structure map

Fragile deformation structures

Fractures: Fractures and shear microfractures and faults. Characterization of the

surfaces of fractures. Origin of the fractures.

Faults: Fault and fault zone. Fault surface and associated structures. Fault rocks. Jump
and separation of the fault. Types of faults according to the fault scarp (inverse faults,
thrust faults, normal faults, strike-slip faults). Kinematic criteria of the fault

Ductile deformation structures

Folds: the scale of the fold, geometric elements of one or several folded surfaces,
symmetry. Classification of the folds: a) by its orientation, b) by the shape of the folded
surfaces, c) by the style of the folded layers (Ramsay classification). Folding mechanism:
folds associated with faults, folds due to density contrast, etc.

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Foliations: Planes of the tectonic origin or visible structure in certain rocks that have
been subjected to stress or that their constituent minerals have been reoriented
according to the plane of schistosity or foliation. (Dictionary of geology, Alain
FOUCAULT, 1985).

Lineations: It is known as the intersection of two geological planes: Stretching lineation,

fold axes, the intersection of planes, the orientation of minerals.

Shear zones: geometric characteristics, types of shear zones, geometry and distribution
of internal deformation, mylonite. Kinematic criteria: determination of the shear
direction, progressive deformation of the shear zone.

Interpretation of geo-structural maps (basic)

In a geological structural map, the efforts and types of stress suffered by rock masses,
deformations, faults, and folds are shown in symbologies, see Table 2.6 for contact lines
and basic structural symbols.

One layer is affected by the maximum principal stress (σ1), intermediate principal stress
(σ2), and minimum principal stress (σ3), figure 2.10. The orientation of the stress in the
rock layer determines the type of fault (normal, inverse, directional or combined
depending on the angle at which it moves); see figure 2.11, 2.12, 2.13 and 2.14.

In a directional fault the principal stress is located approximately 15° from the principal
shear, at 60° from the principal shear other faults called Riedel (R') are formed and at
90° the decompression zone, Figure 2.14. Within the principal shear in a directional
failure and the failure R,' the compression of the rocks causes folding and cracks in the
echelon that determines the direction of the effort in the field. When the displacement
of a fault occurs, in the plane where it slides, there are marks such as mineralization,
stretching lineation, crescent concavities, perpendicular fractures to the drag that help
the interpreter of structural rocks to define the type of movement and to classify the
faults. Figure 2.15 contains the parts of a fold.

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Figure 2.10 Types of stress in rock masses Figure 2.11 Fault of normal type with the vertical
Source: Geology Manual, Chap. Five deformations maximum principal stress from top to bottom
of rocks, Tucumán 2014. Source: https://www.researchgate.net/Figura-21-
Falla-de-rumbo-y-regimen-de-esfuerzos-
correspondiente_fig8_303518425 [accessed 30
Nov 2018]

Figure 2.12 Reverse type fault with the vertical Figure 2.13 Strike-slip fault with the vertical
minimum principal stress from top to bottom intermediate principal stress from top to bottom
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/Figura-21-Falla-de- Source: https://www.researchgate.net/Figura-21-
rumbo-y-regimen-de-esfuerzos- Falla-de-rumbo-y-regimen-de-esfuerzos-
correspondiente_fig8_303518425 (accessed 30 Nov correspondiente_fig8_303518425 (accessed 30
2018) Nov 2018)

Figure 2.14. Strike-slip fault indicating the angle of Figure 2.15 An anticlinal fold lying down the
the principal stress about the principal fault shear compression zone (σ1)
and the distance generated by other types of faults Source: https://natureduca.com/geologia-
such as the Riedel (R'). Note that at 90 ° of the geodinamica-interna-tectonica-de-placas-
principal fault and the distension zone (σ3) 03.php
generated.
Source: Ramsay (1967); Ramsay & Hubber (1988);
Woodcock (1986), Jones et al. (2004)

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Table 2. 6 Contact lines and basic structural symbols

Name Symbol
Normal contact
Discordant contact
Mechanical contact
Inferred fault
Normal fault

Strike-slip fault (sinistral or dextral course

and its components)
Thrust fault
Fault with an indication of subsidence

Milonitized zone

Anticline

Syncline

Tumbled anticline

Tumbled syncline

Dip

Schist

Source: presentation of geological maps. Dra. Elena González Cárdenas.

Geological structure sections

A geological structure section is a vertical section to show the disposition of rocks and
structures at depth. The geo-structural sections arise to perceive structures three-
dimensionally (faults, folds, lithological contacts, stratigraphic dips, etc.), which is one of
the problems that arise when interpreting a geological map. A geological structure
section uses all the available data on the surface of the land, to show with a high
degree of certainty the configuration of the subsoil. For greater precision, it is adjusted
with drilling and seismic drilling.

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3D Model

A three-dimensional geological structure model consists of a representation of

geological elements of space such as lithology, structures, geomorphology,
geomechanics, hydrology.

2.3.4 Shapes and georeferencing. Datum 84 UTM projection

A GIS (geographic information system) is a system capable of storing, displaying, and

analyzing georeferenced information, Burrough, 1986.

It is a useful tool to integrate different types of data, from different sources in digital
format, Shepherd, 1991.

Shapes are vector layers with thematic information in Shapefile format. In these layers is
the thematic information ordered: hydrology, geology, access, etc. Georeferencing is
the use of coordinates in the cartographic representation or a GIS.

In this way, based on the principle of superposition of layers and the handling of data in
spatial form, the GIS analyzes the georeferenced data. In this way it is possible to
manage the crossing of the information in a controlled manner, monitor the evolution
of the projects and generate reports according to the need, in the form of maps or
descriptive data. The results of the projects of a quick and comprehensive visualization
are available for personals outside the specialties of geological-geotechnical
environment.
Bonham-Carter, 1994, summarizes the uses of GIS in geology and geotechnics.

a) In geological cartography and geotechnical: it is possible an orderly

consultation of the whole geological chart and geotechnical data, as well as
the direct manipulation of the data of samples and observations.
b) Environmental analysis or geological-geotechnical risks: stability study of slopes,
gravitational flows, earthquakes, volcanic risk, flood, coastal erosion, pollution,
among others
c) Territorial organization: rational land use, landfill areas, road geotechnics, etc.
d) Soil management: erosion, adequate use of the soil, climatic factor
e) Infrastructure and availability of resources: a study of the available elements in a
place, such as roads, water, energy, sand, gravel, etc. Necessary in the
evaluation of any economic project.
f) Control and management of geological projects: through precise routines, it is
possible to follow the evolution of geological projects and obtain temporary and
economic parameters.

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Global-GPS positioning system

Usual GPS

It is a geographic location system of points on the surface of the earth based on

satellite positions. Its accuracy varies between a few meters to several meters.

Differential GPS

Its accuracy is centimetric, depending on the quality of the GPS receiver and the
technique used to make the measurement. Its correct name is NAVSTAR-GPS.
Civil applications of NAVSTAR-GPS systems

- Precision navigation
- Hydrographic inspections
- Recognition of objectives
- Seismic inspections
- Recognition of excavations
- Making maps
- Location of banks
- Air navigation
- Positioning and land navigation, among others.

The GPS is composed of:

- The segment of space made up of satellites

- Control segment formed by a series of control stations
- User Segment formed by GPS receivers, where they interact with each other to
determine the position.

Coordinate system

In most GPS devices, by default, the position format is latitude and longitude in
degrees, minutes and seconds. The choice of the coordinate system will not affect the
quality of the position.

It is recommended to use plane coordinates since distances and surfaces can be

determined easily.

Datum

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According to Fallas, Jorge (2003): cartographic and datum projections are a set of
measurements that define the orientation of a determined ellipsoid on the earth's
surface, and it helps to make the geographic coordinate system faithfully represent the
place where the study is made, corrected for geoid irregularities.

The datum defines the following aspects (Inter-American Geodetic Survey, 1950)
- Ellipsoid in use
- The location (initial position) and orientation of the north (initial azimuth)
- The distance between the geoid and the ellipsoid at the initial location, figure
2.16.

Figure 2.16 graphic comparison between a global and a local ellipsoid.

Source: IDECA, 2013

The datum establishes a permanent reference surface for the mapping of a country or
a continent. Parameters defined for the maps generated by the National Geographic
Institute of each Central American country are;

Datum: Ocotepeque. The North base of the datum is in the department of

Ocotepeque Honduras, at a height above sea level of 807 m. V.J Hanrahan
established it in December 1934.

The WGS84 (World Geodetic System, 1984) is the datum used by most GLOBAL
POSITIONING SYSTEMS (GPS) to record positions (coordinates) in the earth.

Guatemala has a local GTM (Guatemala Transversal Mercator) projection, where the
Projection: Transverse Mercator (Gauss Kruger type) is converted into a single local
area. The reason why the National Geographic Institute opts for this modification is that
Guatemala is divided into two UTM areas (Universal Transverse Mercator) on the 15th
and the 16th. To facilitate the management of the geographic data of the republic
and standardize the projections, the GTM is created and cover the entire territory.

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Projection

System of representation of the curved surface of the earth on a plane In Central

America is the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) projection.

2.3.5 Landslide record

The prior knowledge of the historical behavior of the area susceptible to move will be
part of the professional criterion, knowing the type of movement and its activity are
part of the factors to be considered for the study and subsequent stabilization.

Below are some parameters, factors, and activities that should be documented as part
of the basic information needed in the stability analysis:

- Landsliding location (place, kilometer, coordinates, others)

- Type of landslide
- Topography and slope.
- -Geology
- Physical, mechanical properties of the soils and classification of the rock mass
- Water Table conditions
- The humidity of the land
- Thicknesses and degree of weathering, and others

Geotechnical Study Planning

In the geotechnical planning, the prior knowledge of the lithological units and the
behavior of the structural kinematics that has caused the mechanism of tilting or
deformation due to the tensional stresses to the rocks are required. Define the limits of
the units of greater or lesser resistance and relate them either as a product of
microelectronics or by weathering where the hydrological and climatic factor gradually
degrades the minerals contained in the matrix of soils and rocks.

With a clear vision of the incident properties in the rock mass, the types of soundings,
the orientation, and depth of them are quantified. The number of samples and location
is determined. The number of piezometers is established to check the behavior of the
groundwater. The orientation of the electrical lines is determined in the exploration of
possible cavities; in the application of the electrical resistivity methods, and in the
detection of the boundaries of the stratification, planes of failure and fracturing of the
rocks.

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Then determine possible solutions that guarantee, depending on the scope of the
project, stability, and improvement of the soils.

Bellow, the characteristics to be considered in the planning of the geotechnical study

are presented in an orderly manner:

1. Determine the geological conditions of the work area

- Type and characteristics of geological materials
- Characteristics of the rock massifs
- Orientation and characteristics of discontinuities
2. Know the geological problems that may affect the construction
- Important leaks
- Tectonic zones, singular structures, and cavities
- Anisotropic tension states
- Soft and expansive grounds
- Aggressive or reactive rocks
- Abrasive and hard rocks
3. Quantify the data and parameters of the land necessary for the design of the
work
- Resilient and deformational properties of soils, rocky matrix, and rock mass
- Data for geotechnical classifications
4. Provide criteria for the design

2.4.1 Determination of types of field soundings

Table 2.7 shows the types of field geotechnical sounding with soil sampling. The Table
details the type of material, maximum depth that can be drilled, serves as a guide for
determining the sounding type to be performed.

Before defining what type of sounding will be carried out, it may be useful to answer the
following questions:
- What is the type of geo-material to be drilled?
- What kind of samples do I need to obtain?
- What is the depth I need to reach?
- What kind of parameters do I want to obtain?

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Table 2.7 Determination of test types in the field

They can drill any types of soil or rock, with different
Rotation probing inclinations, the usual depth does not exceed 100 m, but it
can be deepened up to 1,000 m.
It is limited to soft and cohesive soils; the type of sample
Soundings with
obtained is altered. There are manual probes that reach 2-4 m
Geotechnical helicoidal drill
and mechanics that reach 40 m in depth.
sounding
Used for granular and cohesive soils; it can cross soils of the
Soundings with
firm to a very firm consistency. The normal depths are 15 to 20
percussion drill
m and can reach 40 m.
Excavations carried out by mechanical means allow direct
Test Pits
observation of the ground, sampling, and practice tests.
Source: González and others 2002

It is important to clarify that it is possible to carry out a combination of these soundings

in the same point depending on what one wants to analyze, the type of structure and
the degree of compactness of the soil.

2.4.2 Test Pits

In a study of slopes, it is advisable to exhaust the most economical methods, including

the pits, and as research progresses, if necessary, apply more far-reaching techniques
such as rotation soundings, SPT, geophysical methods, among others. When the sliding
plane is superficial, it is enough to drill one or several test pits to determine the landslide
and the water Table. For example, in the landslide of kilometer 71 + 050 of CA 11,
immediately on the border of El Florido, Honduras; Figure 2.17, 2.18, and 2.19; were
positioned at the foot of the slope the water Table was below -2.2 m depth. With the
knowledge of the landslide plane, the water Table and the volume of the sliding
material, the researcher can suggest criteria for the stabilization and restructuring of the
section affected by the landslide without resorting to more far-reaching methods.

Figure 2.17 Sliding at km 71 + 050 border El Florido, Honduras CA 11

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Figure 2.18 Morphology of the slope of the km 71 + 050 fault of the CA 11. In the section of 6-7 (red color)
slipping slip of 2.44 m inside the road (section of 7-8). Section of 2-3 construction of pits and location of the
water Table at -2.2 m and 15 m from the level of the road

Figure 2.19 Pit with presence of water at -2.2 m depth, in clayey soil

2.4.3 Quantification

The number of soundings and the depth to reach depends on the resistance of the
terrain, filtrations, deformability, etc., should reach the level of the most stable substrate
of the stratigraphic column. The number of soundings depends on the objectives and
the representativeness of the area under investigation.

In the case of a susceptible landslide, a surveying mesh with soundings in each

intersection of the mesh is planned. For the detection of a slip zone, the stratigraphic
profiles are determined to obtain the properties of the soils and rocks that affect the
sliding behavior of the slope, as figure 2.20 (a) and (b).

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a) Suggested location of soundings in an area b) Suggested location of soundings in an active

where a landslide is suspected, (9 landslide zone, (7 drillings)
soundings)

Figure 2.20 Location of slope soundings. Suarez, 2009.

For the depth of the soundings, there is no defined rule. One criterion is geological and
geotechnical zones, for example: if there were three zones where zone 1 is of least
resistance, zone two of medium resistance and zone three of high resistance; It is
advisable to cross zone one and two, penetrate at least five meters in the zone, three.
The stratigraphy and lithological structures associated with sliding should be considered.

2.4.4 Scope of tests for mass movements

The tests must be planned, representative, and must reach the objectives for which
they are programmed. For example, if we need to know the actual thicknesses of the
stratification in sedimentary rocks, the sounding should be oriented perpendicular to
the inclination of the stratification planes and ensure that the units that cut are
representative of the formation being investigated. Equal to define the planes of sliding
of a fault, the sounding must cross it of minimum 5 m ensuring that the final terrain of the
sounding does not represent risks of instability. Otherwise, the sounding will be
unsuccessful, and it should be considered as a sounding that did not reach the
objective — repeated in the same place and with the same orientation.

When you have geophysical studies and drill to corroborate the results, the researcher
should consider the orientation of electrical profiles, resistivity or other applied, and
guide the soundings in the same direction so that the results are representative.
Otherwise, there may be significant variations in the results.

Bellow, there is a list of the scope of a geotechnical study for road slopes, depending
on the characteristics of the slope, some or all of those mentioned can be known

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- Identify and characterize the weakest formations that can affect movement
- Identify the most resistant formations that can limit the extension of the fault zone
- Locate groundwater levels, pressures, and water characteristics
- Identify the subsurface distribution of materials
- Quantify the physical properties of the materials (humidity, gradation, plasticity,
resistance to cutting, etc.) for later use in the stability analysis
- Place instruments for measuring deformations or water levels
- Determine geotechnical parameters such as RQD
- Corroborate the geophysical tests

2.4.5 Minimum tests proposed

One test must be performed for each stratum of soil (the stratum being understood as
the horizontal layer that differs by its color, texture, structure, consistency, and reaction
or pH of the other layers) found in the lithological profile of the pit.

If there is no lithological contrast in the profile of the pit, the depth must be subdivided
into sections that are not less than 0.50 meters or greater than 1.50 meters to obtain a
representative sample. On each horizon take a representative segment of the unit.

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3. CHAPTER 3 GEOTECHNICAL STUDY FOR SLOPES

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Regional knowledge of geology, seismicity, and hydrogeological conditions provide

the first guideline or what is expected from the behavior of slopes in construction sites.
Determine the parameters required for the design of slopes is an important task
because it is present in any construction activity: linear, extractive or movement below
the surface, it is necessary to calculate the resistance of the materials to shape them
adequately.

It is necessary to know adequate measurement techniques for the soils and rocks, and
the structures to obtain accurate terrain conditions.

It is convenient to rely on laboratory activities to obtain results that support those

compiled in the field and sometimes requires seismic methods and rotation or
percussion soundings to know the conditions of the subsoil.

The study of slopes is multidisciplinary because professionals from different areas of

engineering must participate: seismologists, hydrologists, geotechnical engineers, civil
engineers, geologists, and others.

Research in situ

From the in-situ research, the parameters and properties that define the conditions of
the land where the project will be built, are obtained. See Table 3.1
Table 3. 1 Parameters and properties that define the terrain conditions
1. Determine the geological conditions of the - Type and characteristics of geological
work area. materials
- Characteristics of rock masses
- Orientation and characteristics of
discontinuities
2. Know the geological problems that can - Important leaks.
affect the construction. - Tectonized areas, singular structures, and
cavities
- Soft and expansive grounds.
- Aggressive or reactive rocks.
- Abrasive and hard rocks.
3. Quantify the data and terrain parameters - Resistant and deforming properties of soils,
necessary for the development of the work. rocky matrix, and rocky massif.
- Data for geotechnical classifications.
Resistant and deforming properties of soils,
rocky matrix, and rocky massif.
- Data for geotechnical classifications.
4. Provide criteria for the design.
Source: González 2002

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3.1.1 Water Table

According to the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language; the phreatic level
corresponds to the upper part of a groundwater Table (groundwater at a relatively low
depth below ground level), or an aquifer in general (figure 3.1), unlike the piezometric
level. It is considered as the altitude or depth (about the surface of the soil) of the
boundary between the water Table and the vadose zone in an aquifer.

Figure 3. 1 Phreatic level, superficial part of a phreatic layer

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/MarianelaDiaz4/aguas-en-los-suelos

In each hand-drilling, piping, excavation, and sounding, the variation of the water
Table must be recorded carefully. When groundwater is found or when saturated
impermeable soils are crossed, fast reading piezometers must be installed to observe
the water Table for a considerable time and to determine its behavior with time
changes.

The phreatic level can be found at different depths depending on the geological and
climatic circumstances, generally due to the meteorological conditions that recharge
the aquifers. The water Table is not horizontal but irregular; Table 3.2 refers to the
geological formation and its behavior about water. Table 3.3 presents the types of
aquifers according to their structure and functioning.

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Table 3.2 Geological formations and their behavior against water

Storage capacity

Transmission

Formations
Drainage
capacity

capacity
AQUIFERS HIGH HIGH HIGH Gravels, sands, limestones
AQUITARD HIGH MIDDLE-LOW LOW Limes, silty and clayey sands
ACUICLUDOS HIGH MUY BAJA NULL Clays
ACUIFUGOS NULL NULL NULL Granites, gneisses, marbles.
Source: González and others 2002.

Table 3.3 Type of aquifers according to their structure and operation.

They release water by desaturation, the

Release of water by
RELEASE water that is stored in the water they
desaturation
have stored.
They are isolated in the subsoil,
CONFINED OR CAPTIVATED Elastic water elimination surrounded by waterproof materials on
all sides.
Recharge drain or vertical The materials that surround them are
SEMICONFINATED
drip not all waterproof.
Source: González and others 2002.

The soil is a material with the variable arrangement of particles that leave between
them a series of pores connected to form a complex network of channels of different
magnitudes that communicate both with the surface of the ground and with the
fissures and cracks of the mass. Hence, the water that falls on the ground runs off, and
part infiltrates by gravity to deeper impermeable layers, forming the so-called water
Table. The upper limit of this watery mantle is called the water Table. The water that
passes through the pores through the ground is known as gravitational water, and that
which is below the water Table is called groundwater. When the movement of
gravitational water through the soil is suspended, part of the water is retained in the
pores and on the surface due to surface tension and adsorption forces. In figure 3.2, the
names appear according to the state of the water on the ground.

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WATER IN THE SOIL

GROUNDWATER GRAVITATIONAL WATER RETAINED WATER

WATER RETAINED WATER RETAINED IN

IN LIQUID PHASE STEAM PHASE

CHEMICALLY COMBINED ADHERED OR CAPILLARY

WATER HYDROSCOPIC WATER
WATER
Figure 3. 2 Names of the water according to the state in which it is in soil

3.1.2 Hydrogeological conditions

The hydrogeological parameters characteristic of geological formations is based on

four basic parameters in terms of their behavior concerning the water they can contain
and transmit; see Table 3.4 for more details and Table 3.5 shows methods for evaluating
hydrogeological parameters.

Table 3.4 Hydrogeological parameters characteristic in geological formations

Porosity It is the relation between the volume of holes and the total volume of the rock.
Represents the ability to release water from an aquifer. It is defined as the
Storage
volume of water that can release a prism of unitary base and height of the
coefficient aquifer when the piezometric level falls one meter.
Evaluates the ability to transmit water from a formation according to the
Permeability
texture, without relating it to its structure or geometric shape.
Evaluates the capacity to transmit water from aquifers, considering: texture of
Transmissivity
the aquifer, structural or geometric characteristics.
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

Table 3.5 Methods of evaluation of hydrogeological parameters

It is the most complete and reliable method for calculating the hydrogeological
Pumping
parameters of an aquifer. It consists of pumping a well, in principle at a constant flow,
tests and analyzing the decrease in piezometric levels.
Injection They are practiced in situ, and the most frequent is the Lugeon test in rock and
tests Lefranc in soils, Matsuo and others.
It consists of injecting a tracer in a point of the aquifer and observing its arrival to
Tests with
another point of the same aquifer, determining the transit time between both points.
tracers The flow velocity and direction, permeability can be obtained.
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

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3.1.3 Lithology and geological structure

LITHOLOGY

Lithology is part of the geology that studies rocks, their grain size, the shape of physical
and chemical particles, mineralogy and cementing material through petrography.
Geology studies materials and classifies them according to their genesis or formation
(Abramson, 1996)

Each type of rock has a specific susceptibility to landslides. When several types of rock
form a slope, the geotechnical behavior of the set is different from that of each
separate material. The properties of each type of rock, the characteristics of its
discontinuities and, in turn, the weathering of the properties and discontinuities within
the whole must be studied. Table 3.6 gives a general classification of the various
geological materials and lithological characteristics.

Table 3.6 General classification of the various geological materials for engineering
Type of
Formation Lithological characteristics Characteristic structures
material
Rock Igneous Rock formed by mineral crystals. Geological structure
metamorphic Fractures
Sedimentary (the Rock formed by cemented Stratification plans.
type of rock must grains, deposited in layers.
be defined in the
most detailed
formation possible)
Weathered Igneous Some features of the rock Geological structure
rock (saprolite) Metamorphic remain, but this one is Discontinuities.
Sedimentary decomposed, in the Weather condition
discontinuities.
Soil Residual Weathered rock in which the Geological structure
physical characteristics of the Discontinuities.
rock no longer appear. Physicochemical
properties
Alluvial Group of particles or blocks of Propiedades físicas.
Colluvial soil or rock.
Loess
Heterogeneou Rock A mix of different materials in the Geological structure
s materials Weathered rock same profile. Discontinuities.
ground Methodization
Physicochemical
properties.
Source: Landslides and stability of slopes in tropical areas. Suarez Días, J.

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Intrusive igneous rocks

According to the book Slides and stability of slopes in tropical zones, the intrusive
igneous rocks "are the product of magma cooling before it surfaces to the surface. This
type of rocks forms 98% of the volume of the earth's crust, although in the surface
sedimentary rocks are more common and in a lesser proportion the igneous and
metamorphic ones". Table 3.7 makes a general classification of intrusive igneous rocks.

Table 3.7 General classification of intrusive igneous rocks

Granite is a coarse-grained acid igneous rock, composed
mainly of quartz, feldspars and some mica with some other
secondary components.
Granite

An intermediate coarse-grained igneous rock composed

mainly of feldspars, plagioclase, as well as hornblende,
which is a green ferromagnesian material. The content of
Greenstone quartz can reach up to 10%. The rock has a color that varies
from greenish white to green, depending on the hornblende
content.

It is a basic igneous rock with a high content of magnesium,

calcium, or sodium in its chemical composition.
Approximately half of the mineral composition is constituted
by the ferromagnesian olivine pyroxene, and hornblende. Its
Dolerite
color varies from grayish-green to dark green. The darker
color indicates a higher iron content. When weathering
produces iron and brown clay hydroxides

It is essentially composed of plagioclase and pyroxene and

may have small amounts of quartz; its color is mottled gray.
The size of the crystals is greater than that of Dolerite.
Gabbro

Source: Own elaboration based on landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones. Suarez Días, J. Photos
available in: las rocas ígneas características y algunos ejemplos-youtube https://www.youtube
com/watch?v=q9a_5G6pgdA

Volcanic or igneous extrusive rocks

From the book Landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones " volcanic or
pyroclastic rocks also known as extrusive igneous rocks are the product of the
crystallization of materials expelled by volcanoes," Table 3.8 gives a general
classification of extrusive igneous rocks.

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Table 3.8 General classification of extrusive igneous rocks

It is the exclusive fine-grained component of granite
magma that escaped from the surface through a volcanic
eruption and has some granite-like characteristics. Mega
crystals of quartz or feldspar give the rhyolites differences in
Rhyolites character and behavior.

Volcanic tuffs are rocks formed by loose material thrown

by an erupting volcano. They are very porous and rich in
glass materials. Occasionally, the tuffs have deposits of
Tuff clay, expansive materials, or unstable clays.

Andesite is a fine-grained volcanic rock, found as lava flow

and occasionally, as small inclusions. Generally, it is dark in
color. The constituent minerals are essentially plagioclase,
Andesite hornblende, and biotite with very little quartz.

Basalt is a basic fine-grained igneous rock, formed by a

volcanic eruption that crystallizes very quickly. The mineral
composition of basalt is approximately half pyroxene and
Basalts half plagioclase, up to 5% iron oxide.

Source: Own elaboration based on landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones. Suarez Días, J. Photos
available in: las rocas ígneas características y algunos ejemplos-youtube https://www.youtube
com/watch?v=q9a_5G6pgdA

Metamorphic rocks

The book Landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones describe that metamorphic
rocks "are in the result of Metamorphism or recrystallization of igneous and sedimentary
rocks, in this process the rocks are subjected to textural and mineralogical changes, in
such a way that their original characteristics are altered or completely lost." In Table 3.9,
a classification is made, and a brief description of metamorphic rocks is shown.

“The behavioral characteristics of the slopes in healthy metamorphic rocks depend on

their fracturing and banding patterns (texture and structure microstructure). The
foliation and schistosity present in some metamorphic rocks make them very
susceptible to weathering".

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Table 3.9 Type of metamorphic rocks

They are metamorphic rocks, formed by quartz,

Quartzite sometimes with traces of Muscovite, Ortoclase, Albite.
They derive from metamorphism on sandstones.

It is a banded or foliated rock, in which bands of light

color, quartz and feldspar form parallel microstructures
Neis with bands of other minerals such as biotite and
hornblende and in some cases pyroxene. Muscovite
usually accompanies the biotite.

Consist of flat crystals of micas, green chlorite,

hornblende, quartz. The crystals are tubular and align so
that the failure of the rock easily into flat fragments. The
Shale
shales are very unstable materials on the slopes due to
their microstructure and the ease with which they
weather.

Color slightly greenish to yellowish green. Fibrous

Serpentinite appearance and soft to the touch. Marbled texture. Main
component serpentine, talc, magnetite, chlorite, etc.

It is a hard rock formed under the influence of very high

stresses on clay sediments. The crystallization process forms
laminar minerals such as chlorite and sericite and some
Slate quartz grains. Sometimes, the rock has many planes of
cleavage, in such a way that flat sheets of rock are
formed that are used as a construction material.
Sometimes, these layers or sheets are very thin and fissile.
It is a rock like slate but has flat oval crystals like tree
leaves, which give the planes of cleavage or exfoliation a
characteristic texture. These planes of cleavage are
crossed by fractures that often have a geometric pattern.
It is a rock like slate but has flat oval crystals like tree
Filita leaves, which give the planes of cleavage or exfoliation a
characteristic texture. These cleavage planes are crossed
by fractures that often have a regular geometric pattern,
causing the rock to failure into rhombohedral or
rectangular shapes. It causes the rock to failure into
rhombohedral or rectangular shapes.

Formed of limestone rocks subjected to temperature and

pressure. The basic component is calcium carbonate
Marble
(90%). There are several colors (white, brown, red, black,
gray, etc.)

It is an organic and inorganic precipitate of silica. Silica is

The Chert mainly cryptocrystalline quartz. The chert can occur in the
form of precipitation or nodular.

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Source: Own elaboration based on landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones. Suarez Días, J. Photos
available: http://geologiaonline.com/rocas-metamorficas/

Sedimentary rocks

According to the book Landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones, " Sedimentary
rocks are formed by the sedimentation and cementing of clay particles, sand, gravel or
ridges."

" Its stability characteristics generally depend on the size of the grains, the stratification
planes, the normal fractures to the stratification and the degree of cementation "; Table
3.10 shows the characteristics, and in Table 3.11 a general classification of sedimentary
rocks plus a brief description of each is made.

Table 3.10 Characteristics of sedimentary rocks

Rock Component Characteristic
Conglomerate Large rounded particles of rock and fragment of More than 50% of grains greater
minerals. than 2 mm and less than 25% of
clay
Gap Angular rock particles and mineral fragments. More than 50% of grains greater
than 2 mm and less than 25% of
clay
Sandstone Rounded minor particles of rock. More than 50% of the grains
between 2 and 0.06 mm and
less than 25% of clay
Limonite Silt particles. More than 50% of grains less
than 0.06 mm and less than 25%
clay
Arcillolite Clay particles. More than 50% clay.
Lodolite Clay rocks with high silt content. More than 50% of silt
Limestone Calcite grains More than 50% calcite and less
than 25% clay
Source: Own elaboration based on Landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones. Suarez Días, J.

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Table 3.11 Types of sedimentary rocks

Sandstones are a form of sand hardened by geological
processes. The size of the grains varies from 60μm to several
mm, and are cemented by other minerals, often by
precipitated quartz. They are classified according to the size of
Sandstone their grains as fine, medium, or coarse and according to the
nature of the cementing materials. Although sandstones tend
to be resistant, they are sometimes relatively weak when their
cementation has been poor.,
Rocks containing significant amounts of clay are referred to as
lutaceous shales, siltstones, and mudstone. The shales are one of the most
rock, complex materials for slope stability. According to the degree
mudstone, of solidification, the shales vary in their behavior. The shales of
or pelitic low grade tend to disintegrate after several cycles of drying
rock and wetting.

Limestone is a sedimentary rock with more than 50% calcium

carbonate. The limestones in which the calcite is replaced by
dolomite, a product with high magnesium content is called
dolomites.
This rock is usually hard and compact, but there are
geotechnical problems related to the dissolution of CaCO3.
Limestones There is a variety of rocks in the limestone family depending on
and the amounts of calcium carbonate, sand, silt, marine animal
dolomites shells, and clay. They are bluish gray, but there are also white
and other colors. In the limestones, large caverns can be
formed that act as internal conduits of the groundwater, which
can lead important quantities of water from one place to
another and facilitate the general infiltration. The denudation
of the limestone rocks caused by the infiltration of rainwater
forms a karstic topography.
Evaporites include gypsum, anhydrite, and halite. They are
generally associated with mudstones, siltstones, and limestones,
forming layers of evaporites.
Evaporites

Source: Own elaboration based on Landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones. Suarez Días, J. Photos
available in https://www.piedraspara.com/tipos-de-piedras/rocas-sedimentarias/

Residual soils

Residual soils are referred in “Landslides, and stability of slopes in tropical zones “as the
product of weathering rocks and their behavior depends on the properties of the
original rock and the degree of decomposition, Figure 3.3, Table 3.12. Landslides are
very common in residual soils, especially during periods of intense rainfall".

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Depth Lithology

Sa
bro
we
ox

S
r
d
y

M
s
m
g
p

Figure 3. 3 Residual soil in weathered metamorphic rock. Roatán, Honduras.

Table 3.12 Classification of residual soils

The alluvial soils are deposits transported by the water in movement and
deposited when the speed of the water has diminished; These materials may be of
fluvial or lacustrine origin and may contain fine, coarse or intermixed particles.
The alluvial deposits are generally stratified, and the permeability in the horizontal
Alluvial soils
direction is greater than in the vertical direction.
Alluvial soils, composed of clay tend to be soft, and sandy soils tend to be loose.
Due to their lack of cementing, alluvial materials are prone to erosion and
landslides.
Deposits of organic materials, peat deposits, or organic material that has not
completely decomposed, due to its high-water content. Organic deposits are
Organic sometimes stratified with other elements such as silt or sand or interspersed with
deposits clay. These materials are very problematic for the execution of excavations due to
their very low shear strength. It is common for organic materials to flow when
excavating or liquefying in seismic events.
Colluvial or colluvial soils are hillside deposits, the product of rock or soil landslides
Colluvial soils
and slides and are very susceptible to landslides
The wind transports the aeolian soils and varies from dunes to Loess, which are
deposits of fine sand and silt. Generally, they have very little vegetation, and the
Wind soils
materials are very rich in quartz and not very dense. The main problem of wind
deposits is erosion.

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The glacial deposits are transported by the glaciers, which, when the temperature
Glacial soils
increases, thaw and these glacial deposits of soil are formed. Glacial deposits can
vary in grain size composition, from large boulders to clays.
Source: Own elaboration based on landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones. Suarez Días, J.

Geological structures

The geological structure is one of the factors that most influence the stability of an
excavation; Table 3.13 shows the type of geological structure and the geotechnical
problems. Table 3.14 presents the types of discontinuities, and Table 3.15 describes the
requirements to identify discontinuities in faults.

In folded and stratified rocks, the orientation of the strata conditions the behavior
against stability.

His influence is as follows:

- Diving off the structure concerning the road

- Direction of stratification to the road
- Types of creases

Table 3.13 Geological structures and geotechnical problems

Geological structures and geotechnical problems
Geological structures Characteristics Geotechnical problems
Faults and structures Very continuous surfaces Failures, instabilities, accumulation of
variable thickness tensions, leaks, and alterations.
Stratification plans Continuous surfaces Unstable failures and leaks.
little separation
Discontinuities Slightly continuous surfaces Unstable failures, leaks, and
Closed or little separated alterations.
Folds Great continuity surface Instability, leaks, and stresses
conditioned to orientation.
Foliation and schistosity The surface of little continuity Anisotropy depending on the
and closed orientation.
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

Table 3.14 Types of discontinuities

Types of discontinuities
Discontinuities Systematics Singular
Planar Stratification plans. Faults
Rolling plans. Dykes.
Joints or joints. Disagreements
Schistosity planes.
Linear The intersection of planar discontinuities. Folding axes.
Lineations
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

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Table 3.15 Discontinuities and requirements

Discontinuity Requirements
Failures Know the regional and local tectonic structure
Structural analysis
Identification of faults and their classification according to the origin, age,
type, and geometry
Identification of fault filling, its resistance, and expansiveness
Know the hydraulic transmissibility
The representation of the planes is through stereographic projection.
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

Description of discontinuities

- Orientation
- Spacing
- Continuity and persistence
- Rugosidad
- The resistance force of the walls
- Opening
- Filling
- Leaks

Orientation description

The orientation of a plane refers to the position of a plane in space defined between
two angles: the bearing and the inclination of the plane.

The orientation and inclination of the stratigraphic planes contained in a section

determine the stability of the slope. A stratigraphic plane opposite to the line of the
road provides stability in the walls of the slope, contrary to the planes that dip towards
the road, are susceptible to landslides.

The orientation of a discontinuity in space is defined by its direction of dip (direction of

the line of maximum slope of the plane of discontinuity concerning the north) and by its
dip (inclination concerning the horizontal of the said line). The compass makes its
measurement with an inclinometer.

The discontinuities have characteristics that identify and zoning a slope; Table 3.16
describes the spacing of the discontinuities; Table 3.17 presents the description of
measuring the continuity of the discontinuities; Table 3.18, the roughness of
discontinuities and Table 3.19 opening of discontinuities.

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Table 3.16 Description of spacing in discontinuities

Description Spacing
Extremely j together <20 mm
Very together 20 – 60 mm
together 600 – 200 mm
Moderately together 200 – 600 mm
Separated 600 – 2,000 mm
Very separate 2,000 – 6,000 mm
Extremely separated >6,000 mm
Source: International Society for Rock Mechanics, ISMR, 1981

Table 3.17 Description of continuity of discontinuities

Continuity Longitud
Very low continuity <1 m
Low continuity 1–3m
Medium continuity 3 – 10 m
High continuity 10 – 20 m
Very high continuity >20 m
Source: International Society for Rock Mechanics, ISMR, 1981

Table 3.18 Description of the roughness

Wrinkled I
Staggered Smooth II
Polished III
Wrinkled IV
Wavy Smooth V
Polished VI
Wrinkled VII
Flat Smooth VIII
Polished IX
Source: International Society for Rocks Mechanics, ISRM 1981

Table 3.19 Opening description

Opening Description
<0.1 mm Very close
0.1 – 0.25 mm Close
0.25 – 0.50 mm Partially open
0.50 – 2.5 mm Open
2.5 – 10 mm Moderately broad
>10 mm Wide
1 – 10 cm Very wide
10 - 100 cm Extremely wide
>1 m Cavernous
Source: International Society for Rocks Mechanics, ISRM 1981

Description of resistance in the walls

It influences the cut resistance and its deformability. It depends on the type of rock
matrix, the degree of alteration, and the existence or not of the filling. In healthy and
clean discontinuities, the resistance would be the same as that of the rock matrix, but it
is generally less due to the weathering of the walls: alteration processes affect the
discontinuity planes to a greater degree than to the rocky matrix.

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The resistance can be determined in the field with the Schmidt hammer, by applying it
directly in the plane of the discontinuity. With the obtained values, the rock can be
classified by its resistance, Table 3.20.

Table 3.20 Classification based on the strength of the rock

Simple compression resistance Description
(MPa)
1-5 Very soft
5-25 Soft
25-50 Moderately hard
50-100 Hard
100-250 Very hard
>250 Extremely hard
Source: Miller, 1965.

Miller, 1965, presents a correlation for the Schmidt hammer between compressive
strength, rock density, and rebound, see figure 3.4, however, this figure is by way of
example since each Schmidt hammer contains a unique comparative Table.

Figure 3. 4 Correlation for the Schmidt hammer between compression strength, rock density, and rebound
(Miller, 1965)

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Filling description

The filling can be different from the rock and with variable physical and mechanical
properties. It must be considered that, if they are soft or altered materials, they can
suffer important variations in their short-term resistant properties if their moisture content
changes or if there is some movement along the joints.

Characteristics of the landfill must be described in outcrop:

- Nature (material identification, mineralogical description, and grain size)
- Thickness or width (measured directly with a ruler)
- Resistance to cutting (the soil and rock classification Table can be used for its
simple compressive strength, as shown in Table 3.21).
- Permeability (is conditioned by the matrix and the number of fractures of the
rock mass)

Table 3.21 Approximate estimation and classification of the resistance to simple compression of
soils and rocks from field index
Approximation to the
range of simple
Sort Description Field identification compression resistance
(MPa)
S1 Very soft clay The fist easily penetrates several cm. <0.025
S2 Weak clay The finger easily penetrates several cm. 0.025-0.05
S3 Firm clay It takes a little pressure to sink the finger. 0.05-0.1
S4 Rigid clay It takes a strong pressure to sink the finger. 0.1-0.25
S5 Very rigid clay With some pressure, it can be marked with the 0.25-0.5
nail.
S6 Hard clay It is marked with difficulty when pressing with >0.5
the nail.
R0 Extremely soft rock Se puede marcar con la uña. 0.25-1.0
R1 Very soft rock The rock crumbles when hitting with the tip of 1.0-5.0
the hammer. With a razor, it is easily carved.
R2 Soft rock It is carved with difficulty with a knife. When 5.0-25
striking with the tip of the small hammer marks
are produced.
R3 Moderately hard rock It cannot be carved with the knife. It can 25-50
fracture with a strong hammer blow.
R4 Hard rock It takes more than one hammer blow to 50-100
fracture it.
R5 Very hard rock It takes many hits with the hammer to fracture 100-250
it.
R6 Extremely hard rock When hit with the hammer, only splinters are >250
thrown.
Source: International Society for Rock Mechanics, ISMR, 1981
Leaks

When the flow circulates through the rock matrix which is directly related to the
porosity, it is called: primary permeability; and when the flow circulates through the
discontinuities, it is called: secondary permeability. Table 3.22 makes observations
regarding leaks in discontinuities, with filling and without filling.

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Table 3.22 Description of leaks in discontinuities

Sort Discontinuities without filling Discontinuities with filling
I Very flat and closed board. It appears dry, Consolidated and the dry filling do not seem
and it does not seem possible that water possible circulation.
circulates.
II Dry board without evidence of water flow. Wet fill but without free water.
III Dry board but with evidence of water flow Wet fill with an occasional drip.
IV Wet board but without free water. Filling with wash samples, continuous flow
(estimate flow)
V Joint with ooze, occasionally dripping but Locally washed fill, considerable flow
without continuous flow. according to preferred channels (estimate
flow)
VI Joint with a continuous flow of water Fully washed padding, high water pressures.
(estimate the flow rate in l/min and the
pressure,
Source: International Society for Rock Mechanics, ISMR, 1981

3.1.4 Definition of the type of failure in rock and soil

Table 3.23 shows the types of failure in soil and rock with a brief definition

Table 3.23 Definition of the type of failure in rock and soil

TYPES OF FAILURE
Failure types Definition
Approximately The most frequent, with its lower end at the foot of the slope,
circulates (foot slip) when this is formed by homogeneous terrain or by
several strata of homogeneous geotechnical properties.
Almost circular, but When a slip surface is deep
SLOPES IN passing under the
SOILS foot of the slope
Flat surface When the slope composes different strata or layers. It is
considered "infinite" when the contact surface is parallel to
the slope, between the surface terrain (colluvial or residual)
and underlying rock.
Polygonal surface Formed by several flat sections.
Flat failure It occurs in favor of a preexisting surface: stratification,
tectonic joints, failure, etc. The basic condition discontinuities
are diving in favor of the slope and with its same direction.
Wedge failure Sliding of a wedge-shaped block formed by two planes of
discontinuity in favor of the intersection line.
SLOPES IN Stratus overturning Rocky massifs with strata diverging from the inclination of the
ROCK slope and direction parallel or subparallel to it.
Failure by buckling It occurs in favor of stratification planes in favor of the slope
with a greater dip than the angle of internal friction.
Curved failure It can occur in soft rocky massifs and massifs that are highly
altered or intensely fractured.
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

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3.1.5 Geological-geotechnical cartography at scale between 1:2000 and 1:500

The International Association of Engineering Geology (IAEG) has no standard

procedure, due to the complexity of the geological environment and the different
purposes and applications of the geotechnical maps. There being differences of the
maps concerning the data presented as to the form of present them; Table 3.24 makes
a cartographic representation of the basic cartographic elements for geotechnical
maps. Figure 3.5 exemplifies how geotechnical data from geotechnical tests can be
presented.

Information on the characteristics and geotechnical properties of the soils and rocks
should be presented on the map:

- Assignment of geological-geotechnical properties to different lithological

assemblies or units established.
- Delimitation of homogeneous units concerning some property (resistance,
density, plasticity, degree of fracturing, degree of alteration, etc.)
- Zoning of geotechnically homogeneous units and assignment of quantitative
values.
- The data represent them by isolines of quantitative values.

It is common to use standard geomorphological and geological graphic symbols, but

not the letters and numbers that are used to define the lithologies and ages of
geological formations, as they do not provide information on their physical and
mechanical properties.

Usually, it also includes geological-geotechnical classifications of materials, columns of

soundings, sheets of test results, and photographs of some aspects of geotechnical
interest.

The legend must detail and clarify the information contained in the map, being
frequent that it is wide and explicit, and that includes classification Tables and
complementary data.

Table 3.24 Cartographic representation of the basic elements in geotechnical maps

Scale Classification Geological- Hydrological Geomorphologic Dynamic
of soils and geotechnical conditions al conditions processe
rocks properties s
Little Colors and Colors and Symbols and Level curves
patterns. patterns numerical Punctual symbols
Symbols
Letters and values for
numbers geomorphological

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Scale Classification Geological- Hydrological Geomorphologic Dynamic

of soils and geotechnical conditions al conditions processe
rocks properties s
elements.

Average Contours and Level curves

lines Limits and
Numerical morphological
values features of detail.
Big Colors and Isovalue lines Contours
patterns Numerical and lines
Numerical values
values
Diagrams and
graphs
Source: González and others 2002

Depth of sounding Depth of rocky Simple Depth

(m) substrate (m) compression
6 CL Clasification USCS
22 7,5 resistance
(kg/cm2) 2.5 11 Value Nspt
3,2 1,5 38 16 Plasticity index
Depth of water Thickness of
Table (m) anthropic fillings
Liquid limit
(m)

Figure 3. 5 Example of a diagram for the representation of geotechnical data from drilling or testing.
Source: González and others 2002.

As for the legend, it must detail and clarify the information contained in the map, being
frequent that it is broad and explicit, and that it includes classification Tables and
complementary data. In the leaves can be included, next to the legend, auxiliary or
complementary small-scale maps, much smaller than the geotechnical map.

Test pits in weathered soils or rocks

Sampling in pits or other soil excavation, altered or unchanged samples may be taken.
The altered samples are extracted with shovels or manual methods by inserting them in
sturdy plastic bags. The amount of sample to be taken depends on the granulometry of
the materials and the type of tests to be carried out; Figure 3.6 exemplifies the volume
of the sample applied to the different tests. Table 3.25, presents a record in test pits.

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Figure 3. 6 Process of the quartering of altered samples. Crespo, 1980.

Table 3.25 Registration in soil pits

WORK:
SOIL PIT: MACHINERY:
LOCATION: COORDINATES
DATE OF IMPLEMENTATION: X:
SUPERVISOR: Y:
DEPTH: from (m) to (m) DESCRIPTION COLUMN

PHOTOGRAPHY: (At the time of taking a photograph, a sheet or a blackboard is placed on one side of the wall of the pit,
with the following information: Number of the pit, depth of the pit, location in coordinates of the pit, will help to
identify them in office at the time of tabulation of information).

OBSERVATIONS:
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

▪ Altered samples

Altered samples are disaggregated or fragmented material, in which special

precautions are not taken to preserve the characteristics of structure and humidity;
opportunely it is convenient to know the original water of the soil; samples are taken;
they are packaged and transported appropriately.

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Altered samples of soils may be obtained from an excavation, from a front either cut or
bank or from drilling carried at depth.

▪ Unchanged samples

The unchanged samples have the structure, and the humidity that the soil has in the
sampling place is conserved. Unaltered samples will be obtained from thin soils that can
be carved without disintegrating.

Obtaining can be done on the floor or one of the walls of an excavation, on the
surface of the ground or the ground.

Table 3.26 presents a summary of the procedure for taking samples on open, altered,
and undisturbed slopes and wells.

Table 3.26 Sampling procedure for altered and unaltered materials

Altered samples Unchanged samples
Collection of individual samples from an Sampling normally of 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.30 in a flat
open pit (well 1.50 x 1.50 m section and surface.
depth required.)

− The dry and loose part of the soil is − The surface of the land is cleaned and
reduced to obtain a fresh surface. smoothed, and the outline of the piece is
− A sample is taken in each layer in a marked.
container, and an identification − A trench is dug around this.
card is placed. − Deepen the excavation and cut the sides of
the piece, using a thin blade knife.
− Samples are sent in bags to the
− The piece is cut with the knife and removed
laboratory.
from the hole.
− The face of the extracted piece that
corresponds to the ground level is marked
with any signal to know the position it
occupied in the place of origin. The edges
Process

Process

of the sample are chamfered, and three

layers of hot paraffin are applied with a
brush.
− If the sample is not going to be used soon, it
needs additional protection to the three
layers of paraffin. This protection consists of
wrapping the sample with a soft cloth, tying
it with a string. The whole sample is
immersed in molten paraffin as many times
as necessary. If the sample is sent to a
distant laboratory, after the coating with
paraffin, it should be packed with sawdust,
straw, or paper in a small box.

Individual samples taking by boreholes Sampling in open pit or wall of a cut

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Altered samples Unchanged samples

− The excavated soil is placed in a row − The face of the surface is carefully cleaned
with the proper order. and smoothed, and the outline is marked.
− A representative portion of each soil − It is excavated around and back forming

Process
class found is taken and placed in the piece, for this a thin blade knife is used.
separate bags with their − The piece is cut with the knife and carefully
Process

corresponding identification. removed from the hole. The upper face is

− The bags with the material are sent marked.
to the laboratory − Paraffin, for transfer to the laboratory.
Integral samples, taking either from open A sampling at a depth of a sounding
ditches or cuts.
− The superficial skinning layer is − Through drill bits drill to the desired depth.
removed. − The unaltered sample is removed with a
− The dry and loose material is Shelby tube, which consists of a thin-walled
removed to obtain a fresh surface metal tube and sharp end.
from which to obtain the sample. − It is forced inside the ground, not with blows.
− A waterproof tarpaulin is spread at − Once the sample is obtained, it is labeled,
the foot of the slope to collect the with an arrow, it indicates the lower and
Process

Process
sample upper part of the sample and the range of
− A vertical channel of the uniform depth that was obtained.
section is excavated from top to − The ends of the Shelby tube are paraffined
bottom, depositing the material in and sent to the laboratory.
the waterproof tarpaulin
− All excavated material is collected,
placed in a bag with its
identification tag, and sent to the
laboratory.
Source: Own elaboration based on Crespo, 1980

The descriptions of the geotechnical testification process in drilling are divided into
basic, drilling methods and drill progress Table 3.27.

Table 3.27 Information for the registration of geotechnical testimony in drilling

− Project
− Name and reference number
− Probe number
− Coordinates
Basics

− Tilt and orientation

− Date
− Contractor
− Supervisor
− Driller
− Machine
− Type of perforation
method
Drilling

− Diameter
− Characteristics of drilling tools, mud types, types of
circulation (direct or reverse)
− Other technical characteristics

− Maneuvers
− Meters of advance
Progress of
drilling

− Speed of advance
− Resistance to advance
− Recovery percentage in each maneuver
− Losses and leaks of fluids
− Instabilities of the walls

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− Water levels
− Number of hits for Inca taking samples
− Tests carried out, etc.

Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

If an altered sample reaches the laboratory with moisture that allows its easy
disintegration, it is not necessary to submit it to a drying process. Otherwise, the sample
must be dried either by spreading it in the sun on a clean surface or by placing it on a
tray or tray inside a low-temperature oven (50 ° C) or drying it slowly and carefully on a
hot stove low.

▪ Disintegration of the altered samples

Its purpose is to bring it to a state like that which will be presented in work during the
construction process, should prevail the criteria of the engineer to decide how far to
carry out the process of disintegration of the material according to, equipment and
construction procedure.

Procedure for disaggregation of altered samples

- Use a wooden mallet of 9.5 cm per side and 15 cm in height with a magician
coming out from the back face of the base and weighing approximately 1 kg.
The mallet is usually lined at the base with a leather cover.
- The material is sifted through a No. 4 mesh (4.76 mm), and the retentate is
placed on a tray and macerated, dropping the wooden mallet on the material
vertically and from an approximate height of 20 cm.
- Once the sample retained in the mesh No. 4 (4.76 mm) has been disintegrated, it
is mixed with the one that passed said mesh and is subjected to the quartering
process.

Quartering process

- With the disintegrated sample, a cone is formed by placing the material in the
vertex of the cone with a shovel and allowing it to adapt.
- With the same shovel, which must be rectangular, a truncated cone of about 15
cm in height is formed and divided into quadrants using a ruler.
- The material of two opposite quadrants is mixed, and the operation is repeated
until the desired amount is obtained

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Vertical or inclined probes

Each slope represents different characteristics, and the criterion of the professional in
charge of the project must prevail. In section 2.4.3 quantification figures 2.20 are
presented, which shows the number of surveys for slopes where the failure limits are not
known (it is suspected that a slip can occur) and when the fault limits are known (active
landslide).

The number depends on the objectives and scope of the investigations, as well as the
representativeness of the area investigated by each survey. The depth must pass the
deepest substrate that could be affected by structures, leaks, deformations, etc.

3.3.1 Rotation probes

Rotary drilling with a battery and obtaining a continuous core is the most widespread
procedure to obtain samples in any geotechnical investigation. Figure 3.7 shows a
machine for Long-year rotation probes 38.

With this method, witnesses can be obtained in any terrain, although in soft cohesive
soils, large bowls and silt, precautions must be taken. The depths reached in
geotechnics do not exceed 100 m, but this type of equipment can drill up to 1000 m.
González, 2002.

In this drilling procedure, a cutting crown is required, located at the mouth of the
sample receiver tube. The crown can be of two types depending on the material used
in manufacturing:

▪ The diamond crowns: they have a steel body that is attached to a matrix, formed
by a metallic alloy containing diamonds, composed of tungsten carbide and
bronze powder. Figure 3.8.
▪ Widia crown: The body of the crown is made of steel and prisms of widia (Tungsten
carbide, with 10% cobalt to give shock resistance) are embedded in the cutting
edge. Figure 3.9.

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Figure 3. 7 Diamond crowns. R & R

perforations.

Figure 3. 8 Long-year rotation machine 38 Figure 3. 9 Widia crowns. R & R

R & R perforations perforations.

The rotating batteries can be a single or double tube. In the single tube, the drilling fluid
washes the entire surface of the core, and there may be losses in recovery. In the
double tube, the water descends by the contact of both tubes. It is even at the base of
the crown where witnesses can be washed.

3.3.2 Percussion probes

It is used both in granular soils and in cohesive soils, being able to traverse soils of the
firm to a very firm consistency. It can reach depths of 30 or 40 m, being the most
frequent from 15 to 20 m.

▪ SPT tests (Standard Penetration Test)

The ASTM D 1586 Standards define it as a field test that measures the resistance to soil
penetration by dynamically driving a sampler that has a standardized manner.

The drilling system consists of the jacking of steel pipes by hitting a 120 kg mace that
falls from a height of 1 m. The necessary strokes for the penetration of each section
must be counted, which allows knowing the compactness of the ground traversed, see
figure 3.10 and figure 3.11.

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Figure 3.10 Percussion sounding. Geotec, S de Figure 3.11 Soil compactness, a survey conducted in
R.L. Roatán, Honduras

It is applied to all types of soil and even on soft and altered rocks. Drill to the desired
height for the test. The general steps are:

- Before starting the standard penetration, the hole is cleaned with a depth of 30
cm, taking samples and describing them visually.
- Once the hole is cleaned, penetration is carried out. Arming the sample and
twisting each of its pieces well.
- Screw the sample to the rods in such a way that they cover the depth that is
being drilled.
- Place the sample tap and insert it into the hole formed with the hole in the
cleaning.
- Place the hammer on top and attach the anvil to the top of the sampling rods.
Rest the dead weight of the sample, rods, anvil, and weight of the unit at the
bottom of the well.
- Mark the starting depth to the nearest 0.1 ft. (0.30 m). Compare the depth of
sampling start to the cleaning depth.
- Mark on the drill rods at three intervals of 0.5 ft (0.15 m) for the advance of the
sample under the impact

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- Impel the sample with 140-lbf (623-N) hammer blows and count the number of
strokes applied in each 0.5-ft (0.15-m) increment until one of the following
occurs:

A total of 50 strokes have been applied during any of the three increments
of 0.5 feet (0.15-m) described. A total of 100 strokes have been applied.
There is no observed advance of the sampler during the application of 10
successive blows of the hammer.

- Record the number of strokes (N) needed to advance from the sampler to every
0.5 ft (0.15 m) of penetration or fraction thereof.
- The first 0.5 feet (0.15 m) is considered a seating unit. The sum of the number of
strokes required for the second and third tranches of 0.5 feet (0.15 m) each is
called "standard penetration resistance" or "N value.”

Factors that affect the result

- Preparation and quality of the sounding: cleaning and stability of the perforation
walls
- Boom length and bore diameter: conditional the weight of the element to be
driven and the friction with the walls of the borehole
- Beating device: It can be manual or automatic, there being notable differences
between the results of both. The automatic devices guarantee the application
of the same impact energy in all cases

Terzaghi and Peck, 1948; When the test is carried out below the water Table, the
following correction is used (applicable to low permeable soils, silt, and fine sand). N =
15 + ((N´- 15) / 2)
Valid for N´> 15, where N is the corrected value and N´ is the measured value.

The comparison between SPT and the angle of internal friction in granular soils is shown
in Table 3.28. Table 3.29 compares the type of soil and resistance, for granular soils.

Table 3.28 Comparison between SPT and the angle of internal friction in granular soils
N (SPT) Compactness Internal friction angle (ф)
0–4 Very loose 28
4 – 10 Loose 28 - 30
10 - 30 Medium dense 30 - 36
30 - 50 Dense 36 - 41
> 50 Very dense >41
Source: González and others 2002

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Table 3.29 Comparison of soil type and resistance in granular soils

Type of soil Loose Medium dense Dense
Non-plastic slime 26 - 30 28 - 32 30 - 34
Fine uniform to medium 26 - 30 30 - 34 32 - 36
sand
Well graduated sand 30 - 34 34 - 40 38 - 46
The mix of sand and gravel 32 - 36 36 - 42 40 - 48
Source: González and others 2002

▪ Static penetration test, CPT (CONE PENETRATION TEST)

The CPT test is standardized by the ASTM D-3441 standard and consists in vertically
pressing a cone into the ground at a constant speed of 10 and 20 mm / sec.

It measures the reaction of the soil to the continuous penetration of a conical tip by two
parameters:
- The tip resistance (qc) and
- Lateral friction (fs)

The test is carried out mainly in soft clays, soft silts and medium fine sand deposits (it
does not work in gravel or cohesive deposits of great hardness)
Piezocone, CPTU
Static Penetration Test (CPT, Cone Penetration Test) with Interstitial Pressure
Measurement (CPTU), is standardized by ASTM D-5778; is a versatile, fast and accurate
method for determining the geotechnical parameters of soils ranging from coarse
sands to clays.
It is an equipment that in addition to measuring (qc) and (fs), records the interstitial
pressures (u) that are generated when driving; It is also possible to install additional
temperature sensors, inclination, etc.
Process:
A conical tip is pressed into the ground at constant pressure and constant speed,
measuring the necessary force for the penetration of the cone.
Are made in granular soils and cohesive soils of soft consistency.
The presence of boluses, gravel, cemented soils, and rock produces rejection and
damage to equipment.
Are used for the calculation of foundations and provide continuous information about
the tested land.
Main advantages:
- Provides a continuous stratigraphy, identifying small lenses and layers.

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- Rapid data collection and interpretation (2 to 3 times faster than conventional

methods)
- Environmentally friendly. Does not produce waste or requires water.

▪ DPSH Test (DYNAMIC PROBING SUPER HEAVY)

It is one of the dynamic penetration tests and can be performed at depths greater
than 25 meters. The mace is 63.5 kg with the height of fall of 0.75 m. The strokes required
for driving are recorded every 20 cm (N20). Table 3.30 shows the resistance tests in situ.

Table 3.30 Shows the resistance tests in situ

Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
Dynamic Penetration Test Blur Tests
DLP test (Dynamic Probing
Light)
DPM test (Dynamic probing
In soils Medium)
DPH (Dynamic Probing
Heavy) test
DPSH test (Dynamic Probing
Super Heavy)
In situ Static Penetration Test (CPT)
resistance Windlass Test (Vane Test)
tests Sclerometer or Schmidt's
On a rocky
hammer
matrix
Spot load test
On Cut resistance test
discontinuities Tilt Test
On soils Pressure testing
Plate load test
Deformability On rocks Diatometer test
Plate load test
Flat-Jack test
Seismic
methods
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

3.3.3 Probes with a helical auger

Its use is limited to relatively soft and cohesive soils. Among its advantages is the low
cost and ease of movement and rapid installation of equipment.

The probes include those made manually with depths between 2-4 m and diameter of
1-2 inches and mechanics, for depths of about 40 m and diameters of 3,4, 6 and 8
inches.

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A normal auger obtains an altered sample. Hollow auger allows to obtain undisturbed
samples without extracting to the surface the maneuver, and they are formed by a
central tube of greater diameter than in the normal ones.

3.3.4 Geotechnical geological witnesses

It consists of the lithological-geotechnical description of the witnesses and samples

obtained from drilling and drilling data; in Table 3.31, it presents a soil survey record, and
in Table 3.32, a record is presented in rock sounding.

Table 3.31 Soil survey record

Soil survey register
Company
Project:
Soundin Situation: Coordinates: X:
g No.: Y:
Z:
DATE: DEPTH: SHEET:
DESCRIPTION No. LIMITS OF

CLASSIFICATION
BEATS ATTERBERG

HUMIDITY (%)
WATER TABLE

S.P.T/MI
SECTION (m)

U.S.C. S
DEPTH (m)

COLUMN

SAMPLES

LL IP
LENGTH

(%) (%)

OBSERVATIONS:
MI: Unaltered sample TP: Paraffinized witness.
MA: Altered sample N.F.: Water Table
SPT: Standard Penetration Test MNC: Sample not achieved
Source: González and others 2002

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Table 3.32 Rock sounding record

Soil survey register
Company
Project:
Sounding Situation: Coordinates: X:
No.: Y:
Z:
DATE: DEPTH: SHEET:
WATER TABLE DESCRIPTION OF THE WITNESS R.Q.D FRACT.
(%) N/30 cm
SECTION (m)
DEPTH. (m)

RECOVERY

DISCOUNT.
COLUMN

SAMPLE
LENGTH

(%)
OBSERVATIONS:
MI: Unaltered sample TP: Paraffinized witness.
MA: Altered sample N.F.: Water Table
SPT: Standard Penetration Test MNC: Sample not achieved
Source: González and others 2002

3.3.5 Stratigraphy

Study the succession of sedimentary deposits, usually arranged in layers or strata.

Starting from this concept, each stratum has specific physical, chemical and biological
characteristics that change horizontally and vertically, some of these typologies present
in the stratigraphic sequence are: granulometry, orientation of the stratification, dip of
the stratification, inclination, joins, folds, contacts, discordances, faults, lithological
deformations due to compression and distention efforts, leaks, alterations, etc.

The road stability is determined by the resistance and constancy of the stratum where
the sub-base lies, a change of stratification requires changes of analysis in soils to
determine their characteristics and define the stability of the road sequence.

The dips of strata in favor of the road generally produce landslides of the horizons of soil
or rocky fragments depending on their geotechnical characteristics.

The faults and joints present in a lithostratigraphic sequence are always areas of
weakness and require special treatment, also allowing the flow of groundwater trigger
factor of landslides.

The folding represents zones that have undergone compression and distension.
Therefore, the resistance of the material is variable, although it represents the same
lithology.

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The lithological changes produced in contacts, discordances, faulting, folding, etc.

they represent resistance changes in the roadbed. Figure 3.12 outlines the
geomorphology in the bed of a river, consisting of an alluvial unit, interstratified shales,
and carbonates. The sequence is repetitive. However, a normal fault has dismantled
the order of the strata requiring a more detailed analysis to be able to correlate. A
similar interpretation must be made in the project section to determine lithological and
structural contrasts, consequently resistance changes.

Note that in figure 3.12, probes 01 and 02 (S-01, S-02) are vertical. The whole completely
cuts the contacts of the lithological units, the lithological columns represent the section
cut by the hole; the S-03 is inclined because the stratification is vertical and when
inclining it the greater information of the obtained unit, just as the S-04 was oriented to
know the contact between the shale and carbonate rocks below the surface. The
configuration of the soundings allows to determine structures and lithology at the same
time, a better geological model of the subsoil is obtained.

Figure 3.12 Profile and lithological columns

Source: Own elaboration

3.3.6 RQD

The RQD (Rock Quality Designation) index represents the relation between the sum of
the lengths of the witness fragments greater than 10 cm and the total length of the
section considered. Table 3.33 presents the values of the RQD and its quality.
 length of witness pieces >10 𝑐𝑚
RQD = 𝑥 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

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Table 3.33 RQD values and their quality

RQD (%) Quality
< 25 Very bad
25 - 50 Bad
50 - 75 Average
75 - 90 Good
90 - 100 Very good
Source: Deere, 1989

For the estimation of the RQD, only the fragments or witness pieces of fresh material are
considered, excluding those that present a significant degree of alteration (from grade
IV inclusive) for which an RQD = 0% is considered. The measurement of the RQD must
be made in each maneuver of the sounding or each lithological change, is
recommended that the length of maneuver does not exceed 1.5 m. The minimum
diameter of the witnesses must be 48 mm. The measurement of the length of the control
is made on the central axis thereof, considering the fragments with at least one
complete diameter. Figure 3.13 shows the process to measure and calculate the RQD.

Figure 3.13 Process to measure and calculate the RQD. González (2002)

3.3.7 Instrumentation for on-site geotechnical testing

Its purpose is to determine the behavior and characteristics of the land to predict its
evolution against loads, movements, thrusts, and other actions, both natural and
induced by the works.

Table 3.34 contains tests carried out in situ to obtain the geotechnical properties
(resistance, deformability, permeability) and the type of material where it is practiced.
Table 3.35 presents resistance tests carried out at the construction site, for deformability
tests, see Table 3.36.

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Table 3.34 In situ tests: geotechnical properties and type of material

Geotechnical property Type of material
Soils rock
Resistance - Penetration standard (SPT) * - Schmidt hammer
- Dynamic penetration - Point load.
- Static penetration and CPTU - Direct cut.
- Mountain (vane test) *
Deformability -Load plate -Dilatometer.
-Pressiometers * -Load plate.
-Cat in flat
Permeability -Lefranc* -Essays Lugeon *.
-Gilg Gavard*
-Matsuo**
-Haefeli**
* Testing in surveys. ** Tests in pits and ditches.
Source: González and others, 2002

Table 3.35 In situ resistance tests

Test Place Description Features Results
Standard Inside Resistance to the In soils, especially in N value of
penetration of a point non-cohesive resistance to
penetration soundings.
by hitting with materials. penetration that
(SPT) normalized energy can be correlated
with geotechnical
parameters.
Dynamic From surface Measurement of the Types: DPL, DPM, Indirect
resistance to the DPH, and DPSH. measurement of the
Penetrometer to a depth of
penetration of a point No samples are resistance of the
≈25 m. by hitting with obtained. land through the NB
normalized energy value, which can be
related to the SPT
Static From surface Continuous recording In granular and soft Endurance, lateral
of the resistance to the cohesive soils, a friction and
Penetrometer to a depth ≈
penetration of a tip piezocone installed interstitial pressures.
30 m. and a piston rod using measures interstitial
pressure pressures. You do
not get samples.
Windlass Inside Measurement of the In saturated soft Resistance to
torque required to cohesive materials cutting without
soundings.
failure the ground drainage.
Schmidt On rock Measurement of the It allows testing of Simple compressive
rebound recorded rocks and strength of the
hammer surface.
when performing a discontinuities. material from
percussion with the correlations
hammer in the chosen
area.
Point load (PLT) On rock Measurement of the On witnesses of Simple compressive
load required for failure soundings or strength of the
samples.
a sample by fragments of rock material from
compression between correlations
tips
Cut in situ In galleries, Measurement of the The Hoek cell can Resistance to
tangential tension be used for small cutting a
ditches, and
necessary to produce samples or field discontinuity plane
wells. the failure through a controls.
discontinuity subjected
to a certain normal
load
Source: González and others 2002

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Table 3.36 In situ deformability tests

Test Place Description Features Results
Loading Ditches, Measurement of the The plates can Young's modulus
plate in wells and on deformations produced have variable and ballast
soils the surface. when applying known dimensions (30 x 30 coefficient
vertical loads through a to 100 x 100 cm).
smooth and rigid plate.
Loading In galleries Measurement of the The plates can Young's module
plate in and tunnels deformations produced have variable
rocky when applying known dimensions (30 x 30
massifs. loads using a smooth and to 100 x 100 cm). It
rigid plate. is difficult to apply
loads> 200 t.
Pressure Inside Measurement of the Applicable in Pressure
gauge (in soundings. deformation of the land materials with E <or deformation
soils) when applying a series of = 6,000 MPa. It can module.
controlled pressures in soils. exert pressures up
to 20 MPa.
Dilatometer Inside Measurement of the Applicable in The module of
(rock) soundings. deformation of the terrain materials with E <or dilatometric
by applying a series of = 15,000 MPa. It can deformation.
controlled pressures on exert pressures up
rocks to 20 MPa.
Flat-Jack On surface, Measurement of the Up to 70 MPa. Deformation
galleries, deformation along a module and
tunnels. groove created in the rock tensional state
Source: González and others 2002

Piezometers, Tests for Permeability and Flow-pass Detection

3.4.1 Piezometer

It is the instrument used to determine the water pressure in the ground or water level in
boreholes. Classification of piezometers: They can be an open tube, pneumatic, or
vibrating cable. The use depends on the performance characteristics of the piezometer
and its accuracy. Figure 3.14 shows an example of a piezometer for monitoring
groundwater.

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Figure 3.14 Monitoring of groundwater (piezometer)

Installation of the piezometer

The most common installation is through vertical drilling. The tip of the piezometer
should be placed inside a sandbag in the specific area where you want to measure
the pore pressure.

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The length of this bag must be greater than four times the diameter of the perforation
and preferably not greater than 30 centimeters. It is recommended to use washed sand
with particle sizes between 0.2 and 1.2 millimeters.

Bentonite is usually used as a seal above the filter bag, and if the piezometer is not
installed at the bottom of the borehole, a bentonite seal should be placed below the
filter bag.

The length of the bentonite seal is between 30 and 50 centimeters in length. The
remaining length of the sounding is filled with a slurry of cement and bentonite. Once
the piezometer is installed, it is important to build a surface inspection box, which must
have a lock type security system.

Use of piezometers in landslide studies

They are installed as part of the site investigation and on occasion before the
information is available on the location of the fault surface.

3.4.2 Permeability test in drilling hole

It measures the coefficient of permeability in permeable or semipermeable soils, of

granular type, located below the water Table, and in very fractured rocks. The test is
carried out inside the borehole and can be carried out during the execution of the
drilling.

The procedure consists of filling the well with water and measuring the flow rate
necessary to maintain the constant level (permanent regime test) or to measure the
rate of descent of the water level (variable rate test). The intake flow measurement
should be done every 5 minutes, keeping the level constant in the mouth of the
sounding for 45 minutes. If the admission is very high, it should be measured every
minute during the first 20 and then every 5 minutes until it reaches 45 minutes.

Before measuring times and flows, the water drilling must be filled, observing that the air
is expelled and that the level and speed of descent is stabilized, which indicates that it
has reached the permanent regime. Table 3.37 is a format with the variables that must
be considered when making a permeability test in a drilling hole.

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Permeability test in a drilling hole

Table 3.37 Format for permeability test in a drilling hole

PROJECT PROF. OF TEST: FROM (m) to (m) PROBE No.
ÁREA DATE: TEST N°.
LITHOLOGY OF THE SECTION: START TIME: TEST TYPE OF TEST
FINAL TIME: PERFORMED
Under N.F Infiltration
Top N.F Pumping
Artisan built Recovery
well
Abasement
CONDITIONS OF THE MEASURES
Abasement Cylinder

Diameter = cm

Coating

Hydrometer

Test tube

h1 Height of water in the coating above ground level cm Z: Descent of the

h2 Depth of the coating cm level concerning
ha Depth of water Table measured from ground level cm time.
L Length of the test section cm
d Inner diameter of the HW coating cm Δhi = Loss of charge
D Diameter of the HQ test section cm per unit of time
Δh Loss of charge cm
t1 Trial start time Sec.
t2 Time that test ended Sec.
H1 Hydraulic load at the start of the test: H1 = h1 + ha cm
H2 Hydraulic load at the end of the test: H2 = H1 - Δh cm
TEST TIME
t(min) z(cm) Δhi (cm) GRAPH
0
1
2
3
CALCULATION OF THE PERMEABILITY COEFFICIENT

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L  L  H
2

d 2 ln + 1 +    ln 1 
 D  D    H 2  = cm/sec
k=
8L (t 2 − t 1 )

OBSERVATIONS:

Source: Own elaboration for this manual

3.4.3 Registration of groundwater for the detection of the flow path

The record is made to plan the underground drainage of groundwater for the stability
of the slope. The record can find the flow of passage or the target aquifer to be
drained. The recording is carried out in a well with a screened pipe installed.

The measuring equipment is an electrical tester with a cable connection to the weight
of the tip of the iron bar, which will measure the specific electrical resistance (Ωm) or
the electrical resistance (Ω). The length of the cable that connects to the weight of the
tip of the iron bar must be greater than the target. The salt should be mixed in the water
tank at an electrolyte concentration of approximately 1% before placing it in the well.

The registration work must be carried out after any rain event.

The electrical resistance of the groundwater in the well should be measured at intervals
of 0.5 m as the initial value.

The electrolyte solution, as indicated above, should be pumped into the well with a
plastic hose.

Measure the specific electrical resistance at a 50 cm interval from the depth of the well
in 10, 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes after placing and mixing the salt solution in the well. If
there is an underground water passage, the salt water can be replaced with pure
water in the flow path, and the electrical resistance of the groundwater will increase.

An example of the groundwater log chart is shown in Figure 3.15. The electrical
resistance increases as time pass to certain depths of the groundwater flow path.

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Figure 3.15 Example of the result of the underground water register

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Surface geophysics

Its purpose is to determine the resistivity of the rocks, internal structure, and above all,
the water content.

3.5.1 Electrical methods

In Table 3.38, a classification of the electrical methods is made: vertical electric probes,
electric pits, and dipole-dipole with the procedure to carry out each one of them.
Figure 3.16 shows equipment for electrical probes; figure 3.17 shows electrode piling on
the electric line; figure 3.18 shows electrical laying on the electric sounding line.

Table 3.38 Classification of electrical methods and procedure

Electrical method Process

Vertical electric probes − The Schlumberger configuration is generally
(VEP) used.
− The current electrodes A and B are separated
successively from the central point, following a
straight line and measuring the resistivity in
each arrangement.
− As the electrodes are distanced, the apparent
resistivity corresponds to a greater thickness of
the stratum.
− The results obtained from the VEP is the
variation of the resistivity with the depth at the
central point investigated.
− Reaching depths are between 0 to 200 m.
Electric drilling (EG) − Wenner configuration is used, where the
distances between electrodes A - M, M - N,
and N - B are equal, moving the device
laterally along a selected profile.
− Lateral variations of the apparent resistivity are
detected at a seemingly constant depth.
− The depths of investigation are between 0 and
50 m.
Dipole-dipole − The dipole MN is placed laterally to the AB and
aligned with it.
− Keeping the dipole AB fixed, the MN moves
successively.
− Then, move step AB and repeat the process.
Source: Own elaboration based on González, 2002

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Figure 3.16 Equipment for electrical probes.

Courtesy of: Applied Geoscience

Figure 3.18 Thrust of electrodes for electrical Figure 3.17 Electrical laying and electrode driving in
probes. Courtesy of Applied Geoscience electric soundings, Courtesy of Applied Geoscience

3.5.2 Seismic methods

Seismic refraction

It is the most widely used method; it studies the propagation in the field of artificially
produced seismic waves with which an approximate image of the stratigraphy of the
terrain can be obtained.

The contacts between the geological bodies with different speed of transmission of the
seismic waves, define separation surfaces in which the waves undergo refraction,
reflection, or diffraction.

Application:

It is used to determine the depth of the rocky basement or stratigraphy of the subsoil.

Explanation of the speed of waves S (Vs) and velocity of waves P (Vp) for determination
of the mechanical parameters (Poisson's coefficient and Edin elasticity-deformation
modules, and the dynamic modulus (Young), volumetric and geometric compressibility
It establishes the conditions of the rock (weathering, fracturing).
It is used to determine the depth of the water Table.

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Geotechnical classification of rocks. Definition of Barton's Q index.

Estimate of fracture index (RQD), density (sedimentary rocks), porosity (sandstones).

Determination of the excavation ability, rippability (the ability of a rock to be fractured

and moved by a heavy machine).

Seismic reflection

It is mostly used for the definition of deep geological structures.

It consists of measuring the arrival times of the seismic waves, generated by an

appropriate energy source (hammer, pistol, weight drop, dynamite, etc.) and
measuring the time of those waves once reflected in the different layers or interfaces
with enough acoustic impedance contrast.

The most used method to reorder the traces is the CMP (Common Midpoint) with which
they obtained trace has a considerable improvement in signal/noise ratio).

The set of all CMP traces is the so-called Reflection Seismic Section, which is the result of
this method. This section is an image of the subsoil that represent the irregularities of the
terrain and that is equivalent to a cut of the terrain with the distribution of the
lithologies, definition of the network of faults and fractures, characterization of the rock
mass by means of its seismic velocity (reflected P waves) and degree of fracturing.

Applications

• Stratigraphy at depth (determination of the geometry of the terrain)

• Fracturing the ground and locating faults
• Determination of rock quality by reflected wave velocity analysis
• Structural studies for mining, tunnels, dams, aquifers
• Terrain sections for energy resources (gas)

3.5.3 Other methods

There are other methods which are shown in a generalized manner, and classification
of geophysical tests is presented in Figure 3.19.

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Figure 3.19 Classification of seismic methods.

In Table 3.39, classifies geophysical methods, subdivides them into techniques and
presents applications, it is recommended that for the application of geophysical
techniques be a specialized professional in the field who is responsible for the logistics of
the method, obtaining results and interpretation of the information.

Table 3.39 Classification of geophysical methods

Métodos Técnicas Aplicaciones
Vertical electrical probes Geological interpretation for the
Electric degree of alteration, volume of
materials, water content, and
salinity.
Electrical drilling Same as the previous one but
for the study of its lateral
variation.
Dipole-dipole Same as the previous one but
for the study throughout the
section.
Seismic Seismic refraction Thickness of coating layer,
excavation ability, soil volume of
borrow areas, rock mass quality,
foundation conditions.
Seismic reflection Deep geological research in
underground works and hillsides.
Electromagnetic EM in frequency domain Geological interpretation,
(EM) degree of alteration, water
content, and salinity.
EM in time domain Same as above but at great
depths
Very-low-frequency (VLF-EM) Resistivity of ground surface,
geological interpretation, and
lateral variations.
Geo-radar Empty, lithological contacts,
investigation of the backfill of
structures, etc.

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Métodos Técnicas Aplicaciones

Gravimetric Gravimetry Lithological contact with density
contrast, soft soils, cavities,
dissolution zones, fault zones.
Microgravimetría Same as above but in more
detail.
magnetic Magnetometry Empty, clay fillings, buried pipes,
faults, dikes, mineralized masses.
Seismic in Cross-hole Probe lithology, P and S wave
sounding Down-hole velocities, dynamic modules,
Uphole resistant properties, excavation-
ability, the thickness of overlayer
Seismic tomography Geological interpretation,
cavities, dynamic nodules,
speeds of slings P and S,
resistant properties, fracture
zones, zones of alteration,
excavation ability, thickness of
overlayer.
Electric Electrical resistivity Resistance of the material,
Geophysical Spontaneous lithological sequence, fractures,
testimony (inside the potential salinity of the water.
sounding) Electric conductivity
Electrical
tomography
Nuclear or Natural gamma Clay investigation, water
radioactive Spectral Gamma content, soil density.
Neutron
Gamma-Gamma
Sonic or acoustic Mechanical properties, degree
of fracturing, lithological
sequence.
Fluids Temperature Point s of inflow of water to the
Conductivity sounding, phreatic levels.
Flow rate
Geometric Caliber Boundary of the sounding, gaps
Diameter and fractures, the orientation of
Registration of T. V discontinuities.
Source: González and others 2002

Laboratory work

The types of tests performed on soil and rock in the laboratory are shown in Table 3.40.
The tests are regulated, and usually, the ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials) or INV (National Institute of Roads) is used.

In the case of Costa Rica, it has regulations equivalent to the ASTM, for some types of
tests

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Table 3.40 Types of tests carried out in laboratory on soil and rock
Lithology Type of test Standard
Granulometry ASTM D422
Limits of Atterberg ASTM D4318
Classification ASTM D 2487
Specific weight and humidity ASTM C-566 ; ASTM C-127; INV E-
222, INV E-223, INV E-224,
Density and natural humidity ASTM D4254, D1556 y D2216
Permeability (constant load method) ASTM D 2434
In soil

Consolidation ASTM D 2435

Direct cut ASTM D 3080, INVE 154-07
Unconfined compression ASTM D2166
Triaxial test ASTM D4767
Laboratory compaction test ASTM D4D698
Content in organic matter ASTM D-2974
Size and shape of the particles ASTM C-1260
Moisture content ASTM D2216
Analysis of particle size ASTM C-136
Spot load test ASTM D5731
In rock

Simple compression test ASTM D2938

Tensile strength test ISRM Doc N°8 1977
Triaxial compression test ASTM D2664

Source: Own elaboration.

3.6.1 Classification of soils

The classification of soils is based on the granulometry. They can be classified into four
large groups according to the standards: USGS, AASHTO, DIN, ASTM, AENOR, and
others.

Soil geotechnical classifications (USGS unified system, Casagrande plasticity chart),

figure 3.20 and Table 3.41; and rocks (based on different physical and mechanical
properties), plus the application of expressions and empirical correlations and field
indices allow the evaluation of geotechnical properties and provide quantitative data.

The soil classification system according to AASHTO is presented in Table 3.42, which also
includes the calculation to determine the group index, Table 3.42 and the classification
chart silty-clayey fraction figure 3.21 and Table 3.44 is the classification of soil according
to its granulometry.

The geotechnical units and their spatial distribution are generally established based on
the lithology, origin and geological characteristics of the materials, observations, field
measurements, photointerpretation and, in cases where it is possible or necessary, from
the conducting surveys, in situ tests and analysis of samples in the laboratory. According
to the scale of the map and the available data, these are defined with a different
degree of homogeneity.

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The IAEG (International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment 1981)
proposes a procedure to follow for the classification and description of soils and rocks
with a view to geotechnical cartography, including the following aspects:

Classification and geological-geotechnical description of soils:

▪ Name and Type: the grain size, organic matter, plasticity, type of genetic
deposit
▪ Material description: color, shape and composition, state of alteration,
resistance
▪ Additional geological information: name and age of the geological
formations
▪ Fillers and anthropic materials, landfills

Figure 3.20 Plasticity Charter of Casa Grande. (González de Vallejo 2002)

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Table 3.41 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Field identification procedures (excluding particles larger than 7.6 Group
symbols
Typical names
cm and basing fractions on estimated weights)
Wide range in grain sizes Well-graded gravels,
and substantial amounts of gravel-sand mixtures,

Clean gravels
More than half of material is larger than No. 200 sieve size.

coarse fraction is larger than GW

all intermediate particle little or no fines.
Gravels - more than half of

(little or no
sizes
For the visual classification the ¼ -in. Size may be used as Predominantly one size or a Poorly graded gravels or

fines)
range of sizes, with some GP gravel-sand mixtures,
intermediate sizes missing little or no fines
No. 4 sieve size

Nonplastic fines or fines with Silty gravels, gravel-

e amount of
Gravels with

(appreciabl
low plasticity (for sand-silt mixtures
GM
Coarse-grained Soils

identification procedures
see ML group below)
fines)
(The No. 200 sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye)

fines

Plastic fines (for Clayey gravels, gravel-

GC
identification see CL below) sand-clay mixtures.
Wide range in grains sizes Well-graded sands,
Clean sands
equivalent to the No. 4 sieve.
Sands - more than half of the

and substantial amounts of SW gravelly sands, little or

(little or no

all intermediate sizes missing no fines.

coarse fraction is smaller

Predominantly one size or a Poorly graded sand or

fines)

range of sizes with some SP gravelly sands, little or

than No. 4 sieve size

intermediate sizes missing no fines.

Nonplastic fines or fines with Silty sands, sand-silt
(appreciable

low plasticity (for SM mixtures.

Sands with

amount of

identification see ML below)

Plastic fines (for Clayey sands, sand-clay
fines)

identification see CL below) mixtures

fines

SC

Identification Procedures on fraction smaller than No. 40 Sieve Size

More than half of material is smaller than N.° 200 sieve size

Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness

(Crushing (Reaction to (Consistenc
Characteristics) shaking) y near PL)
None to slight Quick to slow None Inorganic silts and very
Liquids limit is less than 50

fine sands, rock flour,

silty or clayey fine sands
Silts and clays

ML
or clayey silts with slight
plasticity.
Fine-grained soils

Medium to high None to very Medium Inorganic clays of low to

slow medium plasticity,
CL
gravelly clays, sandy
clays, lean clays.
slight to medium Slow Slight Organic silts and
OL organic silty clays of low
plasticity
slight to medium Slow to none Slight to Inorganic silts, fine
greater than 50

medium MH micaceous sandy or silty

Soils and clays

Liquid limit is

soils, elastic silts

High to very high None High Inorganic clays of high
CH
plasticity, fat clays.
Medium to high None to very Slight to Organic clays and silt of
slow medium OH medium to high
plasticity.
Highly organic soils Readily identifiable by color, odor, spongy feel Peat and other highly
Pt
and frequently by fibrous texture. organic soils.
Soils that have characteristics of two groups are designated by the combination of the two symbols,
e.g., GW-GC, well-graded mix of sand and gravel. All sieve sizes refer to U.S. Standard
Source: Lambe and Whitman, 1981

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Table 3.42 AASHTO Soil classification System

Clay silty materials (more
Granular materials (35% or less passes through
Classification than 35% for the No. 200
the No. 200 sieve)
sieve)
Group: A-1 A-2-4 A-7 A-
A-1- A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 7-5
A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
a A-7-6
Percentage -
passing: N°10 50 - 51 mín. - -
(2mm) máx. 50 10 - -
30 máx. máx. 35 máx. 36 mín.
N°40 (0,425mm)
máx. 25
N°200(0,075mm) 15 máx.
máx.
Characteristics
of the fraction
passing through
-
the sieve N ° 40
6 máx. - 40 41 40 41 40 41 40 41 mín.
Liquid limit NP(1) máx. mín. máx. mín. máx. mín. máx. (2)
Plasticity index 10 10 11 11 10 10 11 11 mín
máx. máx. mín. mín. máx. máx. mín.
Main Fragments of Fine Gravel and sand clayey or silty Silty soils Clay soils
constituents rock, gravel, sand
and sand
Characteristics Excellent to good Poor to bad
as
undergraduate
(1): Not plastic. (2) The plasticity index of subgroup A-7-5 is equal to or less than LL minus 30; the plasticity index of
subgroup A-7-6 is greater than LL minus 30
Source: https://www.civilexcel.com/2012/02/clasificacion-de-suelos-por-los-metodos.html

Table 3.43 Calculation to determine the group index

Group Index:
IG = (F-35). (0,2+0,005. (LL-40)) +0,01. (F-15). (IP-10).

Being:
F: % passing the sieve ASTM n°200.
LL: Liquid limit.
IP: plasticity index
Source: https://www.civilexcel.com/2012/02/clasificacion-de-suelos-por-los-metodos.html

Material granular
Excelente a Good como subgrado
A-2-4 Grava y arena arcillosa o limosa

Figure 3.21 Classification chart silty-clayey fraction AAHSTO.

Source: Practical civil engineering (2012). http://ingenipra.blogspot.com/2012/08/clasificacion-de-suelos-
por-los-metodos.html

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Table 3.44 Soil classification according to its granulometry.

Types of soil Description
Gravel Grain size between about 8 - 10 cm and 2 mm; It is characterized because the
grains are directly observable. They do not retain water because of the large
empty spaces between particles.
Sand Covered between 2 and 0.060 mm, they are still visible to the naked eye. When
they are mixed with water, continuous aggregates are not formed but are easily
separated from it.
Silt Particles between 0.060 and 0.002 mm. They resist water better than gravels and
sands. If a slime-water paste is formed, if it is placed on the hand when striking
with the hand, the water is easily segregated.
Clays Particles formed by sizes smaller than 0.002 mm. Chemical transformations are
needed to reach these sizes. Large water absorption capacity.
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

Description and lithological classification of rocks

In the description and classification of a rocky outcrop with geotechnical purposes, the
characteristics of the rock matrix, the rock mass, and the discontinuities must be
considered:

▪ Characteristics of rock matrix: color, texture, factory, porosity, alteration

and weathering, resistance.
▪ Solid rocky characteristics: structure, orientation, and inclination, number
of families of discontinuities, size, and shape of the blocks, degree of
weathering
▪ Characteristics of the discontinuities: (see Table 3.45 to 3.49).

Table 3.45 Properties of the rock matrix and methods for its determination
Properties Determination methods
Identification Mineralogical composition Visual description
and Factory and texture Optical and electronic
classification Grain size microscopy.
properties Colour X-ray diffraction.
Density (n) Laboratory techniques.
Specific weight (γ).
Moisture content
Permeability (coefficient of permeability, Permeability test.
K)
Durability Alterability tests.
Alterability (index of alterability)

Mechanical Simple compressive strength (σc) Uniaxial compression test.

properties Spot load test.
Hammer Schmidt.
Tensile strength (σ1) Direct tensile test.
Indirect traction test.
Sonic wave velocity (Vp, Vs) Speed measurement of
elastic waves in the

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Properties Determination methods

laboratory
Resistance (parameters of c and ᵩ Triaxial compression test.
Deformability (elastic deformation Uniaxial compression tests.
modules, static or dynamic: E, v Sonic speed test

Source: González and others 2002

Table 3.46 Classification of rock masses by the number of families of discontinuities

Type of rocky massif Number of families
I Massive, occasional discontinuities
II A family of discontinuities
III A family of discontinuities plus other occasional
ones
IV Two families of discontinuities
V Two families of discontinuities plus other occasional
ones
VI Three families of discontinuities
VII Three families of discontinuities plus other
occasional families
VIII Four or more families of discontinuities.
IX Brewed
Source: International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, ISRM, 1981

Table 3.47 Description of the block size according to the number of discontinuities
Description Jv (discontinuities / m3)
Very large blocks <1
Large blocks 1-3
Medium size blocks 3 - 10
Small blocks 10 - 30
Very small blocks > 30
Source: International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, ISRM, 1981

Table 3.48 Classification of rock masses according to the size and shape of the blocks
Class Type Description
I Massive Few discontinuities or with very large spacing.
II Cubic Approximately equidimensional blocks.
III Tabular Blocks with a dimension considerably smaller than the other two.
IV Column Blocks with a dimension considerably greater than the other two.
V Irregular Great variations in the size and shape of the blocks.
VI Crushed Massive rocky, very fractured.
Fuente: International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, ISRM, 1981

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Table 3.49 Evaluation of the degree of weathering of the rock mass

Weathering Type Description
degree.
I Fresh No signs of weathering appear.
II Slightly The discoloration indicates alteration of the rocky
weathered material and discontinuity surfaces. The whole rocky
set is discolored by weathering.
III Moderately Less than half of the rock mass appears decomposed
weathered and/or transformed into soil. The fresh or discolored
rock appears as a continuous structure or as isolated
cores.
IV Highly weathered More than half of the rock mass appears
decomposed and/or transformed into soil. The fresh or
discolored rock appears as a continuous structure or
as isolated cores.
V Completely The entire rock mass appears decomposed and/or
weathered transformed into soil. The original structure of the rock
mass is preserved.
VI Residual soil The entire rock mass has been transformed into soil.
The structure of the massif and the material factory
has been destroyed.
Source: International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, ISRM, 1981

3.6.2 Granulometric distribution

For the granulometric analysis, the dry method is used for particles of sizes greater than
0.075 mm. Granulometry by sedimentation using the hydrometer (wet method) is for
sizes equal to or less than 0.075 mm.
• Procedure for dry analysis
- A representative sample of the soil is taken
- It dries and disintegrates
- It is passed through a set of sieves (whose sizes tend to decrease in a
geometric progression of ratio 2) by shaking the set
- The weight retained in each sieve is weighed, so that, knowing the initial
weight of the sample, the percentage of material is determined
- With this data, the granulometric curve can be elaborated

• Plasticity

The granulometry provides a first approximation to the identification of the soil, but
sometimes it is unclear (silty-clayey sand, for example), some indices are used, derived
from agronomy, which define the consistency of the soil based on the water content,
through the determination of humidity: water weight of the soil divided by the weight of
the dry soil (the weight of the water is determined by the difference between the

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weight of the soil sample before and after drying it in an oven for the time necessary for
it to evaporate that water).

Atterberg defined three limits:

Consistency separates the state of dry solid and semi-solid.

Plastic limit (Wp), separates the semi-solid state of the plastic.
Liquid limit (WL), separates the plastic state of the semiliquid.

The plastic and liquid limit, are the most used in practice, is determined with the fraction
of soil that passes through the sieve N °. 40 (0.1 mm).

Once the Wp and WL are determined, a representative point of each soil sample can
be obtained in the Casagrande plasticity chart, representing the ratio of the liquid limit,
WL, to the plasticity index, Ip = WL- Wp represents the humidity interval to go from the
semi-solid state to the semi-liquid. See figure 3.20, Casa Grande plasticity chart.

3.6.3 Condition of soils: porosity, vacuum index, specific weight, humidity,

Saturation grade (others)

Procedure for analyzing the behavior of soils before external actions (foundations,
excavations, etc.)

- Identification of the type of soil, determining its granulometry and plasticity, to

which organic matter is added.
- Determination of its real state (the previous tests are done by drying and
disintegrating the sample, without conserving the initial structure) that is, relative
proportions of solids, water, etc.
- From the real state, considering, its initial tensional state, the response of the soil
must be studied in front of the changes, which in this state induce external
actions.

The initial state of the soil must be defined:

- Relative
- Void ratio
- Moisture content

The indices to define the state of the soil are porosity n (the relationship between
volume, voids, and apparent volume). Pore index e (the relationship between the
volume of voids and the volume of solids). The vacuum index varies between 0.30 and

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1.30, although in very soft soils and with organic matter, it reaches values of 3 or more.
Table 3.50 presents the properties of coarse-grained soils and in Table 3.51, the
properties of fine-grained soils.

Table 3.50 State properties of coarse-grained soils

Relative
Coarse-grained Dry density γd Vacuum index
density Dr Humidity W (%)
floors (ken / m3) e
(%)
Very loose 0-40 <14.0 >16 >0.9
Loose 40-60 14.0-16 12-16 0.65-0.9
Medium dense 60-80 16.0- 17.5 8-12 0.55-0.65
Dense 80-90 17.5-18.5 6-8 0.4-0.55
Very dense 90-100 >18.5 <6 <0.4
Source: González and others 2002

Table 3.51 Properties of fine soil conditions

Fine soils Fluency Dry density γd Humidity W (%) Vacuum index
Index, IL (kN / m3) e
Very soft 1.00-0.80 <1.40 >55 >1.30
Soft 0.80-0.65 1.40-1.55 40-55 1.0-1.3
Average 0.65-0.40 1.55-1.70 25-40 0.7-1.0
consistency 0.40-0.25 1.70-1.80 15-25 0.5-0.7
Hard <0.25 >1.80 <15 <0.5
Very hard
Source: González and others 2002

The following parameters are used to estimate the relative concentration of solids and
water, see Table 3.52:
Table 3.52 Parameters to estimate the concentration of solids and water
It is the average value corresponding to the various particles.
It is determined in the laboratory by measuring the volume
Specific gravity of particles, G occupied by a particle sample (dry and disintegrated and of
known weight) by displacing a volume of liquid in a container
full of water and previously assessed (pycnometer).
Relationship between the weight of solids in the sample
Specific dry weight, γd (without considering the water it contains) and the apparent
volume it occupies.
Relationship between the weight of solids plus the weight of
Saturated apparent specific
the water in the holes (assuming saturated soil even if it were
weight, γsat
not), and the apparent volume of the reference element.
It is the relation between the weight of the sample (solids plus
Apparent specific weight, γap
water that it contains) and its apparent volume.
Specific weight of water, γw The interstitial fluid.
Relationship between the weight of the water contained in
Humidity, W the sample and the weight of its solids, to be determined by
drying in an oven.
Relationship between the weight of the water contained in
Degree of saturation, Sr
the sample and the weight it would contain if saturated.
Source: Own elaboration based on González and others 2002

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3.6.4 Shear strength

The resistance to the cutting of the soil cannot be considered as a single and constant
parameter, it depends on its nature, structure, links, deformational level, etc., and very
specifically, its tensional state and the fluid pressure that fills its pores (water or water
and air).

The criterion of failure in more widespread soils derives from what is proposed by
Coulomb, where it relates normal effective tensions and tangential tensions acting on
any ground plane. Figure 3.22 shows the criterion of failure in soils. Figure 3.23 shows the
rupture envelope and the Mohr circle in a possible and impossible state.

The criterion states that, for saturated soil, the cut resistance is given by the expression:
τ = c'+ (σn - u) tan ф'
τ = Resistance to the cut of the ground in favor of a certain plane.
σn = normal total voltage acting on the same plane.
U = interstitial pressure.
c'= effective cohesion.
ф'= effective internal friction angle.

The above equation represents a straight line in space (ф', τ) that is often referred to as
a resistance line or ground failure envelope. Figure 3.21 shows the line of rupture, the
zone with possible states of rupture and the zone with impossible states. Figure 3.22
represents three circles of Mohr in space (ф', τ) that in principle, would represent three
voltage states of a soil element.

Figure 3.22. Soil failure criterion. González and others 2002

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Figure 3.23 Failure envelope and the Mohr circle. State possible (a and b) and impossible (c).
Source: González and others 2002

Contents of the geological/geotechnical study

Field and laboratory tests, geology and seismic aspects, presence of water Table,
analysis of field and laboratory results, assessments of the carrying capacity of the land,
calculation of settlements should be included in the geological/geotechnical study, in
the Table 3.53 shows a generalized content for a geological/geotechnical study.

Table 3.53 Shows the general content of a geological-geotechnical study

Indicates the scope of the geotechnical study and to what type

of work is directed. It is recommended to make clear the name
Introduction of the project for which the report was prepared and indicate
the entity that requests it, so that it may be used for other
purposes.
Where the use of the building is indicated, construction materials
(steel, concrete, wood, etc.), the order of magnitude, of the
Project description
loads considered, the height of the building, extension in the
plan, description of architectural and structural features.
Indicate general and specific objective that will allow reaching
Objectives
with the study.
It consists of the procedures used to carry out field research,
Methodology laboratory, sources of information, data processing, and analysis
methods.
Equipment used
Process
Field tests Applicable standards
Number of probes
Depth of soundings

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Number of samples obtained

Justification of the method used to achieve objectives
Preparation and processing of samples
Obtaining geotechnical parameters (internal friction angle,
Laboratory tests
cohesion, shear stress, etc.)
Posing of solutions
Analysis of regional and local geology to determine geological
risks (geological faults that can cause liquefaction or
Geology movements, presence of collapsible or expansive soils,
orientations and dips of lithological structures, characterization of
soils and rocks, hydrogeology, among others)
Classification of the zone according to the simulated threat (null,
low, intermediate, elevated) and determination of the
coefficient of horizontal and vertical acceleration (PGA =
horizontal acceleration). Spectral characterization of the terrain
Seismic aspects (allows to estimate the most realistic response depending on the
geotechnical condition of the site: dense or hard soils versus hard
or compact soils). One way to characterize the spectral shape of
the terrain is through the correlation with field tests, (SPT, CPT,
RQD).
Identification of the depth of the water in soundings (noting that
Presence of these levels are in date and determined meteorological
groundwater level condition). It helps to make design recommendations in the
and/or groundwater foundation, and open-pit excavations help identify liquefaction
patterns and affects the terrain from bearing capacity.
With the results obtained in the field and laboratory, a qualitative
Analysis of field and
and quantitative analysis is issued that will allow building a matrix
laboratory results
of the geotechnical behavior of the site
Evaluation of the Depending on the bearing capacity of the land, the responsible
bearing capacity of the engineer must have an estimate of the building loads to select
terrain depending on the most appropriate foundation system and consider
the selected geometric, and depth variations for the range of loads are
foundation system acting.
(design by resistance)
Calculation of Determine the settlement or expected deformation of the terrain
expected settlements as a function of the acting force and the geometry of the
(design due to rigidity) selected foundation system.
They must be clear and precise. The conclusion of each aspect
Conclusions
observed in the previous points must be reported.
Of geotechnical type and constructive method,
Recommendations recommendations for excavations, control of deformations,
techniques of improvement or stabilization of soils and rocks, etc.
Sketch of location of soundings, the probable profile of the
terrain, stratigraphic profile used in the design of foundations,
Annexes field registration of the drilling carried out, type floor of the
building, template of the laboratory tests, other complementary
information that helps the report.
Source: Own elaboration based on March 2016

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Next, an example of the Geological-Geotechnical content applied in the Republic of El

Salvador is presented in the project named: "IMPROVEMENT OF THE ROAD NETWORK OF
THE NORTHERN AREA OF EL SALVADOR "
INTRODUCTION

Generalities
Description of the section

STUDY AREAS
Roads
▪ Geological Description
▪ Prospecting and testing
▪ Field Work
▪ Laboratory work
▪ Geological Characterization - Geotechnical
▪ Analysis of soils with plastic and undesirable characteristics
▪ Conclusions
▪ Recommendations

Slopes
▪ Geological Description
▪ Prospecting and Testing
▪ Field Tests
▪ Laboratory work
▪ Geological and Geotechnical Characterization
▪ Characterization of Existing and Generated Cut Slopes
▪ Analysis of the results of seismic refraction soundings carried out
▪ Characterization of Slopes in Hillside
▪ Slopes Generated in the Accesses to the Roads
▪ Stability Analysis
▪ Slopes in court (generated and existing)
▪ Conclusions
▪ Recommendations, Protection and Mitigation works

Embankments
▪ General Description of the Embankments
▪ Prospecting and Testing
▪ Geological and Geotechnical Characterization
▪ Stability Analysis
▪ Recommendations

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Retention structures
▪ Geological Description
▪ Prospecting and Testing
▪ Field Work
▪ Laboratory work
▪ Geotechnical Characterization
▪ Stability analysis
▪ Conclusions
▪ Recommendations.

Banks of Materials
▪ General Characteristics
▪ Prospecting and Testing
▪ Field Work
▪ Laboratory work
▪ Geological Characterization - Geotechnical
▪ Conclusions and Recommendations

Dumps

Appendix

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METHODS

CA-06. Tegucigalpa, Honduras

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Stability analysis

It is essential for the analysis of stability, initially, the knowledge of the movement
mechanisms in the different geological materials; establish criteria for the collection of
information and the interpretation of results to identify slopes instability.

This chapter lists different methodologies that may be applicable depending on the
case that occurs in a slope, whether in soil or rock and the methods of analysis for the
evaluation of the stability of slopes and hillsides in the case of seismic events, are
detailed.
The conditioning and triggering factors that may influence and produce instability are
described, the minimum safety factors are presented both to resist static and seismic
movements. In any geotechnical study, it is sought to obtain a geotechnical and
geophysical model; the steps to be followed for this modeling were incorporated.
The methodology to detect and prevent possible problems in areas prone to landslides
is through:

- The identification of the most common failure mechanisms in the different types
of geological materials.
- The establishment of criteria for the collection of information
- The search and interpretation of key effects to identify the possible instability of
the slopes

4.1.1 Types of movement in mass.

Hunt (1984) proposes a classification of types of movements in mass based on the

recognition of the geological factors that condition the movements. Slope landslides
occur in many ways, and there is still some degree of uncertainty in predictability,
rapidity of occurrence, and affected area. However, there are certain patterns that
help identify and recognize potential areas of mass movements, which allows the
treatment of the slope to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the risk of movement, Table
4.1.

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Table 4. 1 Classification of mass movement types based on the recognition of the geological
factors that condition mass movements.
Type of
movements in Type Definition
mass.
Detachments Freefall. Sudden detachment of one or more blocks of soil or rock
that descend in free fall.
Rollover Fall of a block of rock concerning a pivot located below
its center of gravity.
Collapses Planar Slow or rapid movement of a block of soil or rock along a
flat fault surface
Rotational Relatively slow movement of a mass of soil, rock or a
combination of the two along a well-defined curved fault
surface
Lateral spreading. Movement of different soil blocks with different
displacements
Debris slide. Mixture of soils and pieces of rock moving along a planar
rocky surface.
Avalanches Of rock or debris Rapid movement of an incoherent mass of rock or soil-rock
where the original structure of the material is not
distinguished.
Flow Of debris Soil or rock-soil is moving like a viscous fluid, usually moving
at much greater distances from the fault. Usually caused
by excess pore pressures.
Reptación Slow and imperceptible movement downslope of a soil
mass or soil-bedrock
Source: Hunt, 1984

A summary is shown in Table 4.2 of the forms of collapse in rock strata and their
applicable numerical analysis methods.

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Table 4. 2 Forms of collapses of rock strata and numerical analysis methods, GENSAI 2018.
Assigned analysis.

Discontinuous deformation
Limited elements method.
Limit equilibrium method.
Form of Diagram of the

Individual elements
collapse. pattern.

RBSM method
Block theory

method.

method.
Small scale IV III IV II I III With the method of
discontinuous deformation,
when introducing viscous
terms, the situation can be
considered up to the
Collapses

generation of the collapse

Large scale IV III IV II I III
and the situation after the
beginning of the fall.

Arch / II II I II III II For landslides, the limited

complex element method with joint
landslides. elements is widely used to
follow the process until
collapse due to landslides,
the rigid body spring model
Landslides

Flat II II II II II II
landslides (RBSM method) can be used.
In recent years, there are
cases in which the collapse
process is studied with the
collector method (Manifold).
Wedge II II II I III III
For collapses in which a 3-
destruction.
dimensional study is
necessary, as in wedge
collapses, the 3-dimensional
individual element (DEM)
method is effective.
Deviation III III III II I III Cracks are modeled in blocks
of the to see their stability about the
upper friction force between the
segment. blocks.
Top segment

It is widely used that

Upper II II III I I III discontinuous deformation
segment in method (DDA) and the
blocks. individual element method
(DEM).
It is widely used that
discontinuous deformation
Buckling. IV III III I I III method (DDA) and the
individual element method
(DEM). Therefore, the
collector method (Manifold)
is proposed, however in
Japan there are few cases.

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Assigned analysis.

Discontinuous deformation
Limited elements method.
Limit equilibrium method.
Form of Diagram of the

Individual elements
collapse. pattern.

RBSM method
Block theory

method.

method.
Therefore, the collector
method (Manifold) is
proposed, however in Japan
there are few cases.

I: Very Suitable, II: Suitable, III: Moderately adequate, IV: Not Suitable
Source: Own elaboration based on The Association of Roads of Japan (JAEA), 2009. Guidelines for cuts and
earthworks on roads and slope stability. ISBN 978-4-89950-415-6

4.1.2 Geological and geotechnical model

Geological model

It consists of the two-dimensional or three-dimensional representation of a volume of

rocks and the topography of a certain area. It can represent that the lithology,
lithological structures, alteration, mineralization, and other types of the geological
feature of the rock massif.

The creation of a geological model is one of the first stages of appreciation of a slope
and requires a thorough knowledge of lithology, structures, geohydrology, among other
characteristics.

It starts with the collection of surface-available geological information, channel

sampling followed by exploration drill holes. Purpose of making a geological model:

a) Increase knowledge of the morphology of the studied zone and represent it as

close to reality as possible;
b) Relate the units that have been affected by structural movements;
c) Define soil/rock volumes in which the variable to be estimated has a
homogeneous behavior.

Basics for a geological model:

a) Valid database that contains the fields to represent

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b) Thorough knowledge of the geology of the area to represent

c) Software

Basic steps to develop the model:

a) Define the units to be modeled.

b) Determine the orientation of the model, the distance, and the number of sets of
two-dimensional sections to be interpreted.
c) Build three-dimensional solids.
d) Validate the model.

Geotechnical model

The geotechnical code of slopes and hillsides of Costa Rica defines the geotechnical
model and details the criteria and methods that the geotechnics’ can use to evaluate
a slope in soil or rock and conforms to what is described in chapters 3 and 4 of this
manual.

a) The geotechnical method for the stability analysis of the slope must include at
least the following:

- The stratigraphy of the subsoil.

- The depth (or position) of the water Table and its temporal variations
- The position of the rupture surface (in case of analyzing a slope or hillside that
shows evidence of landslide or where a fault has already occurred)
- The physical-mechanical properties of the different types of materials found.
Its determination must consider the conditions of the interstitial pressure
regime and its relationship with the parameters of shearing strength, that is,
under long-term drained conditions, conditions of partial drainage
(intermediate-term) and undrained conditions (short term) as appropriate
- The reciprocal effects between the ground and proposed stabilization
measures

b) The geotechnical method for slope analysis or design must define the failure
criterion that best fits the physical and mechanical properties obtained in the
resistance tests carried out in the field and laboratory
c) The failure criteria commonly used in slope stability analysis in soils are the
following: Mohr-Coulomb, Cam Clay, Hyperbolic, and Hardening Soil, among
others. It is the responsibility of the professional responsible for selecting the failure
criterion that best fits the characteristics of the soil and the analyzed ground,
based on the geological and geotechnical investigations carried out.

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d) In the case of rocky slopes, the following failure criteria can be used for intact
rock: Hoek and Brown, Mohr-Coulomb, Bieniawski, Fairhurst, Hobb, Johnston,
Barton, among others. On the other hand, the criteria of failure used to calculate
the resistance of the discontinuities of the rock mass is Mohr-Coulomb, Barton-
Bandis and Hoek and Brown.

In Table 4.3, a guide of rupture criteria used to analyze the stability of rock massifs and
the data necessary for its application is shown.

Table 4. 3 Criteria of rupture in rocky massifs and data necessary for its application
Characteristics of the rock Rupture along discontinuity Rupture through the intact
massif. planes. rock.
Massive rock massif without It's not possible Hoek –Brown
discontinuities (m for intact rock and s=1)
Mohr-Coulomb
(c and ф for intact rock)
Rocky massif with one or two Mohr-Coulomb Hoek –Brown
families of discontinuities (c and ф for the (m for intact rock and s=1)
discontinuity) Mohr-Coulomb
Barton-Bandis (c and ф for intact rock)
(JCS, JRC, and ф for the
discontinuity)
Rocky massif with one or two Hoek –Brown It's not possible
families of discontinuities (GSI, m, s and a for rocky
massif)
Mohr-Coulomb
(c and ф for rocky massif)
Source: Own elaboration based on González et al., 2002

4.1.3 Methods of stability analysis of a slope

Regardless of the method used, the purpose sought in the stability of a cut or
excavation is the safety factor, which consists in comparing the acting forces (gravity,
the weight of the mass) versus resistant forces. If the acting forces exceed the resistant
forces, the soil is stable, and if the acting forces are less than the resisting forces, the soil
is unstable and may tend to slip. In soils, a fault surface should be assumed where the
shear stress is a function of the cohesion, the density of the material, and the angle of
the failure surface. The safety factor varies according to the scenario we present:
normal or static condition, pseudo-static condition, and dynamic condition. Under
pseudo static conditions, the normal condition plus seismic acceleration is considered,
in these conditions if the safety factor is equal to or greater than 1.20 the material does
not slip and safety factor less than 1.20 will slip. The dynamic condition will be equal to
the normal condition adding the pseudo-static condition and the weight of the water

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that is in pores of the soil; the safety factor will approach 1.04. The retaining wall must
also be designed about the safety factor of the slope, ensuring that the wall is not
oversized about the safety factor of the slope.

In the case of rock excavations, it is initially convenient to analyze the parameters

contained in the RMR classification proposed by Bieniawski in 1989 and modified by
Romana in 1985, Robertson (1988). They propose an appropriate method for slopes
from the RMR, which becomes SMR and gives us a division into classes of slopes: the risk
of instability that runs in each possible way of failure whether flat or wedge, toppling of
mass; also suggests recommendations for support methods and/or correction. The Q-
Slope system, which is a variant of the Q system developed by Nick Bartón and others in
1974 to be used in the design of slopes, should also be considered. Barton, in his system,
also characterizes the rock massif and adds the seismic component pseudo-static) and
through simple formulas, can be compared to the proposal of Bieniawski and Abbot.

The calculation methods are divided into two large groups: the exact ones which are
the numerical methods and the limit equilibrium methods figure 4.1. In practical
considerations, simple methods such as the abacus of Hoek and Bray provide
adequate results when you do not have a program for the calculation of numerical
and exact methods.

Figure 4. 1 Calculation methods for slope stability analysis.

Source: Own elaboration based on Suarez, J.

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The methodologies for stability analysis of slopes, in soils and rock mass, are based on
field evaluations, mechanical exploration, seismic survey and interpretation, rock mass
geomechanics classification, stability modeling by limit equilibrium analysis among
other methods.

After having geologically and geotechnically recognized the terrain affected by the
excavation and identified the processes of instability that may affect a slope, the
professional responsible for the study must consider the method of analysis considered
most appropriate to estimate their degree of safety. Here it is presented as a guide, a
brief description of the methods for estimating the best practice of the slopes and
hillsides.

As far as possible, the most intuitive approximate methods (Taylor, Janbú Tables) should
be applied and later contrasted with other more sophisticated methods (numerical
methods). The use of more complex numerical methods does not necessarily mean that
they will have better results.

Limit equilibrium methods.

In the book "Geological Engineering" by González de Vallejo, Luis, et al., 2002. Describes
the methods of limit equilibrium (most used), analyzes the equilibrium of a potentially
unstable mass, and consists of comparing the forces tending to movement with the
resistant forces that oppose it along a certain surface of rupture. They are based on:

- The selection of a theoretical failure surface in the slope.

- The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
- The definition of “Stability index or safety factor.”

The problems of stability are statically indeterminate, and for its resolution, it is necessary
to consider a series of different starting hypotheses according to the methods. Also, the
following conditions are listed:

- The failure surface must be postulated with a geometry that allows the sliding to
occur; that is, it will be a kinematically possible surface.
- The distribution of the forces acting on the braking surface can be computed
using known data (specific weight of the material, water pressure, etc.)
- The resistance is mobilized simultaneously along the entire failure plane.

With these conditions, equilibrium equations are established between the forces that
induce slip and resistant forces. The analyzes provide the safety factor value of the
slope for the analyzed surface.

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The limit equilibrium analysis assumes that the safety factor is the same across the entire
slickenside. A value of the safety factor greater than 1.0 indicates that the capacity
exceeds the demand and that the slope is stable to the slip concerning the failure
surface analyzed. A value of safety factor less than 1.0 indicates that the slope is
unstable.

There are several methods for calculating the safety coefficient by limit equilibrium,
complex, developed primarily for application in soil type materials. The analytical
methods provide the safety coefficient from the immediate resolution of simple
equations (Taylor's method, from Fellenius), while the numerical methods need, for their
resolution, systems of equations and iterative calculation processes; in this category are
the methods of Morgenstern and Price, of Spencer, etc.

The limit equilibrium methods are classified as:

- Methods that consider the analysis of the block or total mass

- Methods that consider the mass divided into slices or voussoirs (wedge-shaped
element), as shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4. 2 Mass divided into slices or vertical stripes on a slope.

Source: http://www.aimecuador.org

The method of block or total mass is valid for homogeneous materials, and only
performs the computation and comparison of forces at a point on the braking surface.
The method of vertical slices or strips may consider inhomogeneous materials and

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carries a series of own hypotheses about the location, position, and distribution of the
forces that act on the slices; the calculation of the acting forces is made for each of
the slices in which the slope has been divided, finally integrating the results obtained.
The most common slicing methods are modified-Bishop's and Jambu's, valid for the
analysis of curved, flat, and polygonal failures.

For failure in rocks, the methods are also based on the equilibrium equations between
the acting forces, established based on the geometry of each type of failure.

Retrospective analysis

The retrospective analysis method is a practical method used in Japan to determine

the real resistance should be to monitor the displacements of the mass and determine
the location of the fault surface. The retrospective method can estimate the resistance
of the slickenside by replicating in a model the situation found in the field, thus trying to
replicate the current safety factor assumed from the conditions of the moving soil mass.

In the case of landslide control work, it is considered that in conditions of a moving

mass, the safety factor is in the range of 0.95 to 1.00. The safety factor of 0.95 is used
for active landslides. The design safety factor, however, is between 1.10 and 1.20,
considering the importance of the objects to be protected.

However, for emergency responses that are taken to ensure temporary safety, the
proposed safety factor can be set at 1.05 or higher.

It should be considered that the safety factor proposed here is a value for
determining the scale of the landslide prevention works and not the value that
indicates the stability of the slope after the works.

In the case of using the stability calculation using the retrospective analysis method, this
is done using the procedures mentioned below.

- To determine the cohesion (c ') is often estimated through a laboratory test.

You can also use Table 4.4, which relates the cohesion with the maximum
thickness of the mass of an active slip.

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Table 4.4 Maximum thickness of the slipped mass

Maximum thickness of the slipped Cohesion C (kN/m2)
mass (m)
5 5
10 10
15 15
20 20
25 25
Source: “Guidelines for Landslide Prevention Technologies,” Draft: ISSN 0386-5878 o PWRI Technical Note
No.4077

- When the maximum thickness of the vertical layer is greater than 25 m, it is

established that c 'is 25 kN / m2. However, we must also determine not only the
value of c', but also the value of φ.' A separate evaluation is necessary for the
value of c' when the thickness of the vertical layer is less than 5 meters.

- The internal friction angle (φ') can be determined using the retrospective
analysis itself substituting the values of the assumed current safety factor and
the cohesion determined by test or by Table 4.4 (c') in the stability analysis
equation. Then, replace the cohesion (c') and the internal friction angle (φ') in
the stability analysis equation, and examine the alternative landslide prevention
works that will be required to achieve the design safety factor or desired
control.

For more information on this method, you can consult the publication of Public Works
Research Institute (PWRI), Japan 2007: “Guidelines for Landslide Prevention
Technologies,” Draft: ISSN 0386-5878 o PWRI Technical Note No.4077.

Slopes in soils

Infinite slope, the method is based on the hypothesis that the length of a superficial flat
failure parallels to the slope can be considered infinite concerning the thickness slid. This
method is generally used for stability analysis of natural hillsides. Example: colluviums on
rock massif, figure 4.3.

Figure 4. 3 Infinite slope, colluvium (yellow color) that slides on rocky massif (orange color).
Source: Own elaboration based on: Suárez Días, Jaime

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Wedge method, although it has no relationship with the wedge-type fracture in

fractured rock masses, the sliding hammer is divided into several blocks by vertical lines,
for which the balance of vertical and horizontal forces is established. The safety
coefficient is the ratio between the available tangential resistance and that required
for equilibrium.

Total mass method or Taylor method (1948). It is based on the use of circular failure
surfaces in two dimensions is a hypothesis very used in practice and represents the real
problem in slopes of finite height, when there are no areas of land that clearly define
the development of braking surfaces. The following actions are carried out on the
failure surface:

- The own weight, W, of the soil mass.

- The interstitial pressure of water distributed along the braking surface, with the
resultant U
- Tangential force distributed over the braking surface, resulting in T (Rc + R ф)
(where T = the tangential stress, Rc = resulting from the cohesion and R ф =
resulting from the friction angle)
- Normal stress distributed on said surface, of resultant N.

Abacus of Hoek and Bray, (1981). It allows the calculation of the safety coefficient of
slopes in soils with circular failure at the foot of the slope from the geometric data of the
slope and the resistant parameters of the soil. Hypotheses are assumed:

- The material of the slope is homogeneous.

- The existence of a traction crack is considered.
- The normal tension is concentrated in a single point of the braking surface.

Five cases are considered concerning the location of the water Table on the slope (1.
Slope completely drained, 2. Surface water by the height of the slope 3. Surface water
by the height of the slope, 4. Surface water by the height of the slope and 5.
Completely saturated) with the flow parallel to the slope. Depending about the water
Table, one of the five calculation abacuses is chosen to determine the safety factor
(the difference between the abacuses is the inclination angle of the slope about the
water Table).

It is desired to obtain the safety coefficient of a partially saturated excavated slope.

Example of calculating the safety coefficient of a slope in soils with Hoek and Bray
abacus. In Gonzáles and others, 2002

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Data:
Height of the soil, H = 12 m e
Inclination, ѱ = 35°
Resistant parameters of the soil., c´ = 1.5 t/m2, ф ´= 25° and γ= 1.8 t/m3

The following steps are followed to obtain the safety coefficient:

- The corresponding abacus is selected according to the position of the water
level in slope; in this case, the surface is like that of Figure 4.4, which corresponds
to the abacus no. 3 figure 4.5
- Calculate the value of the expression c´/ (γHtg ф ´), and set the abacus with this
value
- The cut-off points of the line corresponding to the previous value with the curve
corresponding to the angle of the slope allows to read in the ordinate and
abscissa axes the values of the expressions tg ф ´/F y c´/(γHF), from which it to
solve for F.
For the example data:
c´/(γHtgф´) = 1.5/ (1.8 x 12 x 0.466) = 0.149
tg ф´/F = 0.425
c´/(γHF) = 0.063
From where the value of F = 1.1 is solved.

Figure 4. 4 Hypothesis n °. 3 for the location of the water Table on the slope; corresponding to the
outcrop of the same at a distance 4H from the coronation of the slope.
Source: Hoek y Bray, 1981

The abacuses also allow obtaining the corresponding values of c´ and ф´ for a certain
safety factor F and a slope angle.

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Figure 4. 5 Abacus n °. 3 of Hoek and Bray for circular failure in soils.

Source: Own elaboration based on Hoek and Bray, 1981
Methods of slices. Bishop's method. The Taylor hypothesis assumes that the normal
stresses at the braking surface are concentrated at a single point, which implies a
certain error, although, in general, it remains on the side of safety. Also, the Taylor
abacus only allows the introduction of water in the case of homogeneous soil and
horizontal water Table. To avoid these inconveniences, Bishop developed in 1955 a
method of slices, the method of Bishop, with the following hypotheses:

- A circular failure surface is assumed.

- The sliding mass is divided into "n" slices or vertical strips.
- The equilibrium of moments of the current forces in each slice is established with
respect to the center of the circle.
- From the equilibrium condition of vertical forces in each slice, the N forces
(normal to the braking surface) are obtained and substituted in the resulting
equilibrium equation of moments.
- The simplified method of Bishop (the best known and used) also assumes that the
contact forces before every two slices do not influence to be balanced.
- Thus, the expression of safety coefficient, F, of the surface considered is
obtained.

Rock slopes

Quality index classification RMR (Rock Mass Rating) developed by Bieniawski 1989

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In the RMR classification (Rock Mass Rating), the rock massif is divided into zones or
sections that have uniform geological characteristics according to the observations
made in the field, in which the data collection and measurements are carried out,
referring to the properties and characteristics of the rock matrix and discontinuities.

To calculate the RMR index corresponding to each of the discontinuities, follow the
procedure in Table 4.5. At the same time, a value is assigned depending on the
characteristic that it presents, the sum of the values gives us the class of the rock mass;
The procedure to calculate the RQD is in section 3.3.6 of this manual. Once the RMR
classification is obtained, the correction suggested by Romana is made to obtain the
slope class and the support method.

Once the scores resulting from applying the five classification parameters are obtained,
the correction is made by the orientation of discontinuities, and a numerical value is
obtained with which the rock massif is finally classified. Each class of massif is assigned a
quality and geotechnical characteristic. Thus, a rocky massif classified as very good
(Class I) will be a hard-rocky massif, little fractured, without significant filtration and little
weathered, presenting very few problems in front of its stability and resistance.
It can be deduced that it will have a high bearing capacity, will allow the excavation
of slopes with steep slopes and will not require stabilization measures.

In this section, we propose the use of the SMR methodology (Slope Mass Rating), which
corresponds to a method to determine the correct correction factors to apply the RMR
classification to slopes.

Table 4.5 Geotechnical Classification RMR (Rock Mass Rating)

Corrections for orientation of discontinuities and classification.
1 Resistance Point load > 10 10-4 4-2 2-1 Simple
of the rocky test compression
matrix. (Mpa)
(Mpa) Simple > 250 250-100 100-50 50-25 25-5 5-1 <1
compression
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
2 RQD 90%-100% 75%-90% 50%-75% 25%-50% < 25%
Rating 20 17 13 6 3
3 Separation between joints. >2m 0.60-2 m 0.2-0.6 m 0.06-0.2 < 0.06 m
m
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
4 Length of the <1m 1-3 m 3-10 m 10-20 m > 20 m
discontinuities.

discontinuity.
State of

Rating 6 4 2 1 0
Opening Nothing < 0.1 mm 0.1-1.0 1-5 mm > 5 mm
mm

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Rating 6 5 3 1 0
Roughness Very Rough Slightly Wavy Soft
rough rough.
Rating 6 5 3 1 0
Backfilling Nothing Hard filling Hard Soft Soft filling > 5 mm
< 5 mm filling filling
> 5 mm < 5 mm
Rating 6 4 2 2 0
Disturbance Unaltered Slightly Moderat Very Decomposed.
altered ely altered
altered
Rating 6 5 3 1 0
5 Flow for 10 m of Null < 10 10-25 25-125 > 125 lts/ min
tunnel lts/min lts/min lts/min
Groundwater.

Ratio: water 0 0-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.5 > 0.5

pressure / major
principal stress.
Overall status Dry Slightly Damp Dripping Flowing water
damp
Rating 15 10 7 4 0
Correction for the orientation of the discontinuities
Direction and dip Very Favorable Mediu Unfavorable Very unfavorable
favorable m
Rating Tunnels 0 -2 -5 -10 -12
Foundation 0 -2 -7 -15 -25
s
Slopes 0 -5 -25 -50 -60
Classification
Class I II III IV V
Quality Very good Good Medium Bad Very bad
Rating 100-81 80-61 60-41 40-21 < 20
Source: Bieniawski 1989

The SMR classification (Slope Mass Rating) gives us:

- A division into slope classes

- The risk of instability that runs in each possible way of failure: flat or wedge,
overturning, or mass
- Suggests recommendations for support methods and/or correction

The relation that Romana suggests for this classification includes an "adjustment factor"
that works from the orientation of the joints and (product of three subfactors) and an
"excavation factor" that depends on the method used.

𝑆𝑀𝑅 = 𝑅𝑀𝑅 + (𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3) + 𝑓4

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The following Tables contain the modifications of the RMR (Rock Mass Rating) to obtain
the SMR (Slope Mass Rating). The adjustment factor of the joints is the product of three
subfactors, see Table 4.6; The adjustment factor according to the excavation method is
shown in Table 4.7, and Table 4.8 describes the classes of the SMR, Table 4.9 contains
the frequency of possible instabilities according to Romana and Table 4.10 correction
measures proposed by the SMR.

- F1 depends on the parallelism between the course of the joints and the face of
the slope. It varies between 1.00 (when both courses are parallel) and 0.15
(when the angle between both courses is greater than 30 °, and the probability
of fracture is very low). These empirically established values fit roughly to the
following equation:

o F1 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑗 − 𝑎𝑠)2
o Where aj and as are the dip values (aj) and the slope (as)

- F2 depends on the dip of the joint in the flat failure. In a sense, it is a measure of
the probability of the shear strength of the joint. It varies between 1.00 (for joints
with dipping greater than 45 °) and 0.15 (for joints less than 20 °). It was
established empirically, but can be adjusted as simplified as follows:
o F2 = (𝑡𝑎𝑛2 bj)2
o Where bj is the dip of the board, F2 is worth 1,00 for rollover failures.

- F3 reflects the relationship between the dips of the board and the slope. The
values proposed by Bieniawski in 1976 have been maintained, which are always
negative.

Table 4. 6 Adjustment factor for joints (F1, F2, F3) for SMR proposed by Romana (1985)
Case Very Favorable Fair Unfavorable Very
favorable unfavorable
P aj-as > 30° 30° - 20° 20° – 10° 10° - 5° < 5°
T aj-as-180°
Value F1 (P/T) 0.15 0.40 0.70 0.85 1.00
P bj < 20° 20° - 30° 30° - 35° 35° - 45° > 45°
Value F2 P 0.15 0.40 0.70 0.85 1.00
Value F2 T 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
P bj – bs >10° 10° - 0° 0° 0°-(-10°) <-10°
T bj + bs <110° 110° - 120° >120° --
Value F3 (P/T) 0 -6 -25 -50 -60
Source: Bieniawski 1989
Where:
P = Plan failure
T = Joint by toppling

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as = dip direction of the slope.

bs = dip of the slope
aj = dip direction of the joints.
bj = Dip of the joints

Table 4. 7 Adjustment factor according to Excavation method

Method Natural slope Precut Soft blasting Blasting or Deficient
mechanical blasting
F4 +15 +10 +8 0 -8
Source: Romana (1985)

Table 4. 8 Description of the SMR classes.

Case No. V IV III II I
SMR 0 – 20 21 – 40 41 – 60 60- 80 81 – 100
Description Very bad Bad Fair Good Very good
Stability Completely Unstable Partially stable Stable Completely
unstable stable
Failures Big planar or Planar or big Some joints or Some blocks None
soil-like wedges many wedges
Support Reexcavation Important Systematic Occasional None
/corrective
Fuente: Romana (1985)

Associated with the SMR classification and the type of failure of the rock mass, Romana
1985, suggests a frequency of possible instabilities that are shown in Table 4.9.

Table 4. 9 Frequency of possible instabilities

Type of failure. SMR intervals Frequency
Plane failure SMR > 60 None
60>SMR>40 Important
40>SMR>15 Very large
Wedge failure SMR >75 Very few
75 >SMR>49 Some
49>SMR>40 Many.
Toppling SMR>65 None
65>SMR>50 Minors
50>SMR>30 Importantes
Mass failure SMR>30 None
30>SMR>10 Possible
Source: Romana (1985)

Romana presents a recommendation of countermeasures according to the estimated

SMR value; the summary is shown in Table 4.10.

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Table 4. 10 Suggested support method by the SMR

Type of support SMR intervals Support methods
Reexcavation 10 – 30 Reexcavation
Walls
Drainage 10 – 40 Surface drainage
Deep drainage
Concreting 20 – 60 Shotcrete
Dental concrete
Ribs and/or beams
Toe Walls
Reinforcement 30 – 75 Bolts
Anchors
Protection 45 – 70 Toe ditch
Toe or slope fences
Nets and/or meshes (on the surface of the slope
No support 65 – 100 Scaling
None
Source: Romana (1985)

Q-slope developed by Barton (2011)

The Q-slope method corresponds to a variation of the Q system developed by Bartonet

al. (1974), to be used in the design of slopes, in which:

𝑅𝑄𝐷 Jr Jw
Q slope= 𝑥 𝑥
𝐽𝑛 𝐽𝑎 𝑆𝑅𝐹 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

Where:
RQD = Rock Quality Designation
Jn = Joint set index that indicates the degree of fracturing of the rock mass.
Jr = Joint roughness index of discontinuities or joints.
Ja = Index that indicates the alteration of the discontinuities.
Jw = Reductive coefficient due to the presence of water adjusted to slopes.
SRF (Stress Reduction Factor) = Coefficient that considers the influence of the tensional
state of the rock massif.

The three factors of the expression represent:

RQD/Jn: The size of the blocks.
Jr/Ja: The shear strength between blocks.
Jw/SRF: The influence of the tensional state.

Any of the following two correlations can be applied to relate Barton's Q to Bieniawski's
RMR, following equations:

- Bieniawski (1976)

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• 𝑅𝑀𝑅 = 9 𝐼𝑛 𝑄 + 44
- Abad and others (1983)
• 𝑅𝑀𝑅 = 10.5 𝐼𝑛 𝑄 + 42

Barton developed Qslope Index for slopes and reflects the potential of seismic refraction
tests to exploit subsoil exploration for slope stability analysis adequately and suggests
that it be a means to characterize all those properties that until now have been difficult
to obtain.

Geotechnical strength index (GSI)

It is another option for the evaluation of the fractured rock mass, which depends on the
properties of intact pieces of rock but also on the freedom, or contraction, that these
pieces must slide or roll under different tension conditions. This index is based on the
failure criterion of Hoek and Brown (1980) and updated to its latest version, Hoek and
Brown (1997).

There are some uncertainties and inaccuracies that have created drawbacks in their
implementation to numerical models and limit equilibrium computer programs. So, the
method has been implemented in a program called "Roclab", includes Tables and
graphs to estimate the compressive strength of the intact rock elements (σci), the
material constant (mi) and the Geological Strength Index (GSI) that allow to define with
more precision the parameters necessary for the modeling by limit equilibrium.

Plan Failure

Since it is considered one of the simplest cases of analysis, the procedure will be
described. From the acting forces on the failure surface considered, the equation of
the safety coefficient is established:

𝑐𝐴+(𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝑈)𝑡𝑔Ф
F= 𝑊𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼

Where:
cA = force due to the cohesion in the slip plane.
(Wcosα – U) tgФ = force due to friction in the plane.
Wcosα = stabilizing component of the weight (normal to the slickenside)
U = Total force due to the water pressure on the slickenside.
Wsenα = component of the weight tending to the sliding (parallel to the slickenside)

In the case of a water-filled traction crack, the following equation applies:

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𝑐𝐴+(𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝑈−𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼)𝑡𝑔Ф
F= 𝑊𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼+𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼

V is the force exerted by the water on the traction crack.

The weight of the slope is calculated based on the unit volume of the sliding block and
the specific weight of the material, and the force exerted by the water can be
estimated:

1 1
𝑈 = γwZwA; V = γwZ²w
2 2

A being the length of the slickenside.

From this general formulation and depending on the characteristics and shape of the
plan failure and the factors involved, the different acting forces are introduced into the
equations. In the case of a strong external force applied on the slope, for example, an
anchor, the expression of safety coefficient is:

𝑐𝐴+(𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝑈−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿)𝑡𝑔Ф
F= 𝑊𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼+𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛿

This equation allows calculating the total anchoring force necessary to achieve a
certain safety coefficient.
Wedge Failure

For the analysis of the stability of a wedge, different procedures can be used. A
procedure is a mathematical, analytical method (Hoek and Bray, 1981). There are
computer programs for the deterministic and probabilistic analysis of wedge stability,
which allow to include forces due to water pressure, external forces, seismic, etc.; as
the Swedge program, based on the method of analysis proposed by the authors cited.

For the simple case of a wedge formed by two planes without cohesion and the
presence of water, the abaci of Hoek and Bray (1981) allow obtaining the safety
coefficient from the values of dip, the direction of dip and angle of friction of the
planes.

The complete analysis of the stability of a wedge can be carried out by the method of
John (1968) which is based on the stereographic representation of the directions of the
forces acting on the wedge and the planes that form it, to know among the different
resulting forces that allow to calculate the safety factor.

Toppling

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The analysis for the toppling of blocks is carried out by studying the equilibrium
conditions of each of the blocks that form the slope. The relations between them are
established considering their mutual actions and the geometric relations of the blocks
and the slope to perform the calculations. Goodman and Bray (1976) also Hoek and
Bray (1981).

Mass failure

For the analysis of this type of mass failure, very altered or intensely fractured and of low
resistance, the methods for circular failure in the soil can be used. Within the
approximate methods, the most widespread is the simplified Bishop method.

Seismic analysis

Methods of seismic analysis in slopes

Four methods of analysis have been proposed for the evaluation of the stability of
slopes and hillsides in the case of seismic events: (Houston 1987):
- Pseudo static method in which seismic loads are simulated as horizontal and
vertical static loads.
- Displacement method, or the deformations, which is based on the concept that
real accelerations can exceed the allowed limit acceleration, producing
permanent displacements (Newmark 1965).
- Stability method after the seismic, which is calculated using the undrained
resistances, in representative soil samples that have previously been subjected to
cyclic forces comparable to those of the expected seismic. (Castro, 1985)
- Method of dynamic analysis by finite elements. Using analysis in two or three
dimensions, using a specific model can obtain details related to stresses, cyclical
or permanent deformations (Finn 1988, Prevost 1985)

The first two methods are the most used in the practice of geotechnics, especially due
to their ease of implementation, and then each one is described.

Pseudo-static Analysis in Slopes.

The pseudo-static analysis is placed on all the elements analyzed in the slope, a
horizontal force corresponding to a seismic coefficient K multiplied by the weight of the
element. The location of force is an important point to consider in this analysis. Terzaghi
(1950) suggested that force should be applied to the center of gravity on each slice. It
is a reasonable and conservative criterion (Duncan and Wright, 2005).

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The method uses the same general procedure of any of the limit equilibrium methods,
with the difference that it includes horizontal and vertical pseudo static forces due to
the seismic event. These seismic forces are assumed to be proportional to the weight of
the potential slip mass and the seismic coefficients Kh and Kv, expressed in terms of
times the acceleration g produced by the earthquake. It is generally recommended to
analyze (with pseudo-static seismic load) only the most critical surface identified in the
static analysis. Most analyzes only consider the horizontal seismic force, and Kv is
assumed to be zero, which is not representative for landslides in the epicentral area
where Kv is significant.

The magnitude of the seismic coefficient must simulate the nature of the force of the
event that depends on the intensity or acceleration of the earthquake, duration of
movement, and frequency. For a very conservative analysis, it can be assumed that the
seismic coefficient Kh is equal to the maximum expected peak acceleration of a
seismic event at the site. However, this conservative analysis can produce numerical
difficulties for Kh greater than 0.4.

Coefficients for the Pseudo-static Analysis.

The quantification of a maximum acceleration value for slope stability must consider
the following empirical criteria:
- If the mass considered for the slide is rigid, the acceleration induced on the mass
must be equal to the expected maximum acceleration with its respective
amplifications per site and topography.
- If the soil mass is not rigid, as is the case in most situations and if you consider that
the peak acceleration only occurs in very short periods, not enough to produce
a fault, you can use values between 0.1 and 0.2 g, depending on the intensity of
the expected seismic.

Generally, the pseudo-static seismic coefficient corresponds to a horizontal

acceleration, and usually vertical accelerations are not considered, and the seismic
coefficient is represented as a horizontal force. It is recommended to use values
between 30% and 50% of the maximum acceleration expected, with the respective
amplification. In Table 4.11, the seismic coefficients most used in practice are shown.

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Table 4. 11 Values of coefficient K recommended in the pseudo-static analysis.

Seismic coefficient K. Remarks.
0.1 Important seismic, FS > 1.0
0.15 Seismic of great magnitude., FS > 1.0
0.15 a 0.25 Japan FS > 1.0
0.05 a 0.15 The state of California.
0.10 for μ = 6.5 (Seed, 1979)
0.15 for μ = 8.5 FS > 1.15
1/3 to ½ of the peak ground acceleration (Marcuson and Franklin, 1983)
(PGA*).
½ of the peak ground acceleration (PGA) (Hynes, Griffin and Franklin, 1984) FS > 1.0 and a
20% reduction in resistance.
PGA/980 for (PGA < 200 gal) Noda and Joubu 1975, Experience formula
(PGA/980) 1/3 /3 for (200 gal <PGA)
0.5 a 0.65 *PGA/980 for (500 gal< PGA) Torii 2015, Experience formula
0.6 of peak ground acceleration GENSAI 2, integration and simplification of Noda
and Joubu 1975 and Torii 201.
Source: Own elaboration based on Abramson and others, 2002 and GENSAI II Project
*PGA=Peak ground acceleration.

The reason for using the value of K less than the peak acceleration is that the seismic
forces are of short duration and change direction many times in a second. Although
the safety factor may be below 1.0, it is a short period, while the reverse force, these
milliseconds are not enough to produce the fault (Federal Highway Administration,
1997).

Because seismic occurs in short periods, it is reasonable to assume that, except very
thick gravels, the soil does not drain appreciably during the seismic. Therefore, in many
cases, undrained resistors should be used for the pseudo-static analysis.

Table 4.12 shows the proposal of horizontal seismic coefficients for the pseudo-static
method of slopes in Costa Rica and figure 4.6, the seismic zoning of Costa Rica.

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Figure 4. 6 Seismic location of Costa Rica.

Source: Seismic Code of Costa Rica, 2010.

Table 4. 12 Horizontal seismic coefficients for the pseudo-static method of slopes, Costa Rica
Type of site Zone II. Zone III Zone IV
S1 0.15 0.15 0.20
S2 0.15 0.20 0.20
S3 0.15 0.20 0.25
S4 0.15 0.20 0.25
Source: Slope stability analysis according to the geometry of cuts in cohesive soils. Laporte, 2005

Table 4.13 describes the main characteristics of the four soil types (sites) proposed by
the Seismic Code of Costa Rica, 2002.

Table 4. 13 Types of sites proposed by the Seismic Code of Costa Rica, 2010. (CSCR-2010)
Type of site Description of the type of soil and rock that characterize each site.
S1 A profile of rock or rigid or dense soil with properties similar to a rock.
S2 A soil profile with conditions predominantly from moderately dense to dense or
from moderately rigid to rigid.
S3 A soil profile with 6 m to 12 m of clay of consistency from soft to medium rigid or
with more than 6 m of non-cohesive soils of low or medium density.
S4 A soil profile that contains a layer of more than 12m of soft clay
Source: Seismic Code of Costa Rica, 2010. (CSCR-2010)
The zoning and seismic values for El Salvador can be seen in Figure 4.7 and Table 4.14.

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LATITUDE

Figure 4. 7 Seismic zoning of the Republic of El Salvador, (MOP) 1997

Table 4. 14 Seismic coefficient by zones for El Salvador

Zone I Zone II
Kh 0.16 0.12
Source: MOP, 1997

The zoning and seismic values for Panama are presented in Table 4.15

Table 4. 15 Effective peak acceleration coefficients Aa and Av for the Republic of Panama
City Aa Av City Aa Av
Aguadulce 0.14 0.14 David 0.21 0.27
Aligandí 0.19 0.19 El Real 0.22 0.27
Almirante 0.21 0.22 El Valle 0.12 0.14
Bocas del Toro 0.21 0.21 Jaqué 0.22 0.28
Boquete 0.18 0.20 La Palma 0.21 0.27
Chanquinola 0.24 0.28 Las Tablas 0.17 0.20
Chepo 0.20 0.28 Panamá 0.15 0.20
Chriquí Grande 0.18 0.20 Penonomé 0.11 0.14
Chitré 0.15 0.15 Portobelo 0.17 0.19
Chorrera 0.13 0.15 Puerto Armuelles 0.25 0.34
Colón 0.15 0.20 Puerto Obaldía 0.21 0.22
Concepción 0.22 0.28 Santiago 0.15 0.18
Coronado 0.12 0.15 Soná 0.17 0.19
Tonosí 0.20 0.20
Source: Panamanian Structural Regulation, (REP) 2014
Where:
Aa = specific values of effective peak accelerations.
Av = Effective peak accelerations related to speed.
The zoning and seismic values for Guatemala can be seen in Figure 4.8 and Table 4.16.

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Figure 4. 8 Seismic zoning of the Republic of Guatemala, (AGIES) 2010

Table 4. 16 Seismicity index for the Republic of Guatemala.

Seismicity index. (Io) Scr S1r
2a 0.50 0.20
2b 0.70 0.27
3a 0.90 0.35
3b 1.10 0.43
4 1.30 0.50
4 1.50 0.55
4 1.65 0.60
Source: Guatemalan Association of structural and seismic engineering(AGIES) 2010

Figure 4.8 is related to Table 4.16.

Where:
Io = Seismicity index is a relative measure of the expected severity of the seismic in a
locality.
Scr = ordinate spectral of the short period of the extreme seismic considered in the rock
base at the site of interest.
S1r = ordinate spectral of period 1 second of the same spectrum considered in the rock
base at the site of interest.

The zoning and seismic values for Nicaragua can be seen in Figure 4.9 and Table 4.17.

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Figure 4. 9 Seismic zoning of the Republic of Nicaragua.

Source: National Construction Regulation, (RNC-7)

Table 4. 17 Amplification factors by soil type for Nicaragua, RNC-7

Seismic zone Type of soil
I II II
A 1.0 1.8 2.4
B 1.0 1.7 2.2
C 1.0 1.5 2.0
Source: National Construction Regulation, (RNC-7)

For very soft Type IV soils, it is necessary to construct spectra of specific sites.

Los suelos propensos a la licuefacción no están incluidos en ningún caso. La tabla 4.17
debe estar relacionada con la figura 4.9.

Where:
Type I: Rocky outcrop with Vs > 750 m/s,
Type II: Firm soil with 360 < Vs ≤ 750 m/s,
Type III: Moderately white soil, with 180 ≤ Vs ≤ 360 m/s,
Type IV: Very soft soil, with Vs < 180 m/s.

Vs. is the average speed of shear waves calculated at a depth of not less than 10 m,
which will be determined as:

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∑𝑵
𝒏=𝟏 𝐡𝐧
𝑽𝒔 = 𝑵
𝐡𝐧
∑
𝒏=𝟏 𝐯𝐧

Where:
he = thickness of the ‘n’th stratum
vn = shear waves velocity of the ‘n’th stratum.
N = number of the stratum.

The zoning and seismic values for Honduras are shown in Figure 4.10 and Table 4.18.

Figure 4. 10 seismic zones of the Republic of Honduras.

Source: Honduran Construction Code, 2008

Table 4.18 Factor de zona sísmica para Honduras

Seismic zone. 1 2 3a 3b 4a 4b 5a 5b 6
APS1 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
1 Peak Ground Acceleration
Source: Honduran Construction Code, 2008

You must relate Table 4.18 with Figure 4.10

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Newmark displacement method

The displacement analysis proposed by Newmark (1965) assumes a block that slides on
an inclined surface, which is subject to basal acceleration, as shown in Figure 4.11 and
Figure 4.12.

Figure 4. 11 Schematic representation of a sliding block.

Source: Newmark, 1965

Failure acceleration (AR) is defined, as that limit acceleration, over which the block slip
will occur, or, in other words, the minimum acceleration of the ground required to
overcome the maximum resistance of the sliding block.

Figure 4. 12 Sliding block in a fault plane

Source: Own elaboration, Roatán, Honduras

In Newmark's method, the acceleration of rupture is calculated as a function of a static

safety factor and the geometry of the slope. When the acceleration of the seismic
wave exceeds the value of AR, the block moves; the rest of the time the block remains
at rest. In this way, the accumulated deformation during the whole seismic is
calculated. By integrating the accelerations that exceed the critical acceleration, the
speeds are determined first and with the double integration, the displacements.

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General considerations of the method

- It is considered that well-defined planes of weakness exist in the slope, and the
movement will occur along specific surfaces or planes.
- There will be permanent deformations only if the dynamic stress exceeds the
shear resistance of the slope.
- Landslides occur "downhill.” The "uphill" resistance is considered infinite, and the
block will not move even if the critical acceleration is exceeded in the opposite
direction.
- The critical acceleration is calculated by the limit equilibrium method.

Slip resistance of the block

The slip resistance of a soil or rock block is a function of shear strength under conditions
applicable in a seismic. The magnitude of such resistance depends on the amount of
displacement to occur; however, to mobilize the shear strength as a slope, a large
displacement is not necessary. In the Newmark method, this resistance is established in
terms of a coefficient N multiplied by the weight of the sliding mass. The quantity N.g
where g is the acceleration of gravity corresponds to the constant acceleration acting
in the appropriate direction, which exceeds the sliding resistance of the element in the
direction in which the resistance has its smallest value. This acceleration is defined as
failure acceleration AR.

4.1.4 Determination of the type of the instability process: conditioning

factors and triggers

▪ Influential factors in slope instability.

The stability of a slope is determined by geometric factors (height and inclination),

geological factors (which condition the presence of planes and zones of weakness and
anisotropy in the slope), hydrogeological factors (presence of water) and geotechnical
factors or related to the mechanical behavior of the terrain (resistance and
deformability). Table 4.19 summarizes the conditioning factors and slope triggers.

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Table 4.19 Conditioning factors and triggers of slopes

Conditioning factors. Triggers factors
- Stratigraphy and lithology. - Static overload.
- Geological structure. - Dynamic loads.
- Hydrogeological conditions and - Changes in hydrogeological conditions.
hydrogeological performance. - Climatic factors.
- Physical, resistant, and deformational - Variations in geometry.
properties. - Reduction of resistant parameters.
- Natural tensions and tense-deformational
state.
Source: González and others, 2002

▪ Stratigraphy and lithology.

The physical and resistant properties of each type of material, together with the
presence of water, represent its tensodeformational behavior and, therefore, its
stability. Aspects such as the alternation of materials of different lithology, competition
and degree of alteration, or the presence of layers of soft material or hard strata,
control the types and disposition of the failure surface. In soils, which can generally be
considered homogeneous in comparison with rocky materials, the difference in the
degree of compaction, cementation or granulometry predisposes areas of weakness
and water circulation that can generate instabilities. In the rocky massifs, the existence
of layers or strata of different competition also implies a different degree of fracturing in
the materials.

▪ Geological structure and discontinuities.

The geological structure is a definitive parameter in the stability conditions of the slopes
in the rocky massifs. The combination of the structural elements with the geometric
parameters of the slope, height, and inclination, and their orientation define the
problems of stability.

▪ Hydrogeological conditions.

Most failures occur by the effect of water on the ground, as the generation of pore
pressures, or tows and erosion, surface or internal, of the materials forming the slope. In
general, it can be said that water is the greatest enemy of the slope stability (in
addition to anthropic actions, when inadequate excavations are carried out without
geotechnical criteria).
The presence of water in a slope reduces its stability by decreasing its terrain resistance
and increasing the forces tending to instability. Its most important effects are:

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- Reduction of the shear strength in the planes of failure when diminishing the
effective normal tension.
- The pressure exerted on the tensile cracks increases the forces that tend to the
slip.
- Increase in material weight due to saturation.
- Internal erosion by subsurface or underground flow
- Weathering and changes in the mineralogical composition of the materials

The shape of the water Table in a slope depends on different factors, which are the
permeability of the materials, the geometry or shape of the slope, and the
environmental conditions. In the rock mass, the geological structure has a great
influence on the arrangement of the water Table and therefore the distribution of pore
pressures over any potential slickenside at a slope and alternating permeable and
impermeable materials.

▪ Geotechnical properties of the soils and rocky massifs

In soils

The failure of a slope depends on the shear strength. In the first instance, this resistance
depends on the resistant parameters of the material: cohesion and internal friction.
Then, the influence of the nature of the soils on their mechanical properties implies that
the selection of representative strength parameters of shear strength should be made,
considering the geological history of the material.

In rocky massifs

It is the resistant properties of the discontinuities and the rock matrix that control the
mechanical behavior: failure network, failure length, opening, filling in the failure,
weathering, resistance, roughness, hydrology, etc.

▪ Natural stresses.

Tectonic type stresses, the excavations give rise to liberation and redistribution of
energy; this modification of the previous tensional state contributes to the loss of
resistance of the material. Discontinuities and areas with compressive structures (for
example, folds) can become areas of weakness by the appearance of extensional
stresses.

Due to changes in geometry, the stress state of a slope depends on its geometrical
configuration and the stress state of the rocky massif before excavation. In deep

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excavations, the high stresses that are generated in singular areas such as at the foot of
the slope can give rise to conditions of imbalance. Stress states that cause vertical
cracks are also generated at the head of the slope.

▪ Other factors which cause instability of slopes

Static overloads are the weight of buildings, landfills, dumps, heavy equipment
passage, retaining walls, etc. When exerted on the head of the slopes, they provide an
additional burden that can contribute to the destabilizing forces.

Dynamic overload, Dynamic loads are mainly due to seismic, natural or induced
movements; and to the vibrations produced by blasting near the slope. The main effect
of fractured rock massifs is the opening of pre-existing discontinuities, the reduction of
their resistance to shear strength and fall of rock blocks. In cases of strong seismic
movements, the forces applied instantaneously can produce the general failure of the
slope if there are favorable conditions for instability.

Precipitation and the climate regime influence the stability of the slope by modifying
the water content of the land. The alternation of periods of drought and rain produces
changes in the structure of the soils that give rise to losses of resistance.

Weathering processes, in a certain type of soil or soft rocky massifs the weathering
processes play an important role in the resistant properties, giving rise to alteration and
intense degradation when the materials are exposed to environmental conditions
because of an excavation. These resistance losses can lead to the fall of the surface
material and, if it affects critical areas of the slope, such as your foot, can generate
general failures, especially in conditions of water presence.

▪ Types of failures

Soil slopes

The failure in soil slopes failure is generally curved surfaces, with a diverse shape
conditioned by the morphology and stratigraphy of the ground.

- It can be approximately circular (the most frequent), with its lower end at the
foot of the slope, (foot slip) when it is formed by homogeneous terrain or by
several strata of homogeneous geotechnical properties.
- It can be almost circular but passing under the foot of the slope (deep slide).

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If certain conditions exist in the slope as the existence of strata or layers of different
competence, a failure may occur in favor of a flat surface or a polygonal surface
formed by several flat sections. The "infinite" slope model, (its length can be considered
infinite with respect to the thickness of the failure mass) can be adopted on many
natural slopes where the contact defines the failure surface, practically parallel to the
slope between the surface ground (colluvial or residual soil) and the underlying rock.

Rock slopes

Flat failure occurs in favor of a pre-existing structure, which can be stratification, a

tectonic joint, a fault, etc. The basic condition is the presence of discontinuities dipping
in favor of the slope and with its same direction. In slopes excavated parallel to the
stratification, flat failures can occur by sliding of the strata; This type of failure is typical in
litotic or slate massifs, generating failure planes in favor of schistocyte.

Wedge failure corresponds to the sliding of a wedge-shaped block, formed by two

planes of discontinuity in favor of its line of intersection. For this type of failure to occur,
the two planes must appear on the surface of the slope. This type of failure usually
occurs in massif with several families of discontinuities, whose orientation, spacing, and
continuity determine the shape and volume of the wedge.

Stratus overturning, they occur in slopes of rocky massifs where the strata present dip
opposite the inclination of the slope and direction parallel or subparallel to it. In
general, the strata appear fractured in blocks in favor of systems of discontinuities
orthogonal to each other. This type of failure involves a rotational movement of the
blocks, and the stability thereof is not solely conditioned by its sliding resistance.

Mass failure can occur in soft rocky massifs that are not very competent and in very
altered or intensely fractured massifs, which present anisotropic behavior and where
the planes of discontinuity do not control the mechanical behavior.

Use of software

Currently, commercial computer software programs are known, such as SLOPE/W,

STABLE, SLIDE, TALREN, Road Geohazard Management Tool: GeoMT (Calculation Sheet)2
and EXSSA3 (Excel Based Slope Stability Analysis Tool, Calculation Tool). They allow in a
fast and simple way to obtain the safety factors of slopes or hillsides with a certain
degree of complexity and by any of the methods of analysis. Some methods use finite

2
JICA, GENSAI 2 developed Excel spreadsheet tools (available on the DACGER website, El Salvador)
3
Same as 2 above

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elements with very little success in the stability of specific slopes, and others use
equilibrium analysis by interaction, the latter being widely used universally.

JICA GENSAI II developed spreadsheet tools (available on the website of DACGER, El

Salvador) EXSSA: Tool for Analysis of Slope Stability, based on Excel, whose analysis
analyzes the equivalence method of the equivalent limit in the seismic coefficient.

Numerical methods

The finite element method solves many of the shortcomings of limit equilibrium methods.
This method was introduced by Clough and Woodward (1967). The method essentially
divides the soil mass into discrete units that are called finite elements. These elements
are interconnected in their nodes and predefined edges. The method typically used is
that of the displacement formulation, which presents the results in the form of stresses
and displacements to the nodal points. The failure condition obtained is that of a
progressive phenomenon where not all the elements fail simultaneously. Although it is a
very powerful tool, its use is very complex, and its use is very limited to solve practical
problems. Wong (1984) mentions the difficulty of obtaining safety factors to the fault.

Although its use is not very expanded, there are some programs of slope stability
analysis using numerical methods. These programs are known: FLAC, UDEC (Benko-
Stead-1993), PLAXIS, among others. In the FLAC method, the materials are represented
by zones to form a mesh according to the geometry, and a variety of stress/strain
relations can be selected. In the UDEC method, the slope is divided into blocks
according to the system of joints or cracks, which can be rigid or deformable.

Stabilization methods.

Before beginning a stabilization method, it is always advisable to analyze the conditions

of the slope. The positioning of the water Table that caused the landslide, the type of
geological formation, the geometry and some geotechnical data as cohesion and
friction values, geometry of the failure surface, the influence of the seismic activity and
with the data must be considered. Determine a safety factor that approaches 1.0.

Subsequently, the stabilizing measures are considered, which may consist of:
modification of the slope geometry, drainages, increase of the resistance of the ground
by introducing resistant structural elements into the slope, construction of walls or other
containment elements.

Or, through superficial protection measures that help eliminate the problems of falling
rocks, avoid or reduce erosion and weathering, infiltration of runoff water.

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It is common to observe in the road lines installation of metallic meshes, facing walls,
installation of geotextiles materials, and plantings of species that contribute to reinforce
the ground.

Slope protection and stabilization work

A distinction must be made between structural and non-structural protection measures

as structural measures are considered those are protecting the slope surface as
shotcrete, cement coating. Modification of the topography: intermediate terraces or
berms, lowering of the slope grade, removal of the material at the head of the slope.
Control of surface and groundwater. Containment and anchoring structures, Table 4.20
classifies, explains, presents the form of collapse and proposes a method to stabilize it.
Table 4.21 contains the main works of slope protection with structure and purpose.

Non-structural measures are those that include non-physical actions aimed at

educating, preventing, mitigating, or preventing current and future risks. They can be
considered equal or more efficient than structural measures.

Table 4.20 Classification of landslides, presenting form and stabilization method

Classification Explanation Landslide form Example of strategic work
method

Erosion, collapse Type I. Desquamations

of the surface layer or
furrows occur due to
drought and humidity,
Erosion by water in
freezing and rain,
superficial
among others.
layers/appearance of
When left without
furrows.
intervening, this can Works with meshes +
turn into deep vegetation works / Works of
landslides. prefabricated frames +
vegetation works

Type II The projection

of the upper part of
the slope collapses

Profiling + vegetation works

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Classification Explanation Landslide form Example of strategic work

method

Type III. The rocks

collapse due to the
numerous cracks and
joints
Detachment of loose
rocks
Mortal spraying + reinforced
soil works + anchorage of rocks

Sliding surface Type I. Surface

layers landslides occur
including the rock
layers with high erosion
of the lower layers. In
most cases, spring
water is the trigger.
Profiling + Works of
prefabricated frames +
Horizontal drainage

Type II. A rockfall

occurs due to
weathering.

Landslide due to the

process of weathering
Works with Shotcrete / works
with frames + bolts in rock /
Works with frames + vegetation
Type III. There is a fall of
rocks on the slope, and
there are cracks in the
rocks (joints, small
rupture, and thin
layers). In the second
case, there are also
many cases of falls in
the form of wedges
Crashes along the
cracks of the rocks Mortar spraying +
reinforcement works with rock
anchoring

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Classification Explanation Landslide form Example of strategic work

method

Collapses or a. The slope is

large-scale composed of layers of
landslides weak and poorly
consolidated soil. The Discontinuous surface
slope has unstable slip in high
geological elements permeability formation
and collapses when
the groundwater level
rises Profiling + piles / lateral drilling
works + vegetation works

b. Rocks that have

geological structures
with inclined strata,
faults, and fractured
zones create large-
scale landslides

Work of beams + work of

Fault ln the fracture powdered beams + works of
zone as the sliding anchorage to the ground +
surface works of ground with reinforced
soil + winding concrete

c. Slopes that have

inclined strata in the
opposite direction to
the inclination of the
slope and that contain
faults can collapse or
rotate forward
Rotation, the collapse
of inclined layers Shotcrete + groundwork with
(Toppling) reinforced soil + ground
anchoring work
Source Own elaboration based on “Slopes Protection Works Manual” of GENSAI Project, Ministry of Public
Works, Transportation and Housing and Urban Development of El Salvador, 2018, Modified from the
Association of Roads of Japan (JAEA), 2009. Guidelines for cuts and earthworks on roads and slope stability.
ISBN 978-4-89950-415-6.

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Table 4.21 Main works of slope protection with structure and purpose
Item Purpose
Vegetation base net To hold the soil for the vegetation base
To prevent erosion due to surface water flow
Woodpile To control the erosion of the surface and the sediment
Cylinder wire yield due to spring water
Precast concrete block To hold the filling material and prevent erosion
Shotcrete To prevent erosion, weathering, and infiltration of surface
Stone pitting water
Block pitting
Concrete pitting To prevent the slope surface failure and the weathering
Slope grating crib works (precast or and striping of the rocks
cart-in place concrete) Ground retention works for small soil pressures
Masonry retaining wall To prevent slope failure due to ground pressure
Gabion works
Concrete retaining wall
Reinforced soil of cutting slope with
polypropylene fibers
Rock bolts To prevent slope failure due to sliding slope subsurface
Ground anchors
Piles works
Sheet piling To formulate the impervious wall to protect piers and river
abutment structures
Mechanically stabilized earth Increase the cohesion of the soil, improving the
mechanical properties
Source Own elaboration based on “Slopes Protection Works Manual” of GENSAI Project, Ministry of Public
Works, Transportation and Housing and Urban Development of El Salvador, 2018. Modified of the
Association of Roads of Japan (JAEA), 2009. Guidelines for Earth Works for Road Slope Stability. ISBN 978-4-
89950-415-6.

▪ Modification of the geometry

The most frequent actions are:

- Decrease the inclination of the slope.

- Remove weight from the head of the slope.
- Increase the weight at the foot of the slope (counterweight fill).
- Construct slopes and berms (steps in the slope)

Conversely, when the slope gradient becomes smooth, the area exposed to direct rain
will increase, so it is necessary to preserve it from erosion by drainage and vegetation.
Table 4.22 shows critical angles in rock slopes.

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Table 4.22 Critical angles in important slopes in rocks

Stratification The
or Critical radius of
Predominant Height Life of the
preferential angle of the curvature Reference
rock (m) slope
direction of slope in plan
joints (m)
Shale 95 27.3° (18°-36°) ≥300 (pie) 70 years Piteau
(1970)
Shale 95 39.5° (23°-56°) 60 (pie) 70 years Jennings
(1970)
Shale Parallel to the 90 42° (35°-60°) Recent Patton and
slope Deere
(1970)
Porphyry shale 150 58° 400 Broadbent
(medio) and
Rippere
(1970)
Very altered 52 60° -75 (pie) Hamel
rhyolite (1971)
Granodiorite Parallel to the 248 42°-46.5° Very long Keonedy
with altered slope in a part and
areas Niermeyer
(1970)
Healthy 100-200 >60° Many Pryor (1970)
porphyry years
Frayed or 100-200 >50° Many Pryor (1970)
weathered years
porphyry
Slate Parallel to the 100-200 37°-40° Many Pryor (1970)
slope years
Slate Parallel to the 100-200 40°-45° Many Pryor (1970)
slope years
Decomposed 100-200 ≈33° Many Pryor (1970)
slate years
Pyrite 100-200 ≈45° Many Pryor (1970)
years
Mineral waste 100-200 ≈33° Many Pryor (1970)
years
Sandstone Horizontal 70 Almost Hundreds
with partially vertical of years
clayey
cement
Source: Geotechnics and foundations II, mechanics of soil and rocks. Second edition. José A. Jiménez
Salas and others

The Road Association of Japan (JAEA), contemplates guidelines for cuts and earth
movements in roads and stability of slopes, which establishes the standard gradient for

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cuts in slopes. According to this code, the design for a cut Slope will depend on the
type of soil or rock, as indicated in Table 4.23, the values are determined empirically
according to the geological conditions, because in practice it is not easy to perform
stability analysis on slopes with heights less than 10 m for a section of several meters in
length.

Table 4.23 Geometric standards of cuts in small slopes according to the type of soil and rock
Height of the slope Horizontal: vertical
Characteristics of the soil and rock
(m) gradient
Hard rock 0.3:1 - 0.8:1
Soft rock 0.5:1 - 1.2:1
Loose and poor
Sand 1.5:1 or softer
distribution of particles.
Less than 5 m 0.8:1 -1.0:1
Dense
5-10 m 1.0:1 - 1.2:1
Sandy ground
Less than 5 m 1.0:1 - 1.2:1
Loose
5-10 m 1.2:1 - 1.5:1
Dense and good Less than 10 m 0.8:1- 1.0:1
Sandy soil with gravel distribution of particles. 10-15 m 1.0:1 – 1.2:1
and rocks Poor and bad Less than 10 m 1.0:1 – 1.2:1
distribution of particles 10-15 m 1.0:1 – 1.2:1
Fine-grained soils (cohesive soils or silt) Less than 10 m 1.0:1 – 1.2:1
Less than 5 m 1.0:1 – 1.2:1
Fine-grained soil with gravel and rocks
5-10 m 1.2:1 – 1.5:1
Source: The Road Association of Japan, 1984
Notes: (1) Except for the properties of the soils and rocks shown in the Table, for slopes greater than 10 m,
it must be studied individually. (2) The vertical cutting height must be determined, as shown in the
following figure:

h1: height of the slope to determine slope gradient A.

h1
Slope A h2: height of the slope to determine the gradient of the slope B = the height
h2
from the base of slope B (road surface) to the upper part of slope A.
Slope B

The erosion control works with vegetation and drainage on the inclination of the slope
are required to stabilize the slope in the long term.

Berms and banks on slopes

Berms are generally built from one to two meters wide for every 5 to 7 meters in height
with the following purpose:

- Reduce the speed of water flow on the bank surface, decreasing the erosive
force.
- Provide a space for drainage ditches, and

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- As a sidewalk for inspection or scaffolding for repair.

A wider berm is recommended when the slope is long and high where it is necessary to
install screens or protection fences for falling rocks.

▪ Resistant structural elements

The purpose is to increase the shear strength through some of the following systems:

- Introduce elements that improve the resistance of the ground on the failure
surface (for example, piles or micro-piles).
- Introduce elements that increase the tangential forces of friction on the failure
surface (for example, anchors and bolts).

The sheet piles are alignments of these elements spaced apart from each other, in such
a way that they constitute a relatively continuous structure, crossing the slid area and
embedding in the stable zone. The distribution and length of the piles must be studied in
detail, as well as their resistance to the stresses to which they will be subjected. The
diameters of the piles vary from 0.65 to 2 m, often being braced on the surface using a
beam.

Similarly, micropile sheets can be used that pass through the slipped area and enter the
stable zone. The micro-piles usually have a diameter between 12 and 15 cm and
lengths that reach 15 and 20 m; They are armed with a steel tube that is filled by
cement injection.

Jet-grouting columns are often used to stabilize slopes in granular soils, even in cohesive
soils, by cutting the slip surface and creating areas with greater shear strength. The
procedure consists of drilling the ground, generally between 0.40 and 1.0 m in diameter,
injecting cement at high pressure (between 30 and 60 MPa) through a grid that rotates
at high speed, penetrating and its failures the surrounding terrain. This results in a high
strength column formed by the soil and the injection.

The anchors are elements formed by cables or steel bars that are anchored to stable
areas of the massif, work by traction and provide a force contrary to the movement
and an increase in the normal stresses on the failure surface.

Depending on the way they work, they are classified as passive (the anchor begins to
work when the block or terrain movement occurs), active (the anchor is stretched after
installation until its admissible load) and mixed (the anchor is stretched) with a load
lower than its admissible load.

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Walls and containment elements. The construction of walls is used to reinforce the
standing area of the slopes, avoiding, also, the degradation in this critical area against
stability. The walls are built at the foot of the slope as resistant, containment or support
elements, being effective against surface instabilities. The retaining walls present the
disadvantage that the foot of the slope must be excavated for its construction, which
favors the instability. The support walls are built separately from the foot of the slope,
filling later the backbone (space between the wall and the slope). The purpose of the
revetment ones is to protect the soil from erosion and provide a stabilizing weight at the
foot of the slope. Gabion walls are flexible walls consisting of fillings of rock fragments,
contained in a steel mesh, work by gravity and can be built with stepping towards the
interior or exterior of the slope. They have the advantage of allowing the circulation of
water from the slope. The slurry walls are reinforced concrete elements built in situ, in
ditches dug below the surface of the land, which can be constructed using cast
concrete or cast in place concrete. They have placed rows of anchors at various levels.
Reinforced earth walls are formed by a prefabricated exterior wall of concrete or metal
sheets and a floor-filling, reinforced by metal or plastic bands or braces, which are
anchored to the wall or the slope. The anchored walls are walls reinforced with anchors
to improve the resistance to overturning and the sliding of the structure. They can be
classified as gravity structures, semi-gravity, or slurry walls. The gravity or semi-gravity
walls are reinforced concrete walls, to which are added pre-tensioned anchors at
various height levels. Sheet piling is thin structures buried, metallic or reinforced
concrete, anchored in its upper part. A variant of the system is the tangent/secant
piles. The steps in the design of walls for the stabilization of landslides are presented in
Table 4.24.

Table 4.24 Steps to follow in the design of retaining walls to stabilize landslides
Determine the feasibility of using containment structures
Step 1 Analyze right-of-way restrictions, materials, equipment, existing structures, environmental
aspects, aesthetics, sensitivity, earth movements, costs, etc.
Geotechnical information of the landslide or slope
Topography, lateral extension, soil profile, groundwater levels, parameters for the analysis, fault
Step 2 surface, seismicity, etc. Ensure that the topography of the slip and the depth of the actual or
expected fault surface, and the groundwater level conditions are known clearly and
precisely.
Evaluate the safety factor of the existing slope
Calculate the safety factor using a limit equilibrium software. Perform a conventional slope
Step 3
stability calculation and adjust the conditions in such a way that the model is as close as
possible to reality. It is designed for the minimum safety factor.
Select the type of wall and its location
The type of wall depends on the space, the available materials, the required magnitude, the
Step 4
possibility or not of carrying out excavations, the time available. The location of the wall
depends on the specific objective and the characteristics of the slide.

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Resize the wall and calculate the safety factor of the slope or global fault with the wall
Step 5 A trial and error with slope stability software by limit balance modify the dimensions and
location of the wall to achieve the desired safety factor.
Evaluate safety factors for slip, rollover and support capacity
Calculate the safety factors and modify the dimensions of the wall until obtaining the
Step 6
specified factors. If the wall is modified, it is required to check the safety factor to the total
failure of the slope.
Design the internal structure of the wall and special details
Step 7
Calculate reinforcements, subdrains, drains, facade elements, etc.
Source: Suárez J., 2001. Erosion Control in Tropical Areas. Chapter 3. Page 147

Drainage is an aspect that should be considered in the construction of walls, since it

can produce saturation of the ground in its backbone, generating high interstitial
pressures and thrusts on the structure.

▪ Surface protection measures

These measures are aimed at:

- Eliminate the problems of falling rock

- Increase security against surface fractures
- Avoid or reduce erosion and weathering on the sloping surface
- Prevent the entry of runoff water (geosynthetics and bioengineering)

The most frequent actions consist of:

- Installation of metal mesh

- Shotcrete on slopes
- Construction of revetment walls on foot of the slope
- Installation of geosynthetic materials
- Waterproofing
- Sowing of species that contribute to reinforce the surface terrain in slopes
excavated in soils

Shotcrete in slope stabilization consists of covering the surface of the slope, releasing
the mixture pneumatically through a hose. Normally several layers are thrown on the
slope, with a total thickness of 5 to 8 cm. The shotcrete can be reinforced by fixing a
metal mesh to the slope on which the mixture is sprayed. The saturation of soil using
drainages should be considered.

This practice must comply with the standards applicable to the quality of materials:

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Cement: The cement must meet the ASTM C1157 specification.

Aggregates: Aggregates must comply with the ASTM C33 or ASTM C330-05 specification
if lightweight concrete is specified by the buyer, except that the granulometry of the
total aggregate that constitutes the shotcrete must be by the Table. 4.25 for the
specified number of granulometry.

Water: The mixing water must comply with the ASTM C1602 / C1602M-06 specification.

Additives: Cement supplementary materials and chemical additives must comply with
the ASTM C1141 / C1141M specification.

Table 4.25 Granulometric limits for aggregate combination for shotcrete

Percentage of mass passing in a single sieve
Sieve size A Granulometry No. 1B Granulometry No. 2B
12.5 mm (1⁄2 inch) - 100
9.5 mm (3⁄8 inch) 100 90-100
4.75 mm (No. 4) 95-100 70-85
2.36 mm (No. 8) 80-98 50-70
1.18 mm (No. 16) 50-85 35-55
600 mm (No. 30) 25-60 20-35
300 mm (No. 50) 10-30 8-20
150 mm (No. 100) 2-10 2-10
A The sieve size shown in parentheses is for reference only; The only standard sieve sizes are

those established in the ASTM E-11 specification.

B The ranges shown in this Table are extensive so that they can be adapted to the

conditions of each country. Or, develop an average granulometry for specific projects.
Source: Guatemalan Standards Commission (COGUANOR), 1962

Shotcrete is a mortar or concrete that is released at high speeds pneumatically on a

surface, which can be concrete, rock, natural terrain, masonry, wood, etc. The
projection at high speeds allows not only the action of placing but also compacting
the concrete.

Measures that could be taken to reduce the dangers of falling rocks

The slopes excavated in fractured rock masses usually present problems of block
detachments in favor of the network of discontinuities. Rock mechanics is currently used
to determine the stability or possible instability of rock fragments. When it comes to
boulders at the top of the slope, the dangers of falling rocks are obvious. However,
types of faults occur in rocks that represent greater danger, and this is due to a block
that is suddenly released by deformations of the surrounding rock mass. It can occur
when the forces acting through planes of discontinuity, which isolate a block of the
adjacent ones, change because of water pressures in the discontinuities or a reduction

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of the shear strength of these planes due to weathering, causing landslides of

significant or large-scale blocks.

Among the actions for the stabilization of unstable rock blocks are:
- Installation of bolts for fixing rock blocks; When the blocks to be stabilized have
large dimensions; their fixation must be done through anchors.
- Installation of cables and meshes to stabilize very fractural areas of the slope;
consists of the placement of a metal mesh, which is superimposed on a series of
cables forming a grid, anchored to the rock at its ends and stressed.
- Elimination of blocks by controlled blasting, expansive cement, fragmentation by
chopper hammer, manual removal by levers, etc. Only the appropriate blocks
must be removed. Otherwise, the effect may be detrimental to the stabilization
of other blocks in contact
- A method to reduce rock fall detachment is to eliminate the excavation by
blasting; the vibrations destabilize the blocks with a tendency to fall.
- If it is accepted that it is not possible to detect or prevent all rockfalls, then the
construction of berms, ditches, fillings, construction of fences or metal mesh
covers should be considered as possible measures to reduce damage. Hoek
Rockscience, 2000.

Possibly in the system of protection against permanent falling of rocks, the most
effective system in most roads is the construction of a trench of capture at the end of
the slope. The base of this trench should be covered by a layer of gravel to absorb the
energy of the falling rocks. Between the road and the trench, a resistant barrier or mesh
must be built, the location can be calculated using a rockfall analysis. It must be
considered that the rocks do not impact the barrier; the rocks must dissolve the kinetic
energy in the gravel of the trench. The design criteria for rock blockage ditches are
shown in Table 4.26.

Table 4.26 Design criteria for rock block trap trench

Inclination Height of the Width of trench
Depth of trench (m)
of the slope slope (m) (m)
Almost 5 to 10 3.7 1.0
vertical 10 to 20 4.6 1.2
> 20 6.1 1.2
0.25 H 5 to 10 3.7 1.0
0.3H:1V 10 to 20 4.6 1.2
20 to30 6.1 1.8
>30 7.6 1.8
0.5H:1V 5 to 10 3.7 1.2
10 to 20 4.6 1.8
20 to 30 6.1 1.8
>30 7.6 2.7

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0.75H:1V 0 to 10 3.7 1.0

10 to 20 4.6 1.2
>20 4.6 1.8
Source: Ritchie, 1963
In terms of rockfall hazards evaluation, an accepted classification is the Rockfall Risk
Classification System (RHRS) developed on the Oregon State Highway, Pierson, and
others 1990. See Table 4.27. Hoek Rockscience, 2000

Table 4.27 Rockfall Risk Classification System (RHRS)

Category Rating criteria
Slope height 25 ft 50 ft 75 ft 100 ft
Effectiveness in the Good Moderated Limited No catchment
trench catchment catchment catchment
Average vehicle risk 25% of the time 50% of the time 75% of the 100% of the
time time
Percentage of visible Appropriate Moderated visible Limited visible Very limited
distance decision visible distance, distance, 80% distance, 60% visible
100% below the below design below design distance, 40%
design value. value value below design
value
Road width including 44 ft 36 ft 28 ft 20 ft
shoulder paving
Structural Discontinuity of Discontinuity of Discontinuity Continuity of
condition joints, favorable joints, random of joints, joints, adverse
orientation orientation adverse orientation
Geological characteristics

orientation
Case 1

Friction Rugged, Wavy Planar Clay fill

angle Irregular

Erosion Occasional Many erosion Important

Structural characteristics erosion characteristic erosion
condition poorly characteristics. s characteristics
Case 2

differentiated
Differences Small difference Moderated Big difference Extreme
in erosion difference difference
rates
Block size 1 ft 2 ft 3 ft 4 ft
Amount of material 3 cubic yards 6 cubic yards 9 cubic yards 12 cubic yards
slipped
Climate and presence of Low to Moderate High High
water in the slope moderate precipitation, precipitation,
precipitation
precipitation intermittent water water flow in
and
without water on in the slope the slope
continuous
the slope water flow in
the slope
Source: Own elaboration based on Chapter 9 of Hoek Rockscience, 2000

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Slope height represents the vertical height of the slope, not the distance of the slope.
Rocks on the upper part of the slopes have more potential energy than rocks on lower
parts, so they represent a greater hazard and receive a higher rating. The
measurement is at the highest point from where a rockfall is expected.

Effectiveness in the trench, the effectiveness of a trench is measured by its ability to

prevent the fallen rock from reaching the road. When estimating the effectiveness of
the trench several factors must be qualified: 1) Height and angle of the slope, 2) width,
depth, and shape of the trench, 3) expected block sizes and amount of fall, 4) impact
of irregularities of the slope (fall characteristics) of the falling rocks. It is especially
important for the evaluator to evaluate the impact of irregularities on the slope
because a fall feature can cancel the expected benefits in a fall area. The evaluator
must first consider whether the slope is natural or man-made, then drop rocks onto the
paved road. Based on the fall characteristics, it determines which rocks are captured
by the trench and which pass to the road. The rating points must be assigned as follows:

3 points, good catchment. All or almost all the rocks that fall are retained by the
captured trench.
9 points, moderate catchment. The fallen rocks occasionally reach the road.
27 points, limited catchment. The fallen rocks frequently reach the road.
81 points, without catchment. All or almost all the falling rocks hit the road.

Average Vehicle Risk (AVR)

This category measures the percentage of time a vehicle will be present in the danger
zone of falling rocks. The percentage is obtained by using a formula (shown below)
based on the length of the slope, the average daily traffic (ADT) and the posted speed
limit on the site. A rating of 100% means that, on average, you can expect a car to be
in danger 100% of the time. Care must be taken to measure only the length of a slope
where falling rocks are a problem. Excessive estimated lengths will strongly bias the
formula and results. When there are high ADT values, values higher than 100%, it means
that at a certain moment, there is more than one car present within the measured
section. The formula used is:
𝐴𝐷𝑇 (𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟)𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒(𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠) 𝑥 100%
= AVR
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

Percentage of the Decision Sight Distance

The Decision Sight Distance (DSD) is used to determine the length of the road in feet
where the driver must make a complex or instantaneous decision. DSD is critical when
obstacles along the way are difficult to perceive or when unexpected maneuvers must

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be made. The sight distance is the shortest distance along a road from where a given
height object is continuously visible to the driver, Table 95. Along a section with rockfall,
the sight distance can change appreciably. Horizontal and vertical curves on the road,
rocky outcrops or vegetation on the edges of the road can hinder the driver from
defining a rock on the road. To determine where these impacts are most severe, walk
through the sector with rockfalls in both directions. Then decide which direction of the
road has the shortest sight. The horizontal and vertical curves must be evaluated.
Normally an object will be darker after a curve. Place a 6-inch object on the edge of
the road at the curve location and walk away from the traffic flow to determine how
far the object is visible when the height of the view is 3.5 feet above the surface of the
road. Table 4.28 can be applied to measure this distance. The distances represent the
lowest design value, and the posted speed limit must be used on the damaged road
section.

Table 4.28 Distances that represent the lowest design value using the posted speed limit on the
damaged road section.
Posted speed limit (mph) Sight distance (pies)
30 450
40 600
50 750
60 1,000
70 1,100
Source: Taken from chapter 9 of Hoek Rockscience, 2000

These values can be changed in the following formula to calculate the percentage of
the Decision Sight Distance.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑥 100%

= %
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Road width

This dimension is measured perpendicular to the centerline of the road from edge to
edge of the pavement. This measure represents the space required to make a
maneuver and prevent the fall of a rock. When the width of the road is not consistent,
this must be the minimum width.

Geological characteristics

The geological conditions of the slope are evaluated, considering this category.

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Case 1 is for slopes where contacts, stratification planes, or other discontinuity are the
dominant structural features on a slope with rock mass. Case 2 is for slopes where
differential erosion or excessively steep slopes are the dominant conditions of rockfall.
The professional should use the case that best suits the evaluation. If both cases are
present, both are evaluated, but the highest score is taken.

Case 1

If the structures dip or bend in the direction of the road, you should consider the friction
angle of the rocks, the filling of the joints and the presence of water. Adverse conditions
are those that cause failures by a detachment of blocks, wedge blocks, or landslides.
For joints larger than 10 m in length:

Three points, discontinuous joints, favorable orientation, consolidated rock without

planes of inclined joints in favor of the road, stratification planes with favorable
inclination to the road, etc.

Nine points are discontinuous joints, random orientation, slope rocks with randomly
oriented joints creating a three-dimensional pattern. This type of pattern may have
some scattered blocks, with joints oriented opposite the slope, but are not favorable to
the slope.

Twenty-seven points, discontinuous joints, adverse orientation, slope exhibit a prominent

fracture pattern, stratification planes, and other discontinuities with adverse orientation,
with continuous length less than 10 feet.

Eighty-one points, continuous joints, adverse orientation, the dominant pattern of joints
are exposed in slope. The stratification or other discontinuity adverse to the slope and
with a length greater than 10 feet.

Friction angle

This parameter directly affects one block to move about another. IN the angle of
friction in joints, stratifications, or other discontinuity is defined by macro and micro-
roughness of the surface. The roughness is the degree of the waviness of the joints; the
micro-roughness is the texture of the joints. In areas where the joints are weathered or
degraded by hydrothermal alteration, open joints, with the presence of water, the
potential for falling rocks is greater. Characterizing the joints and orientation about the
slope, you can determine the angle of friction.

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Three points, the surfaces of the joints are rough and irregular. This macro and micro-
roughness provide optimal mooring.
Nine points, wavy surface and high roughness, but without optimal mooring. Twenty-
seven points, flat structures, the surfaces do not contain undulations. The friction is
strictly derived from the roughness of the surface of the rock.
Eighty-one points are fractures with clay filler, separate or open joints, altered or
weathering joints, etc. They represent a low angle of friction.

Case 2

Structural condition

It is applied to slopes where differential erosion or seismicity is the dominant condition of

falling rocks. For erosion to occur requires high slopes, unsupported rocks, or hard rocks
that may eventually fall off. Rockfall is caused by a lack of local support or the entire
slope. The common slopes susceptible to these conditions are Strata with weathered
rocks where the erosion undermines, and the resistant rock falls off; slopes with various
materials such as conglomerates and mudflows, etc. Where the climate influences to
weaken the matrix and makes the rock fragments by gravity detach.

Three points, few characteristics of differential erosion distributed along the slope.
Nine points, occasional erosion characteristics distributed along the slope. Twenty-
seven points, many features of differential erosion along the slope.
Eighty-one points, severe cases of erosion as dangerous overhangs produced by
erosion.

The difference in erosion rates

It is related to the future potential of falling rocks. As erosion progresses, there is no

support, and slope conditions develop. The impact of physical erosion, chemical
processes, human activities should be considered. The degree of danger produced by
erosion is related to the size of the blocks that are detached, frequency of fall and
amount of material slipped.

Three points, the difference in the rate of erosion is such that the characteristics are
appreciated over many years.
Nine points, the difference in the rate of erosion is such that the characteristics are
appreciated over a few years.
Twenty-seven points, the difference in the rate of erosion is such that the characteristics
are appreciated annually.

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Eighty-one points, difference in the rate of erosion is such that the characteristics
develop quickly.

Block size or number of rocks slid by event

The most probable type of rocks that occur in the fall should be represented. If the
individual blocks are the most typical that fall, the size of the blocks should be the
reference. If a mass of blocks is the reference, then the number of events must be taken
or estimated when there is no maintenance history. Very useful to apply corrective
measures.

Climate and presence of water in the slope

The periods of water help the weathering and movement of the rocky material. If it is
known that water flows continuously or intermittently on the slope, it is classified as
follows: areas that receive less than 20 inches per year are considered low rainfall
areas, areas that receive more than 50 inches per year they are considered high
precipitation areas. The responsible professional must consider that areas with
precipitation or areas where water flows freely have a category of 27 points. Eighty-one
points are reserved for areas with extreme water presence.

Drainage and sub-drainage work on slopes

Its purpose is to eliminate or reduce the water present in the slope and, therefore, the
interstitial pressures that act as a destabilizing factor in the fracture surfaces and
traction cracks. These measures are generally the most effective, since water is the
main agent that triggers problems of slope instability, increasing the weight of the
unstable mass, raising the water Table and interstitial pressures, creating hydrostatic
thrusts, softening the ground, eroding the foot of the slope, etc.

Drains can be superficial, deep drains, "California" drains, vertical wells, draining sheets
or a combination of them.

4.4.1 Surface drainage

This section has been taken from the "Manual of Slope Protection Works" Chapter 2, this
manual has been prepared by the GENSAI Project in conjunction with the Ministry of
Public Works, Transportation and Housing and Urban Development of El Salvador with
the support of JICA, Japan International Cooperation Agency in 2018.

Classification of surface drainage facilities

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The classification of the relevant surface drainage facilities for road cutting slopes is as
follows, and as shown schematically in Figure 4.13.

a. Drainage channel of the upper part of the slope

b. Berm drainage channel or horizontal drainage trench
c. Side drainage channel
d. Longitudinal drainage channels

Drainage Surface Road drainage Drainage Surface of Adjacent area

of the slope surface the slope drainage

Berm drainage

Groundwater level

Longitudinal drainage channel

▽
Side channel

Figure 4. 13 Classification of Surface Drainage Installations, GENSAI, 2018

Each drainage installation is detailed below:

a) Drainage channel in the upper part of the slope

Drainage channels will be installed for the upper part of the slope along the entire part
of the crown of the slope to avoid the flow of surface runoff from the areas adjacent to
the slope.

The size of the ditch along the top of the slope will be determined according to the
amount of runoff due to precipitation. The ditches will be built using soil-cement mixture,
stone masonry, etc. Figure 4.14 gives a structural image of a drainage ditch made with
a cement mixture for floors, JICA, 2018.

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1:1.
1:1.
5 Soil-cement mixture or
0 concrete,
about 5~10 cm thick
Excavated soil may be used as embankment materials

Figure 4. 14 Drainage channel with soil-cement mixture, GENSAI, 2018

These channels will be installed near the tip of the slope to prevent water flow in the
back or side of the ditch.

b) Berms or horizontal drainage ditches

The horizontal drainage channels or drainage ditches of the berms should be designed
to avoid surface erosion of the slope caused by rainfall or spring water. The drainage
channels will be constructed using cement mixtures for soils, reinforced concrete U-
shaped gutters, stone pitching, or they will be of unsupported types. Figure 4.15 shows
the structural image of a horizontal drainage channel or berm.

When berm drains are provided, the width of the berm should be greater than 1.5 m.

More than
Greater than1.51.5m
m

Greater than
More than 1.51.5m
m

U-shaped reinforced
Reinforced Concrete
Abou U-Shaped
concrete Gutter
gutters
Abou
t 5% t 5%

Soil-Cement mixture
Concrete soil-cement
or Concrete
mixture
Concrete soil-cement
Soil-Cement Mixture
mixture
or Concrete

Figure 4. 15 Details of the drainage channel of Berm, GENSAI, 2018.

Source: Prepared by the authors based on the Association of Roads of Japan (JAEA), 2009. Guidelines for
cuts and earth movements in roads and stability of slopes. ISBN 978-4-89950-415-6

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c) Side drainage channel

The lateral drainage channels should be designed to cope with the maximum amount
of runoff from the slope and its adjacent.

The following types of channels are generally used:

a. Gravel channel - Can be used where the discharge is less, and there is enough
space available.
b. Stone or rock channel - The bottom of the channel is protected with stone or
rocks. This type is adoptable when the speed of running water is a little faster.
c. Stone masonry channel - The channel is covered with river stones on one or both
sides, sometimes even at the bottom. This type is recommended for
mountainous areas.
d. Cast concrete channel in situ - Especially where the discharge is quite large,
and the speed of the running water is fast, a concrete channel is
recommended. Due to its larger section, the cast concrete channel in place is
often used covered.

d) Longitudinal drainage channel

Longitudinal drainage channels should be designed to guide water from a trench at

the top of a slope or berm to an appropriate channel at the bottom of the slope.

Longitudinal drainage channels are usually constructed with channels in

U shape of reinforced concrete, reinforced concrete pipes, or are stone channels
(ladder type). An example is shown in Figure 4.16.

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80
1.5
24 :1
10

-1 15 50 15
.8: 93
1 Cover
Cover
5

Cover
Cover
10 3:1
3:1
Ditch Sodding or stone Filling with soil-
Stone finish Backfilled with
60 80 Pitching cement mixture

H
24 24 39 Soil-cement

H
Catch Basin or similar.
non-slip Anti-slip
concrete mixture or the
10 Reinforced
U-shaped concrete
reinforced 5
concrete like
15 concreteU-shaped
gutter gutter
Concrete U-shaped
U-shaped concrete 33 H:1
gutter with
channel with socket Foundation material
Foundation Material Soil 0.5:1
5 15 50 15 5 Soil
baseboard (zocalo) Soft rock 0.3:1
Soft Rock
90 Hard rock 0.2:1
Hard Rock
(a) (b)

Figure 6 An Example of Vertical Ditch using the Reinforced

Figure 4. 16 Structural
Concrete U-Shapeimage of the
Gutter drainage
(Unit: cm) channel, JICA, 2018

In places where the flow direction changes drastically or where the longitudinal
drainage channel meets other waterways, a collection basin with covers and simple
sediment pit should be installed to reduce the power of the running water. In principle,
the longitudinal drainage channels are installed under the following conditions Figure
4.17;

a) The slopes are wider than 100 meters; Y

b) On the valley slope, it is expected that rainwater will flow from the upper slope.

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Drainage channel of the crest

Trim the slope

Longitudinal channel drain
Drainage in berm Filling gradient

Road

Figure 4. 17 Drainage channel design example, JICA, 2018

4.4.2 Underground drainage

This section 4.4.2 up to the subtopic "Design Consideration" has been taken from the
"Manual of Slope Protection Works" Chapter 2 this manual has been prepared by the
GENSAI Project in conjunction with the Ministry of Public Works, Transportation and
Housing and Urban Development of El Salvador with the support of JICA, Japan
International Cooperation Agency in 2018.

Groundwater is generally divided into two types, superficial and deep. Shallow
groundwater, 0 to 5 meters below the surface of the soil, is mainly due to accumulated
short-term rainfall. Shallow groundwater often causes surface failure or failure at the
foot of a slope creating a large-scale landslide. In such cases, the sewers and horizontal
drainage holes are effective.

The drainage system must be designed in such a way that it anticipates capturing the
water before it affects the wall. In addition to the sub-drains, drainage holes must be
installed to prevent hydrostatic pressure, which is normally from 2 to 6 inches in diameter
(due to the difficulty of maintenance it is advisable to use a diameter greater than four
inches) spaced no more than 1.5 meters horizontally and 1.0 meter vertically, the
columns should be interspersed. The sub-drains should be placed from a minimum
height of 30 centimeters above the level of the foot of the wall. Reference: Manual for
Design for Slope Protection. JICA, 2018.

The horizontal drainage holes are used to drain surface and deep underground water,
to stabilize the landslide by decreasing the pore pressure that is responsible for

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activating the sliding surface. The works are useful as a temporary measure to diminish
the progress of an active landslide.

Stability analysis of the effectiveness of subsurface drainage

The horizontal drainage drilling works are one of the best cost-effective methods of
controlling a landslide. The amount of reduction in pore water pressure must be
achieved by constructing the horizontal drainage hole, to satisfy the proposed safety
factor is obtained using the following equation, and as schematically shown in Figure
4.18.

1
U = ( PFs   T − ( N − U ) tan  − C   L)
tan 

Where,
⊿U (kN/m）= Assumed reduction in pore water pressure.

Actual groundwater level

Assumed groundwater level h
Horizontal drainage holes

Penetrate through the

Fault surface
sliding surface 5 to 10 m
Note: for 1 m of sliding area width,
⊿U =⊿h × γ (γ= Unit weight of water)

Figure 4. 18 Schematic diagram of horizontal drainage efficiency, JICA, 2018

In the case of a standard scale landslide with a landslide depth of 20 m, it can be

expected that the reduction of the groundwater level by installing the horizontal drain is
from 1 to 3 meters.

Design consideration

Horizontal holes are constructed for the drainage of shallow and deep groundwaters. If
the topography prevents the drainage of groundwater in a smooth gradient, drainage
wells, or tunnels with horizontal drainage holes will be used to achieve drainage, Figure
4.19.

When designing horizontal drains, the following points should be carefully considered:

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Horizontal drainage is used to discharge groundwater flowing into a landslide and to

discharge the groundwater flowing from the landslide and, therefore, work should be
planned to locate the groundwater passage and thus to take underground water
before or just after the fault surface. In general, the upper part of the slope of the sliding
area tends to be placed for better results.

The interval of the horizontal drainage holes should be 5 to 10 meters at the end of the
hole.

The horizontal drainage holes must be designed to cross the aquifer or penetrate
through the sliding surface from 5 to 10 meters deep.

Horizontal drainage holes, usually 20 to 50 meters in length, should be excavated in a

gradient of 5 to 10 degrees upwards to quickly remove the collected groundwater.

Hard polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes or gas pipes with an internal diameter of more than
40 mm are used as casing pipes. The parts of the casing pipes that run through the
aquifer or the entire length of the pipeline are drilled to collect the groundwater. Rigid
pipes should not be used in a landslide or unstable area because a rigid pipe does not
accommodate the landslide movement that is occurring in an area without separating
at joints.

Groundwater that is collected by horizontal drainage should be removed from a

landslide or unstable areas using drainage channels or some similar structure. Do not
allow the collected water to be discharged back into the slip area. Otherwise, erosion
or an increase in the water Table could happen again.

The protection of the outlet of the horizontal drainage holes must be made with
gabions or concrete. Without exit protection, erosion due to collected water would be
active and would cause the collapse of the outlet.

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Horizontal drain holle

Underground
water

road
“a” is more effective than “b”.
Retaining wall a
b c
Channel drainage
Highway d
Sliding surface

“c” is more effective

a) Cross section b) Plan than “d”.

Figure 4. 19 Effective disposal of horizontal drainage holes, JICA, 2018

Table 4.29 presents methods for eliminating water according to the granulometry of the
soil / rock. It can be deduced that the most effective drainage method is horizontal
drains.

Table 4.29 Presents methods for water removal according to the granulometry of the soil / rock
Wells Points Systems with Horizontal
Conditions Suction wells Deep wells
Systems ejectors drains
Soils
Silty and clayey Good Deficient Deficient to Good Good
sands regular
Clean gravels and Good Good Good Deficient Good
sands
Stratified soils Good Deficient Deficient to Good Good
regular
Clay or rock in the Regular to Deficient Deficient Regular to Good
subgrade good Good
Hydrology
High permeability Good Good Good Deficient Good
Low permeability Good Deficient Deficient a Good Good
regular
Close recharge Good Deficient Deficient Regular to Good
good
Far recharge Good Good Good Good Good
Program
Need for a fast Suitable Suitable Unsatisfactory Apt Suitable
descent
Slow allowable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable
descent

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Wells Points Systems with Horizontal

Conditions Suction wells Deep wells
Systems ejectors drains
Excavation
Shallow (<6m) Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable
Requires Requires Suitable Suitable Special
multiple multiple equipment
stages stages
Characteristics
Normal spacing 1.5 a 3.0 m 6.0 a 12.0 m 15.0 m 3.0 a 6.0 m
Capacity range
Per unit 0.4 - 95 l/min 190 - 2270 0.4 - 11350 0.4 - 150 l/min
l/min l/min
The whole system Low – 19000 7500 – 95000 Low- 222500 Low– 3800 Low – 7500
l/min l/min l/min l/min l/min
Efficiency with Good Good Regular Deficient Good
correct design
Source: Powers J.P 1992

As a general guide, the drainage material must have a permeability at least 100 times
greater than that of the soil or rock to be drained. The filter material must be thick and
granular to ensure its effectiveness.

The thickness of the drainage layers is determined by construction criteria rather than
by drainage capacity. Drains can be used in geotextile or composite materials,
according to the design criteria of the soil mechanics.

Subdrainage drilling

The objective is to lower the water Table and decrease the pore pressures on the
potential fault surfaces. In rocky massifs, the most used drainage system is drilling or
penetration subdrains. Subdrains are designed behind potential fault surfaces. The
direction of the perforations depends essentially on the location of the main
discontinuities. The optimum drain is the one that intercepts the greatest number of
discontinuities per longitudinal meter of subdrain, Simons et al., 2001.

The effectiveness of the subdrains depends on the size, permeability and orientation of
the discontinuities. The effectiveness should be evaluated by the decrease in pore
pressures and not by the water flows collected. The subdrains are generally constructed
with a slope of 5 ° with the horizontal.
Typical spacings vary from 10 to 15 meters. It is common to install fan-shaped drain
batteries to minimize the movements of the drilling equipment.
The subdrains should be internally cleaned to prevent that the presence of mud or clay
decrease their effectiveness. Generally, in rocky massifs, the subdrains are only coated

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at the exit; however, erodible materials may require the placement of perforated pipe
over the entire length of the subgrade.

Other systems for subdividing rock masses include galleries or filter tunnels, pumping
wells and ditch subdrains.

RMR application example

Example taken from a slope of Cerro La Potra, in the Bajo Frío hydroelectric project,
Republic of Panama. The field research in the study is extensive and characterizes
several families of fractures, the procedure being similar for each case, so only the steps
followed for a discontinuity family are presented.

Description for a discontinuity (S) in a slope, it must be done for each of the families of
present joints and then averaging the values to establish the quality, in Table 4.5 is the
score and values of RMR.

Weathered alluvial material on weathered sandstone rock.

Favorable stratification joint with a 22 ° dip, dip direction of an azimuth of 61 °.
The filling of the openings is calcite and iron oxides.
The thickness of the openings is from 10 to 100 mm, so it is classified as very wide.
Rippled roughness with slightly rough texture (Classified with Barton's comb).
No water friction
Average spacing of the joints 62 cm.
Moderate continuity from 3 to 10 m.
Uniaxial strength of the 21Mpa compression rock matrix (resistance obtained from the
sclerometer) is classified as a soft rock.

The RQD index can be determined in the rock mass by means of empirical correlations,
Palmstrom, 1975, (in ISMR, 1981).

RQD = 115 – 3,3Jv for Jv >4,5

RQD = 100 para Jv ≤4,5
N° of discontinuities
Where Jv = Σ
Measurement lenght

For this example, the obtained Jv was 7, applying the empirical correction of Palmstrom,
the index of Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is 91.9%
RQD = 115 – 3.3Jv
RQD = 115 – (3.3 x 7) = 91.9 %
Where Jv = is the total number of discontinuities per cubic meter. (Palmstrom, 1975).

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Table 4.30 RMR geotechnical classification example

RMR geotechnical
Value Score
classification
Resistance of the rocky matrix 21.00 2
(MPa)
Rock Quality Designation 91.90 20
(RQD)
Separation between joints 0.62 15
(m)
Length of the discontinuity 4.00 2
(m)
Opening (mm) 25.00 0
Roughness Slightly rough 3
Filling Soft fill less than 2
5 mm
Disturbance Very altered 1
Groundwater Dry 15
Correction for the orientation Medium -5
of the discontinuities
Total score 55
RMR III
Quality medium
Source: Bajo Frío hydroelectric project, Panamá

Conclusion
The established in the RMR geotechnical classification of the slope, suggests that for its
stabilization and protection it is: shotcrete.

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MAINTENANCE AND CONTROL

CA-1. Los Chorros, Colón, La Libertad, El Salvador

Guadalupe, San Vicente, El Salvador
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This chapter contains information for the maintenance and control of slopes in road
works. It is intended to be a tool applicable by the ministries of public works of the
Central American countries to follow up on existing slopes or in fill cuts of any order of
roads.

The main objective is to provide criteria to the field professional in the delimitation of
maintenance areas, control of active landslides and stabilization through the different
techniques; after the traditional techniques described in chapter IV, treatments are
presented for slope restoration by soil erosion using cover systems (biotechnical) and,
erosion control for stabilization of slopes through bioengineering. Visual inspection forms
for the periodic control of slopes are made available.

Being able to determine the external signs that present the different types of faults, the
stable parts that surround the sliding and the moving parts is determinant to establish
the control of the movement.

SIECA in the "Central American Manual of Environmental Standards for the Design,
Construction and Maintenance of Roads" addresses in C.1.6 the related to slopes as
follows: “Prior to the start of excavation activities, the recommendations established in
the designs must be verified in relation to the works that will guarantee the stability of
the cut slopes and embankment of the road”.

With the provisions of the previous paragraph, it is worth mentioning the need to decree
legalities for compliance with geotechnical studies after the designs and construction
of the works to maintain control and maintenance of the slopes.

Delimitation of the maintenance area in situ.

In a concise manner, the most common external signs in the different types of failure
are presented in Table 5.1. Characterizes the stable parts that surround the landslide at
the initiation of the failed zone or crest, behind the fault zone, and on the flanks. It also
defines the features presented by the moving parts in the head, body and base of the
slope.

CHAPTER 5 185
 Movement Material Stable parts that surround the landslide. Parties that have moved.

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type. class
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Falls and Crest or Main slope Limbs Head Body Base Foot
collapses. initiation of (behind the
the fault failed area)
zone.
Table 5.1 Most common exterior signs of the different types of faults.

Rock
Rock falls.
Loose rock, Normally almost In general, clean rock Generally, it is Irregular The base If the fallen one is
probable vertical, irregular, edges. not well defined. surface with commonly small, it has an
cracks smooth, rock The fallen rock buried. If it is irregular slope of
behind the with a fresh material forms a fragments. If visible, it detritus. If the rock
fault line, appearance, pile of rocks near it is very usually fall is large the foot
irregular rock with joints. the escarpment. large and if it presents fault can have a round
appearance has trees or features, outline.
, material of such as
characterize contrasting weak
d by joint colors, the underlying
systems. material can rock or strata
indicate undermined
Soil falls Soils Cracks Almost vertical. Often almost vertical. Generally, it is not Irregular the one
Lkewater. Irregular
direction of by
behind the Wet soil. well defined. The radial above
fault line. Superficially very fallen material movement
cracked. forms a pile of from the
rocks near the scarp. It can
escarpment. have
depressions.
Landslide Numerous Inclined, clean, The striae of the limbs of the The top of the The part of Transverse Frequently a
cracks, most concave escarpment have large failed material the ground dips and lobulated earth flow
of them towards the vertical components near preserves parts that moves cracks are area, material rolled
concave landslide, the head and remarkable of the natural failures and usually over and buried.
towards the commonly high. horizontal components terrain before disintegrates. developed The trees are laid or
Soil landslide. It can present near the base. The height failing. Longitudinal on the base. at various angles
striae and of the limbs decreases Waterlogged cracks, dip. Survey area, mixed with the
Circular ditches on the toward the base. The limb occurs at the Generally, absence of material of the foot.
surface, ranging of the landslide can be foot of the main waterlogged large
from the crest to higher than the original slope. The entire develop just individual
the head. The terrain surfaces between fault head is above the blocks. The
upper part of the the base and the foot. Step furrowed by base. trees tilted
slope after the cracks surround the cracks and the downhill.
fault can be landslide in the early trees in the fallen
vertical. stages. area point uphill.
Cracks tend Like the one Like the one above. Like the one Like the one Like the one Little or no flow of

5
Rock
to follow above. above. above, but above. land. The foot is

CHAPTER
fractures in the material often almost straight
the original does not and close to the
rock. failure so base. It can have
much or an abrupt front.
deform
plastically.
 Movement Material Stable parts that surround the landslide. Parties that have moved.

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Translational Rock or soil. Crest or Main slope (behind the Limbs Head Body Base Foot
initiation of failed area)
the failed
zone.
Most cracks Almost vertical at the top; in The side flanks Relatively Generally Neither base Sliding on the
are almost the lower part almost flat are very low, unaltered. composed of one nor lifting zone. surface of
vertical and and with a gradual vertical cracks. There is no or more the ground.
tend to follow transition. Cracks rotation. unchanged units
the contour generally except for stress
of the slope. diverse cracks. The cracks
downhill. present little or no
vertical
movement.
Rock slide Rock Loose rock, generally staggered Irregular. Many blocks Rugged surface Generally, Accumulatio
cracks according to the spreading of rock. with many blocks. there is no real n of rock
between the of joints or stratification Some blocks may basis. fragments.
blocks. planes. Irregular surface in be in their original
the upper part and slightly position, but lower
inclined in the lower part; It if the movement
can be almost flat or was slow to move.
composed of rock spills.
Dry material As in the rock As in the rock falls. As in the rock There is no Irregular surface of There is no Composed
flow. falls falls. head. mixed rock base. of tongues. It
fragments spilled can slide
downwards in fan. along
Flows of rock Rock It shows valleys natural river
fragments. and transverse lines.
lobes.
Soil No cracks Funnel shape when it It is developed Generally Conical mound of There is no There is no

5
Sand flows.
reaches the angle of in a continuous without a sand equal in base. foot, or this is

CHAPTER
repose. curve from the head volume to the part a wide fan
crest. emptied of the that is not
head. perceptible.
 Movement Material Stable parts that surround the landslide. Parties that have moved.

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Of wet material Crest or initiation Main slope (behind Limbs Head Body Base Foot
of the failed the failed area)
zone.

Source: Soil Engineering in the Land Roads, Volume 1, Rico and del Castillo, 2010
Soil
Sludge flow Few cracks. La The upper part Inclined, There may be no From wet to very Absence of Laterally
in a serrated or V irregular at head. humid; it can have base or extended in
shape, long and the top. large blocks packed buried in lobes. When the
narrow, smooth Stacking of in fine material debris. foot dries, it may
and commonly material in matrix. Flow lines. have a low
grooved. the lower Follow the drain line height front step.
part of the and you can make
limbs. sharp turns. Very long
compared to the
width.
Soil There may be Concave towards Curved, It commonly Broken into many There is no Extended in
Soil flow
some cracks. the slip. In some steep sides. consists of a small pieces. Wet, base. lobes.
cases, it is almost sunken block. shows the structure of
circular. Slipping the flow.
occurs through a
narrowing.
Few cracks. Inclined, concave Frequently Generally, under The body extends as There is no Extended in
Soil towards the slide, the limbs water. fluid. base. lobes.
Sand or silt flow there may be converge in
varieties of shapes the direction
in the contour of

5
(almost straight, movement.

CHAPTER
circular arc
tendency or bottle
shape).
 MANUAL DE CONSIDERACIONES GEOTÉCNICAS Y SÍSMICAS PARA LA INFRAESTRUCTURA VIAL CENTROAMERICANA

Monitoring of active landslides.

Once the area with evidence of displacement is identified, it will be necessary to

monitor it. Monitoring has different objectives:

a) Quantify the progression of movement, in speed and direction.

b) Characterize the fault surface.
c) Determine the water Table.
d) Evaluate the effectiveness of the control works once executed.

For this it is necessary to make use of certain tools and procedures that facilitate and
optimize this task. A correct characterization of the slip allows a better selection and
planning of the control work to be carried out.

Active landslide monitoring can also include the periodic measurement of variables
that could affect the stability of the slip mass, such as rainfall or seismic registration in
place.

Monitoring can be done in real time using specialized automated equipment, such as
telemetric stations or ground radars for displacement monitoring; or by traditional
equipment specially configured for that purpose. This document delves into traditional
options.

For the determination of the landslide movement we have:

Topographic monitoring:

The control points survey is performed when the direction of movement of the slide is
not clear or when the movement is intense.

The control points (piles) are installed inside and outside the assumed sliding area. The
movements are measured once over several days or weeks using geodetic equipment
such as the theodolite, aerial photographs of drone for photogrammetry or GPS
devices. The movement speed is obtained as a function of the change of position over
time. The survey can control the direction and speed of movement. In general, the
control points are arranged in a straight line so that they are orthogonal to the assumed
horizontal direction of sliding at intervals of 5-10 m. Both ends of the line extend to the
assumed stable terrain, Figure 5.1.

This method allows the determination of the range and speed of movement for direct
(D), components of horizontal direction of two rectangles (X, Y) and vertical (Z).

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Figure 5. 1 Design of control points for the monitoring of the movement of landslide.
Source: GENSAI II project contribution.

The periodicity of the reading of the distances will be given by the magnitude of the
displacement found, being able to be daily, weekly or fortnightly, figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Direction displacement of control points in km 18.5.

Source: DACGER 2012

Permanent measurement between two points by extensometer:

An extensometer is a meter that is installed on opposite sides of cracks or dislocations to

measure the relative movement between both sides by measuring the accumulated
tension in a cable that joins said points, generally of invar, metallic alloy of low
coefficient of thermal expansion, figure 5.3.

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Figure 5.3 Scheme of extensometer.

Source: GENSAI Project/ DACGER, 2018

The results of extensometer measurements are expressed as cumulative data as shown

in the figure 5.4. The rainfall data should be compared with the results, since the
movement of landslides could be related to the behavior of the rain. They must be
shown together to evaluate the characteristics of the landslide.

2
NF Change
1.5

0.5
Cambio…
0
41082
41096
41110
41117
41136
41144
41152
41166
41176
41184
41190
41192
41194
41198
41200
41204
41206
41208
41212
41214
41225
41239
41255

-0.5

Figure 5.4 Example of extensometer fixed data set (GENSAI project/DACGER 2018)

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The monitoring method for the simple deformation detection plate is shown in the figure 5.5 and
figure 5.6.

Figure 5.5 An example of a simple deformation detection plate with an artisan extensometer.
(DACGER 2012)

Measure the distance of the nails as soon as the plate has been installed. Then the
distance of the nails is measured. A measuring tape or ruler is used. The measurement
point is outside of the nail to determine the specific points. A surveyor measures the
direct distance (D). Measures the horizontal component along the plate’s long side on
top (X), the horizontal component orthogonal to the plate’s long side on top (Y), and
the vertical component (Z). A simple way is to install the piles on both sides of the crack
and drive a nail on top of both piles. The distance of the nails is measured after
installation.

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Figure 5.6 Monitoring procedure of the simple deformation detection plate through an artisan
extensometer (GENSAI Project/ DACGER, 2018)
For the characterization of the fault surface:

Pipe equipped with strain gauges.

This procedure involves embedding an instrumented PVC tube with strain gauges on
the slid surface to a depth enough to intercept the intended failure surface. Once
installed, the periodic measurement of the deformations of the gauges is made, figure
5.7. The interpretation of the deformation data may determine the location of the fault
surface in terms of depth; To determine the fault surface better, it is necessary to place
at least two tubes in two independent perforations.

Figure 5.7 Deformations in S1 (DACGER 2012)

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For the instrumentation of the PVC tube, it is necessary to place the gauges in opposite
transverse ends, at a constant longitudinal distance (no more than one meter). The
measurement of the deformation of the tube will be given by the differential of
electrical resistance between an end that contracts and the opposite that extends,
figure 5.8 and 5.9. An example of the casing of the borehole inclinometer is shown in
Figure 5.10.

Figure 5.8 Pipe with strain gauges. (GENSAI Project/ DACGER, 2018).
Source: Own elaboration based on the Association of Roads of Japan (JAEA), Modified of Japan Landslide
Society, National Conference of Landslide Control 2002, Landslide in Japan.

Figure 5. 9 Installation of the pipe meter with strain gages with groundwater level monitoring.
(GENSAI Project/ DACGER,2018)

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Figure 5.10 An example of the guide pipe for the borehole inclinometer (GENSAI Project/
DACGER,2018)

Monitoring is done by inserting a probe into the borehole, as shown in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11 Monitoring of the Borehole Inclinometer (GENSAI Project/ DACGER, 2018)

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The data from the borehole inclinometer should be processed as shown in figure 5.12.
The point with the highest amount of gradient change is estimated as the slip surface of
the landslide. Rainfall data should be compared with the results because the
movement of landslides could be linked to rainfall performance.

Figure 5.12 Example of borehole inclinometer monitoring

Source: GENSAI Project Contribution / DACGER, 2018

Determination of the water Table.

Direct measurement

The direct measurement consists in introducing in a borehole of Suitable diameter a

volumetric measuring instrument that allows marking the distance at which the water
Table is located from the surface.

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Automated measurement

Automated measurement is achieved by the permanent installation of a sensor at the

bottom of a vertical borehole. This type of sensors records the difference in height from
the bottom (where it is located) to the surface of the water. To interpret the depth of
the water table, it is necessary to know in advance the depth of the sensor to interpret
the. These sensors have recording equipment, so they present a continuous
measurement over time and is the best method when determining the performance of
the local water Table in the event of rain.

Control of active landslides.

Sometimes it is necessary the combination of methods to maintain the balance of the

sliding masses, Jaime Suárez presents four methods for the control of masses in
movement: berms, trenches, retention structure, and protective covers, Table 5.2; each
with its advantages and disadvantages. In addition, it classifies the stabilization systems
into five categories: 1) conformation of the slope or hillside that tends to achieve mass
balance, Table 5.3; 2) surface coating, Table 5.4; 3) control of surface and ground
water, Table 5.5; 4) Containment structures, Table 5.6 y 5) Soil improvement, Table 5.7.

Rico and del Castillo consider that to maintain control of the movements, it is necessary
to know the agents that provide the landslides, the processes and how they act in
others, Table 5.8. But in cases of bad planning practice and not foresee the occurrence
of these movements, Schuster and Kockelman provide some engineering practices to
solve the movements, cataloging them into four categories, See Table 5.9.

Table 5.2 Control structures in mass movements.

Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Berms They are generally economics, A large space is required in the
quick to build. middle of the slope.
Trench They serve at the same time to Los cantos fácilmente pasan
control the rainwater. por encima.
Retention structure Retain the moving mass. Se pueden requerir estructuras
algo costosas.
Protective covers They are one of the most effective They are very expensive.
methods to reduce road risk.
Source: landslides and slope stability in tropical zones, Jaime Suárez 1998

The detail of the stabilization systems, using the Jaime Suárez classification, is presented
below:

1) Conformation of the slope or hillside.

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This system tends to achieve a mass balance, reducing the forces that produce
movement, Table 5.3.

Tabla 5.3 Sistemas que tienden a lograr un equilibrio de masas

Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Removal of materials in the Very effective in the In very large movements the
head of the slope. stabilization of rotational masses to be removed would
landslides. have a great magnitude.
Abatement of the slope. Effective especially on friction It is not economically viable in
soils. high altitude slope.
surface terraced. In addition to sliding stability, it Each terraced must be stable
allows building works to control independently.
erosion.
Source: landslides and slope stability in tropical zones, Jaime Suárez 1998

2) Surface coating.

They are the methods that try to prevent the infiltration or the occurrence of superficial
phenomena of erosion, or that reinforce the most superficial soil. The coating may
consist of waterproofing elements such as concrete or elements that strengthen the
surface structure of the soil such as vegetation cover.

Table 5.4 Methods that attempt to prevent infiltration and erosion.

Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Coating the surface of The coating helps control The stability of the coating must be
the slope. erosion. guaranteed.
Conformation of the It can improve the conditions Its direct effect on stability is generally
surface. of surface drainage and limited.
facilitate the erosion control.
Sealing surface cracks. Decreases water infiltration. Cracks can open again and require
maintenance for important periods of
time.
Sealing joints and It decreases the water There may be many discontinuities that
discontinuities. infiltration and pore pressures in are required to be sealed.
the discontinuities.
Vegetation cover: trees, They represent an It may require maintenance for its
shrubs and pastures. environmentally excellent establishment.
alternative.
Source: landslides and slope stability in tropical zones, Jaime Suárez 1998

3) Control of surface and ground water.

Systems tending to control water and its effects, decreasing forces that produce
movements or increasing resistant forces.

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Table 5.5 Systems tending to control water and its effects.

Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Surface It is recommended to build them with Structures must be built for water
channels for complementary works in most cases. delivery and energy dissipation.
runoff control. Generally, ditches are built above the crown
of the slope.
Subdrains of Very effective to stabilize shallow landslides in Little effective to stabilize deep
the trench. superficial saturated soils. landslides or landslides with deep
water Table.
Horizontal Very effective for intercepting and controlling Special drilling equipment is required,
subdrains of relatively deep groundwater. and its cost can be high.
penetration.
Galleries or Effective to stabilize deep landslides in Very expensive.
tunnels of formations with significant permeability and
subdrains. groundwater.
deep wells of Useful in deep landslides in formations with Its use is limited due to the need for
subdrains. groundwater. permanent operation and
maintenance.
Source: landslides and slope stability in tropical zones, Jaime Suárez 1998

4) Containment structures.

They are the methods in which external forces are placed to the movement, increasing
the resistant forces, without diminishing the acting ones.

The containment structures are generally massive works, in which the weight of the
structure is an important factor and it is common to place anchored structures in which
the force is transmitted to the sliding by means of a cable or steel rod.

Table 5.6 Containment structures.

Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Fill or berm of rock or soil at
Effective in not very large A competent foundation is
the base of the landslide. landslides, especially in the required to place the filling.
rotational ones acting as a
counterweight.
Conventional reinforced Useful to stabilize relatively Good foundation quality is
earth retaining walls. small masses. required. They are less
effective in high-rise walls.
Piles. They are effective in shallow They are not effective in
landslides, in which there is deep landslides or when
soil below the fault plane rock or very hard ground
that is competent to allow appears below the surface
the driving and support of of the fault.
the piles.
Anchors or bolts. Effective in rock, especially Special equipment is
when it is stratified. required and are usually
expensive.

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Methods Advantages Disadvantages

Anchored screens. Useful as small to medium- There are some uncertainties
sized mass containment about its effectiveness in
structures. some cases, especially
when there is groundwater.
Source: landslides and stability of slopes in tropical zones, Jaime Suárez 1998

5) Soil improvement.

These processes seek to increase consolidation and reduce possible settlements. Suarez
describes it as methods that increase the resistance of the soil, including physical and
chemical processes, which increase the cohesion or friction of the soil-stabilizer product
mix or modified soil. Suárez 1998.
Table 5. 7 Soil improvement.
Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Injection or uses of chemicals Hardens the soil and can The decrease in permeability
cement the failure surface. can be a negative effect.
Explosives Fragments the fault surface. Its effect is limited and can
have negative effects.
Solidification Convert the soil into rock using Its use today is only for
special rays developed by experimental use.
special industry.
Freezing Hardens the ground by freezing Non-permanent effects.
it.
Electro-osmosis They reduce the water content. Use for non-permanent
stabilization.
Source: Landslides and slope stability in tropical zones, Jaime Suárez 1998

The actor agents that provide the landslides, the processes, and means by which they
act in others, Table 5.8.

Table 5.8 Actors that produce mass movements.

Agent Process that Means by Materials Physical Effects on
puts the agent which the more sensitive nature of the stability.
in action. agent acts. to the action action of the
of the agent. agent.
Erosion Constructive 1. Increases the All the materials. Changes in the Increased
and processes or height or state of stress. shear stress.
transport erosions. inclination of Rigid or fissured Changes in Increased
the slope. clays. Shales. stress state and shear stress.
crack opening. the capillary
pressures are
reduced.
Tectonic Tectonic 2. Large All the materials. Increase the Increased
stress movements. deformities of angle of the shear stress.
the earth's slope.
crust.

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Agent Process that Means by Materials Physical Effects on

puts the agent which the more sensitive nature of the stability.
in action. agent acts. to the action action of the
of the agent. agent.
Tectonic Tremors or 3. High All the materials Changes of Increased
stress or exploitation with frequency transitory stress. shear stress.
use of explosives. vibrations. Loess, lightly Alteración de Decreased
explosives. cemented los nexos cohesion and
sands and interparticulares. increased
gravel. shear stress.
Fine or medium Rearrangement Liquefaction.
sand, loose and of grains.
saturated.
Weight of Construction of 4. Superficial Hard or fissured Opening of Decrease in
the the slope. landslide. clay. Remnants closed fissures cohesion.
material of old and production Increase of
that forms landslides. of new fissures. capillary
the slope. 5. Landslide in Hard materials pressures.
weak strata at on soft strata.
the foot of the
slope.
Water Rain or fusion of 6. Wet sand. Increased pore Decrease in
snow Displacement pressure in the resistance.
of air in the water.
voids.
7. Rock with joints.
Displacement Shales.
of air in open
joints.
8. Reduction of Clay hard and Expansion. Decrease in
capillary fissured. Some expansion.
pressures shales.
associated with
expansion.
9. Chemical Any rock. Weakening of
decomposition. interparticular
nexuses.
Ground 10. Water Rock with joints. Opening of Decrease in
freezing. expansion by closed fissures cohesion.
freezing. and production
of new fissures.
11. Formation Limes and silty Increase in Decreased
of ice lenses in sands. water content frictional
the soil. of frozen soil resistance,
Period of 12. Clay Cracking by Decrease in
drought. Contraction. contraction. cohesion.
Quick emptying. 13. Flow Limes and fine Increased pore Decrease in
towards the sands. pressure in the friction
foot of the water. resistance.

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Agent Process that Means by Materials Physical Effects on

puts the agent which the more sensitive nature of the stability.
in action. agent acts. to the action action of the
of the agent. agent.
slope.
Fluctuations in 14. Medium to fine Increased pore Liquefaction
the elevation of Rearrangement sand, loose, pressure in the
the level. of grains. saturated. water.
Ascent of the 15. Elevation of Strata of sand or Increased pore Decrease in
water Table in a the piezometric slime between pressure in the friction
distant aquifer. level in the or under clay. water. resistance.
material that
forms the slope.
Internal flow of 16. Flow Saturated slime. Increased pore Decrease in
water. towards the pressure in the friction
slope. water. resistance.
17. Fine sand wet. Dissipation of Decrease in
Displacement surface tension. cohesion.
of air in the
voids.
18. Removal of Loess Weakening of
soluble interparticular
cementitious. nexuses.
19. Internal Slime or fine Tubing Increased
erosion. sand shear stress.
Source: Land Engineering in the Roads, Volume 1, Rico y del Castillo, 2010

Evasion of movement.

After having exhausted the technical and economic possibilities of stabilization and
improvement of a landslide, circumvention methods are applied. While this should be
avoided through a good planning phase, these are practices that should be
considered. Some engineering practices are mentioned to solve them, Schuster and
Kockelman (1996), Table 5.9.

Table 5.9 Options for movement evasion.

Options for movement Descripción
evasion.
Construction of variants By recognizing and quantifying a landslide, it may be more
advantageous for the project to modify it to avoid the problem
zone. It requires a very complete geological and geotechnical
knowledge of the area that determines that it is not technically or
economically the use of a stabilization method and the
alternative is to avoid the problem. Modifying the project or
building a variant.
Total removal of the mass of When the construction of a variant is not possible, it may be
landslides or unstable materials. considered to move totally or partially the materials of the old
movements or with the risk of activation.

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Options for movement Descripción

evasion.
Construction of bridges. These bridges should generally be supported by deep piles on
rock or competent soil below the unstable materials. Very
thorough studies must be carried out to be sure of the depth and
the foundation system is enough to guarantee the stability of the
bridge. Piers should be designed to withstand lateral loads, which
are difficult to predict.
Modification of the level of the At the design stage, the modification of the level of the subgrade
subgrade, project elevation or of an unstable road section can be more stable and cheaper
alignment. than building a stabilization work. At this stage, both the designed
and geotechnical engineer should work together to achieve a
balance between stability and project characteristics.
Source: Prevention, stabilization and slope design. Schuster and Kockelman 1996

Erosive processes.

The control of water, modification of the slope and destruction of the vegetation cover
are some of the main causes of erosion, several authors have addressed the issue,
including Fournier believes that the bases to avoid erosion by water runoff is to facilitate
the infiltration, limit the length of the slopes to fragment the volume of the water,
preventing it from reaching an erosive velocity and ensuring the circulation of the
controlled waters towards the outlets in specially consolidated and conditioned
collectors. Suarez defines the typical gradient that the slope must have depending on
the type of material and height to avoid slope collapse, Table 5.10. In the Manual for
the Control of Erosion and Afforestation of Watersheds in the Semi-Arid Zone, Santiago,
Chile (JICA, 1998, makes a classification of general and specific treatments in erosion
treatment, see the Table 5.11. Gray and Sotir present the advantages and
disadvantages of using different types of plants in the control of erosive processes, see
Table 5.12. Caltrans classifies and describes the types of erosion, also proposes the
treatment for soil slope protection, Tables 5.13 and 5.14. Another alternative for erosion
control, which is friendly to the environment and relatively economical, is the technique
of slope stabilization and erosion control through bioengineering, Table 5.15 defines the
different techniques, uses in engineering and construction procedures.

Principle of soil and water conservation.

Among the main causes of erosion in roads and specifically slopes are the following,
FAO, 1986 cited by Marín 1992.

- Elimination or reduction of protective cover.

- Destruction or deterioration of the structure and natural fertility of the soil.
- Increase in slope conditions (cutting and filling of material)
- Decrease in the infiltration rate because of compaction by grading.
- Interception of surface flows by the cuts of the gradient.

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- Decrease in shearing strength due to cutting effect.

In general, the bases on which the control of water is supported, to avoid erosion by
runoff are the following, Fournier, 1975.

- Facilitate water infiltration.

- Limit the length of the gradients to fragment the volume of the water, preventing
it from reaching an erosive speed.
- Ensure the circulation of controlled water to the exits in specially consolidated
and conditioned collectors.

Thus, it has as guidelines for water control:

- The variation of the length and inclination of the gradient

- The capture and conduction of waters.
- The covering with vegetation.

The main problem of slope collapse has its origin in the characteristics of the layout and
design of slopes. Suárez, 1992.

Table 5.10 Typical gradient for cutting slopes.

Material Slope height Gradient (V:H)
Hard rock 1:0.3 a 1:0.8
Soft rock 1:0.5 a 1:1.2
Badly graded sand. 1:1.5
Dense sandy soil. <5m 1:0.8 a 1:1.0
5-10 m 1:1.0 a 1:1.2
Dense sandy soil. <5m 1:1.0 a 1:1.2
5-10 m 1:1.2 a 1:1.5
Sand with gravel and dense < 10 m 1:0.8 a 1:1.0
pebbles.
10-15 m 1:1.0 a 1:1.2
Sand with gravel and not < 10 m 1:1.0 a 1:1.2
dense pebbles.
10-15 m 1:1.2 a 1:1.5
Cohesive soil. 0-10 1:0.8 a 1:1.2
Cohesive soil with pebbles. <5m 1:1.0 a 1:1.2
5-10 m 1:1.2 a 1:1.5
Source: Suárez, 1992

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Table 5.11 Classification of erosion control treatments.

General treatments. Specific treatments
Regulation of hydric flows. Water diversion channel.
Longitudinal channel
Simple transversal channel.
Composite transversal channel.
Increase in infiltration. Infiltration trench
Forestry terrace.
Linear works of hillsides and slopes. Wooden poles
Erosion control treatments.

vine shoot fascines.

branches fascines.
Filled sacks.
Tire coatings.
Surface covers. Mats of species.
Eucalyptus branches
Corn canes
Regulation of hydric flows in channels. Dykes of wood poles.
Gabion structures dam.
Dispersers
Control and slope stabilization. Structures of wooden pole.
Shade cloth
Wall with filled sacks.
Wall of tires.
Wall of wooden posts.
Biological Hydroseeding
Source: JICA and others1998

Table 5.12 Advantages and disadvantages through various types of plants.

Type Advantages Disadvantages
Pastures Versatile and cheap; varieties to choose from Shallow roots and permanent
with different tolerances; easy to establish, good maintenance are required.
coverage.
Reeds They grow easily and are easy to establish on Difficult to obtain and the
riverbanks. planting system is not easy.
Hierbas Raíz relativamente profunda. Sometimes they are difficult to
establish, and roots are not
obtained.
Shrubbery Varieties to choose. There are species that Sometimes they are difficult to
reproduce by stake. Deep root, good coverage, establish.
low maintenance.
Trees Deep roots do not require maintenance. Their establishment is delayed,
and they are generally more
expensive.
Source: Gray y Sotir, 1996

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Table 5.13 Types of erosion that develop on the surface of a slope.

Type of erosion Description. Image
Erosion by splash. It is produced by the direct impact of
raindrops on bare ground. The resulting
sediments can be transported later by water
or wind.

Laminar erosion It consists of pulling up and transporting

particles of the soil by a thin layer of water
on the smooth and uniform surfaces. It
occurs when the soil is not able to infiltrate
the rainwater in the subsoil and flows to
lower levels.

Erosion by irrigation It is produced by the concentration of

ditch. laminar surface flows. The laminar
concentration tends to concentrate in the
lower levels of the surface due to the
irregularities of the surface, forming furrows in
favor of the slope. They are indicative of high
erosion rate.

Erosion in gullies. They are ground splits, deep, caused by

repeated scouring on the ground, due to the
concentrated flow of runoff downhill. The
presence of gullies is related to a very
advanced degree of ground degradation. It
can be 100 times greater than the rills.

Mass movement. They are prevented with geotechnical

studies (this classification is not included),
however mass movements are triggered by
the rupture of hydrological instability prior to
construction, and by the removal of the
structured edaphic soil that retained, and in
part infiltrated, the humidity in the different
horizons of the soil.
Source: Caltrans, 2010

Slope protection using biotechnical coverage systems.

Table 5.14 presents the various techniques for covering soil slopes by soil erosion and
describes the treatments for restoration.

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Table 5. 14 Treatments for the restoration of slopes by soil erosion.

Techniques Description Image.
Decompaction The decompaction on slopes consists of
of the surface. failure, through mechanical operations, a
smooth and compacted surface. It is used
on the surface of newly built clearings or
very compacted embankments. The depth
of the application is variable and will
depend on the depth of the root of the
coverage to be established. It is
recommended on slopes with a gradient
less than or equal to 18 ° and can be done
with a backhoe or bulldozer.
Increase in the The increase of rugosity in slopes is a
roughness of the practice of temporary erosion control of
soil. frequent use in conjunction with the grade
of gradients. It can be carried out with
heavy machinery that makes furrows in the
ground or with the placement on the
surface of elements that increase the
roughness, for example, the placement of
small rocks or isolated plant remains. It is
recommended to increase the roughness to
slopes less than 33 °. Caltrans, 2011.
Direct sowing In slopes, direct sowing consists of the
distribution of seeds, usually herbaceous,
directly on the ground, treated by means of
minimum tillage and/or fertilizers when the
soil is not Suitable for vegetation. It can be
applied by manual methods or by
mechanical methods. Manual direct
seeding is not recommended on slopes
greater than 19 ° and mechanical seeding
greater than 17 °.
Hydroseeding Mechanical sowing consisting of the
application of a mixture composed of
seeds, fixers, fertilizers and additives on the
surface of the slopes. Its objective is to
establish a vegetative cover over dirt that is
difficult to access or has a steep gradient.
Despite being a well-extended technique, it
does not ensure mechanical stabilization on
slopes, nor the control of erosive processes,
especially in areas with not very rainy
weather. Bautista et al., 1997.

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Techniques Description Image.

Management of The nutrients in slopes can be managed
soil nutrients. through a variety of treatments, which
include topsoil, mulch or organic mulch,
compost, and organic and commercial
fertilizers. Materials with slow nitrogen
release are required for the development of
vegetation.
Use of topsoil. In the restoration of slopes favors plant
establishment and improves soil properties,
filtration and moisture retention. In addition
to seed growth of native species present in
the soil before earthworks. Depending on
the plant species, a thickness between 0.50
to 1 m thick can be considered.
Use of It is an organic soil conditioner created by
Composting or the decomposition of organic matter under
Compost controlled conditions. Like the topsoil, it
favors the establishment of the vegetation
and improves the properties of the soil.

Mulch use or They are used to temporarily control bare

organic soils, increase filtration and improve soil
coverage conditions. It simulates the fallen leaves
layer, protects from the impact of rain and
decreases the speed of surface runoff. It
generates vegetation growth, increases
vegetation and moisture content. It should
be applied between 5 to 10 cm.
Organic Related to the geotextiles formed by a
blankets. sewing of meshes and natural fibers
(coconut fiber, jute, straw, others) or
synthetic. It is used for the control of the
superficial erosion, like support of soils, of
sowing or hydroseeding, helping to improve
the establishment and plant rooting.

There are organic blankets in the market

with reinforced, three-dimensional meshes,
sewn to other geotextiles or geogrids, and
even with incorporated seeds.
Geocells They are a cellular confinement system of
three-dimensional geosynthetic elements
formed by an alveolar structure of
perforated high-density polyester,
polyethylene or polypropylene strips to
facilitate the lateral movement of soil
particles or aggregates.

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Techniques Description Image.

The system of cavities or alveoli allows to
retain materials or incorporate soil
depending on the height of the cells.
Volumetric Three-dimensional systems formed by
geogrids. several thermo-welded meshes to which
treatments are applied to resist ultraviolet
radiation. They can be used on large slopes,
so it is indicated for clearing, where it is not
possible to provide soil to improve the
substrate. They are also adopted in
combination with other bioengineering
techniques such as living stakes or branch
beds (branches).
Combination of The combination of topsoil with some
treatments in surface finish that improves the soil and
slope promotes vegetation, Caltrans 2010.
restoration.
Source: Caltrans, 2010 in Barbero, 2013.

The benefits of finished slopes to prevent erosion after intense precipitation according
to Dully & Hatzell, 1988.

- Reduces the volume and speed of runoff.

- Improves the infiltration rate.
- Improves soil moisture retention capacity.
- Improves the likelihood of achieving a durable plant cover.
- Decompaction improves the structural properties of the soil: porosity where the
roots can penetrate.

Slope stabilization and erosion control through bioengineering.

Bioengineering is the inclusion of grasses, shrubs, trees and other vegetation in

engineering design to improve and protect hillsides, embankments and structures from
problems related to erosion and other types of surface instabilities on hillsides.

It uses the beneficial mechanical and hydraulic effects of a set of plants to fulfill a
function in engineering:

- Vegetation can increase soil resistance to cracking.

- Protect laminar erosion from an exposed floor surface and
- Catch soil particles that slide down the slope.

Biotechnical stabilization and soil bioengineering are concepts where their main
characteristics are given by the association of the materials and their types used to
recover the soils of slopes or slopes, from the degradation processes that affect them.

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Table 5.15 presents the techniques of slope stabilization and erosion control through
bioengineering.

There are two approaches to this problem, figure 5.13.

- "Hard" or "conventional" approach: those that through structures such as

cemented surfaces, gabions, wire meshes, others, give solution to the problem.
- "Soft" or "green" approach that, with vegetation, also provides a solution to the
problem.

Figure 5.13 Approaches to tackle the problem of slope erosion.

Source: Bioengineering manual

Table 5.15 Techniques of slope stabilization and erosion control through bioengineering.
Technique Description Use in Materials Process
engineering
Living stakes. They are portions As a primary Cut the top of
of stems of trees treatment Stakes 1 to 3 the stake normal
and shrubs that where they cm in to the shaft and
are buried in the fulfill the diameter the bottom in
ground to sprout objective of and 0.60 to the form of a tip
trees. anchoring 1 m in to facilitate
other length, from insertion.
elements such trees 2 to 3
as vegetal years old Nail the stake at
trinkets or and thin a right angle,
mantles, rind. normal to the
which later slope surface.

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
turn into trees With the buds
or shrubs. up. You can also
make a hole
with a bar.

The density
should be
between 3 to 4
stakes per
square meter.

Between each
stake there must
be at least 1.5 m
distance.

Two thirds (60

cm) of the stake
must be buried.

Compact the
dirt around.
Scrub steps / layers of They are Reinforce the Branches of Ditches are dug
branches. branches of soil and 1 to 2.5 m in by hand from
woody species, increase length and the foot of the
with the capacity resistance to 25 to 50 mm slope to the
to root, arranged landslides. in diameter headland
in small ditches or (black log or according to
between It helps to willow). the level lines of
successive layers retain the slope. In
of earth sediments Yute. very humid
arranged along and improve slopes it can be
the slope of the the infiltration Stakes. placed
slope, so that of water in dry following the
they form steps. is soils. Drains Shovel. gradient to
also called the very wet soils. facilitate
entwined drainage.
branches layer. Decreases the
effective The ditches
Variations: with compacted It differs from the length of the slightly inclined
soil layer in each layer of fascines in the gradient. in reverse
branches. orientation of the gradient (10 to
branches and It acts as 20 °) towards
the depth of the horizontal the slope are
ditches. Here the drains. excavated until
branches are a depth of 50
oriented It acts as a cm and with a
perpendicular to sediment width between

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
the profile of the barrier and 0,50 to 1m.
slope and are flow retarders.
introduced up to Between each
2 m into it. The Reinforces the ditch there must
perpendicular slope in a be between 1.5
orientation is similar way to and 3 m
more effective geosynthetics. distance
for soil When it according to
reinforcement germinates, the gradient of
and stability of the the slope.
the slope against reinforcement
mass increases due The branches
movements. to the roots. are placed
perpendicular
to the surface of
the slope, with
the growth buds
outward, buried
With compacted soil and to ¾ of their
covered with geotextile or length,
jute. remaining
outside 1/4.
(about 30 cm)

The branches
are placed
crisscross with a
thickness
between 75 to
200 mm.
Fascines They are semi- It captures Long, A ditch is built to
cylindrical and retains straight and an approximate
bundles of the surface flexible depth of 20 cm
masses or herbs layers of soil. branches, in the contour of
of diameter 0.20 and the slope,
and 0.40 m and It supports the provided following the
lengths between slope that is with growth level lines, with a
2 and 9 m, tied immediately buds, from small slope to
with wire or ropes above the trees facilitate
of organic fiber fascines. between 1 drainage.
or polypropylene to 4 years of
every 0.20 or 0.30 Drain the age. Place the half-
m. slope and buried fascines
reduce Shovel, in the ditches.
surface runoff. machete,
It decreases rope, stakes Fasten the
the runoff 1 meter fascines to the
speed. long, ground with

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
hammer. wooden stakes.
It improves The stake is
the site by driven in such a
stabilizing the way that it
areas and exceeds the
avoiding the upper level of
formation of the fascine.
gullies and
ravines. After the
fascines are
They reduce secured with
the length of stakes, the ditch
the gradient. is filled with
mixed soil.

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
Drain fascines. They are semi- They can be It consists of
cylindrical used as digging ditches
bunches of surface in the shape of
branches or subdrains to a fishbone. A
herbs with a control runoff main ditch with
diameter of 0.20 water. arms that
to 0.40 m and contain
lengths between secondary
2 and 9 m tied ditches with
with wire or ropes lateral angles
of organic fiber between 20 °
or polypropylene and 45 °.
every 0.20 or 0.30
m. The main ditch
has a depth of
50 cm, the
secondary
ditches have
depth between
20 and 30 cm,
60 cm wide.

The spacing
between
ditches varies
between 1 to
2.5 m in parallel
and with lengths
between 3 and
8 m.

The ditches are

filled with living
fascines all
along. Fix the
fascines with
stakes. Fill the
Fascines combined.
ditches with soil
around the
fascines.

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
Mini living control barriers. A living mini Prevents Stakes of Trim the slopes
erosion control cracks from hard wood of the gully if
dam is built with becoming from 1 to 2 they are too
live plants and large gullies. m long and steep. Any
local materials. A 60 to 120 excess loose
control dam of Repair small mm in material that
this type is gullies with a diameter remains, throw it
porous, and its maximum from, for upstream of the
main objective is depth of 1m example: control dam.
to reduce the and maximum Gliricidia
effective slope in width of 2m. sepium Prepare bales of
a fissure or gully (Black 4 or 5 hardwood
and thus It reduces wood) and stakes.
decrease the eroded Erythrina
Bamboo and blackwood control dam speed of water. material from corallodend Place the bale
fissures and rum of stakes on the
gullies that (Elequeme). side of the gully
reach a debris at a depth of
Side view. disposal site Long stems 300-500 mm and
and that of compact the
would Pennisetum material around
otherwise purpureum the bale.
enter natural (elephant
drainage grass) for Fill the area
channels. light and behind the dam
small control with local weeds
Strengthen prey. and angular
natural rocks. Sow
Variations or combinations
drainage Bambusa shoots or
channels in vulgaris cuttings
culverts and (Bamboo) upstream from
dump sites in stems of 2 - 3 the sides of the
the ditches. years. gully.

Robust
grasses,
such as
Vetiver
zizanioides
(vetiver),
with fibrous
roots to
reinforce the
sides of the
gullies.

Weeds and
angular

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
stones to fill.
Dense barrier living. It forms a dense Strengthens Stakes of Establish an
environment that the sides of Gliricidia environment
is established the gullies and sepium along the slope.
along the slope vulnerable (black
using material areas below wood) with Prepare black
that can the discharge a diameter wood stakes.
propagate from sites of the of 60-12 mm Make an
stakes of sewers. and annular cut in
horizontally between 1 the bark of the
placed They protect to 2 m long, cuttings at
hardwoods or the drainages with annular intervals of 300
grasses. Dense so that they cuts in the to 500 mm to
barriers can do not block head in stimulate the
withstand small with small intervals of growth of roots
surface rocks from the 300-500 mm. along the trunk.
movements of top of the Prepare
the slope and are slope. It takes 4 m bunches from 4
strong in tension of black to 5 and keep
across the slope. Rehabilitate wood stakes them in a cool,
waste disposal per meter of shady place
sites. ditch. until you use
them.
Control
surface Prepare a ditch
movements of 200 mm deep in
<300 mm the contour of
depth in cut the slope.
slopes in soft
material. Place stakes
bundles in the
trench making
sure there is
overlap
between them.

Cover the stakes

with a maximum
of 100 mm of
dirt.

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
Stone barrier interspersed A layer of stones, Reinforce to a Corner Prepare the
with vegetation. boulders and depth of 300 stone or sub surface of the
small rocks mm below the rounded of slope, the bed
carefully placed rip rap good quality of the ravine or
to prevent (vegetation with a size the shoulder of
erosion and component- approx. 100 the road, to
scouring of the rip rap- mm deep x create a flat
surface. geotextile 300 mm x surface.
(may be jute 300 mm.
or twine)) and I do not ground
stone to Grass, seeds any rock that
prevent or shoots, protrudes from
erosion. example: the surface.
Panicum
Protects the maximum Place a 100 mm
surface of the (shoots of layer of granular
soil preventing guinea material with
surface grass) or free drainage
erosion (stone Vetiver on the slope.
component). zizanioides
(vetiver). Carefully place
Protect the the rocks in the
base of a Stakes of area to be
slope from hard wood protected. Lay
erosion. of 400 to 900 down the rocks
mm long well and
Protect the (including at minimize spaces
base of a least 2 knots between them.
ravine from in each cut)
scour. and with a Fill the spaces
diameter of between the
Protect the 80 mm, for rocks with soil
sewer example: and sow grass
discharge site Gliricidia at 150 mm
from scour. sepium between plants.
(black
Protect the wood). You can also
elevated use living stakes
shoulders of between rocks
the roads Species at intervals of 1.5
from surface m.
erosion. Vetiver
zizanioides Be sure to plant
(Vetiver), the grass and
living stakes
Panicum deep enough so
maximum that the roots
(guinea penetrate

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
grass), below the rip
Gliricidia rap layer.
sepium
(Black tree).
Grass barrier to trap It is an effective Above the Robust grass Establish a guide
sedimentation. method to lateral drains. that forms a for sowing
prevent material barrier and parallel to the
coming down Above the recovers drain or side of
the slope from drains. after partial the road.
reaching a burial, such
drainage or a Around the as elephant Plant a double
channel. sewers or grass stems row of grass with
against and vetiver a space of 150
gutters. shoots. It mm between
requires 12 plants in the row
Retain small plants and 200 mm
rocks or small approximat between the
dirt fall ely per rows.
square
meter. Depending on
the severity of
Species the erosion and
space, a denser
Vetiver barrier may be
zizanioides planted that
(Vetiver), includes wood
Panicum vegetation.
maximum
(guinea Fill the area
grass), behind the dam
Pennisetum with brush and
purpureum cornerstones
(elephant that are in
grass), grass place. Sow
to cover the suckers or grass
ground as stems on the
for example sides upstream
Pueraria of the hollow.
thunbergian
a (kudzu
grass),
Gliricidia
sepium
(black tree).
Control of surface erosion Sow vetiver grass Protect the Prepare enough
with vetiver grass densely on the slopes at the Vetiver plant shoots for
entire slope. This edge of the pastures of a day's work.
reinforces and road. good quality

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
protects the from a Keep the
slope against Rehabilitate nursery or suckers
damage caused collapsed natural prepared in the
by surface cutting slopes. areas. shade until they
erosion or the are sown. Do
shallow collapse Cover up not allow the
of the surface. again the fill suckers to dry
slopes with with the son or
vegetation. with the wind.

Protect the If the vetiver

shoulders of grass was grown
the roads on in polyethylene
elevated bags, remove
pavements. the
polyethylene
Effective use before planting.
Forma y distancia de in the splicing
of an Prepare a hole
engineering for sowing
structure on about 70 to 100
edges such as mm deep and
masonry 50 mm wide.
siembra de vetiver.
dams.
The hole should
Retaining wall, be of enough
or in the size to place the
connection of vetiver shoot
gabions with without bending
the ground. the roots.

Fill the hole and

compact the
soil firmly around
the grass shoot.
Stone floor with vegetation. Strengthens the At the base of Natural Select hard and
base of the slope cut slopes or rocks or angular rocks to
to prevent consolidated boulders. build the base
erosion and scour fill slopes. of the stone
that can lead to Grass plants. wall.
a gradual It is not
withdrawal of the Suitable for Hardwood Clean the base
slope. slopes in loose stakes of of the slope of
and Gliricidia any waste and
unconsolidate sepium make a slight
d fillings. (black cut at the base
wood), (if of the slope to
Protect stakes are place the

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
natural required). angular rocks.
drainage from
erosion or Plants of Build a stone
from the small trees tread of about
collapse of and shrubs if 300 to 500 mm
debris. it is high with a base
necessary to of 300 mm.
sow.
Place the stone
Level and on the back of
rope. the slope at an
angle of 5 ° from
Species the vertical.

Vetiver As the rock floor

zizanioides is being built,
(Vetiver), place grass
Pennisetum shoots in the
purpureum spaces, ensuring
(elephant that the root
grass) y penetrates the
Gliricidia ground.
sepium
(black
wood).
Retention fences. Erosion control Stabilize the Black wood It is constructed
structures and production of stakes. from the base of
sediments sediments the gradient to
constructed from and stop the Wooden the top of the
stems and / or erosion of the stakes. hillside.
trunks of live hillsides.
shrubs that can Cords and Prepare
continue to grow Avoid erosion strings. hardwood
once placed in of its physical stakes, which will
the ground or structure until Vegetal be placed every
non-germinal established material. 0.75 to 1.25 m.
stakes. plants can
provide Place the stakes
protection using a hand
against level across the
permanent width of the
erosion. slope following
the contour
Stabilization terraces. Reduce the lines, insert them
effective to a depth of 50
gradient. cm and
compact the
They reinforce material around

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Technique Description Use in Materials Process

engineering
inclined the stake.
gradient
areas and fill Place logs of
slopes where black wood and
excess attach to the
moisture posts with ropes
could cause or wire. You can
rotational also use braided
landslides. branches of
bamboo or
other species.

Fill the area

behind the
fence with local
weeds and
cornerstones.
Plant shoots and
stems upstream.

Calculate the
distance
between
fences, when
the erosion is
severe, the
fences can be
built in intervals
from 2 to 3 m.
Source: Compilation of several authors by Miriam Downs, Swiss Cooperation in Honduras.

Maintenance plan

Considering that the protection works gradually deteriorate over time, the types of
structures related to slopes have been classified, inventing the possible defects that
they may contain and annotations that the professional could consider the visual
inspection of the state of the structures in the field, Table 5.16.

Based on the information in Table 5.16, Table 5.17 and Table 5.18 have been
constructed to record the damage in slope works; It contains initially compilation of
general data: region, date of inspection, name of inspector and the number of sheets
for the survey.

Then the name of the road, name of the sector, contract (number and year), road
code, location of the work in UTM WGS84 coordinates or the one used in the country
where the data collection and the characteristics of the work.

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It also included the types of movements, landslides or flows that could affect the
stability of the slope. The possible damages in the containment works are listed, leaving
space for annotations of dimensions, number of photo and observations.

Finally, Table 5.18 (sheet 2 of 2) presents the typology of the work with a small box next
to it to indicate which one is manifested, a space for the sketch and additional
observations that the format does not specify.

Table 5.16 Inspections of structures on slopes.

Structure Defects Annotations in the inspection.
Scouring The depth, width and depth affected must be recorded. If there
is a possibility of knowing the foundation material, write down
the type of material, regarding apparent gradation.
Settlements They are not easy to establish, unless there is a reference point
that allows obtaining a measurement of them. However,
differential settlements are easy to observe, when you notice an
inclination of the surface of the containment structure. The
magnitude of the settlement should be noted, if it is differential,
the length should also be noted. In the observations should be
noted any additional information to establish possible causes of
settlement: soft material, soil / rock moisture difference, other.
Dumps It is important to define the angle of inclination. If you do not
have a compass with inclinometer, you can use a plumb line to
establish the legs that form the angle, that is, the height and the
horizontal difference.
Gyre They are rotations with respect to a vertical axis. They can be
easily appreciated, since they generally produce surface
Containment structures.

undulations, and cracks in gravity or reinforced walls. The turn

does not necessarily have to be of the whole structure, it can be
only a portion of it. Note the length of the structure that presents
the turn, the angle of rotation, or, failing that, the maximum
displacement occurred.
Cracks or They are generally produced by bending stresses in gravity and
fissures. reinforced walls. Of these damages report the length, depth
and opening. Characteristics of the filling, in addition, exhibitions
of iron in case of reinforced walls. It is important to record in a
diagram the orientation and location of the cracks in the
structure and in relation to the slope.
Fractures Corresponds to the detachment of fragments of the
containment structure, product of the impact of an object with
the wall, or the union of two or more cracks forming individual
blocks. The height, depth and length should be noted to
establish the wall volume that presents fracturing, in addition to
drawing the relative location of the damage with respect to the
wall and any influential feature of the slope (e.g. Rocks that
have impacted).
Leaks Any type of outcrop of water on the slope, either through holes
or cracks, should be noted. It must be quantified if the filtration
moistens, drips and if flow estimates flow. Note the coloration of
the structure in the outcrop.
Vegetation The characteristics of slope coverage in terms of vegetation are
fundamental to establish patterns of erosion and infiltration as a
general complement of the slope. Record the percentage of
vegetation cover of the slope and make observations of the

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Structure Defects Annotations in the inspection.

coloration of the vegetation (light green, dark green, intense
green) and type of vegetation (grass, shrub, trees).
Drainage To establish the possibility that the slope must eliminate surface
water, filters are constructed, which deliver the water to sewers
or weirs. The only observation is regarding operation. If there is
no flow delivery, the slope being humid, observations should be
made.
Corrosion After having noted the characteristics of the mesh (hexagonal
triple twist, hexagonal double twist or electrowelded mesh) the
defects are noted. The dimensions of corrosion are measured in
area. It is recorded if the corrosion is partial or total, and the
corrosive agent that precipitated the damage (environmental
humidity, corrosive fluids, others).
Failure of the The dimensions are measured in area of the affected mesh. It is
mesh. noted if there are important deformations that prevent "sewing"
Gabion walls

the mesh, or if the repair requires a reshaping of the gabion.

Record the number of gabions involved and, in the diagram,
draw the shape how the mesh failure is located.
Coating loss. In case the gabions are partially or totally coated, the type of
coating and the area affected by the detachment should be
noted.
Weathering In relation to the aggregates of the gabion, a qualitative
annotation of the quality of the aggregate must be made, and
its susceptibility to erosion. It is noted by the presence of residual
dust or flakes in the aggregate.
Inadequate size The minimum size of the aggregate must, in any case, be
greater than the opening of the mesh. Similar or lower sizes
should be reported and note if the behavior is general or the
number of gabions that present this deficiency.
Cold joints. They are generated by the emptying of concrete in different
Concrete gravity walls and reinforced concrete walls.

stages and when they are not treated correctly, they allow the
entry of water and harmful agents for the concrete and for the
reinforcing steel in case of existing. It is reported that this
damage is done in linear meters of the affected length,
specifying as much as possible if the reinforcing steel is exposed
or may be affected by the damage. If there are several cold
joints, the report must be made for each one separately,
indicating the mentioned aspects.
Exposed This damage is generated by the loss of the concrete coating of
reinforcement. the reinforcing steel; steel is exposed to the environment and
corrosion problems arise. The report must be made in area (m2).
It should be noted in the outline.
Segregation Este daño consiste en la distribución inadecuada de los
componentes de la mezcla. El reporte debe realizarse
cuantificando el área afectada (m2), y mencionar en lo posible
si el acero de refuerzo se encuentra expuesto o con corrosión
derivada de este daño. Señalarse en el esquema de registro.
Anthill They are generated by several causes in which the lack of
vibration is highlighted, the improper practice in the placement
of concrete in areas with high density of reinforcement and the
inadequate dosage of concrete mixtures. The report must be
made by consigning the affected area (m2) and indicate it in
the registration scheme.
Efflorescence They are deposits of salts on the surface of the concrete. Report
the affected area (m2).
Carbonation It is the reaction that occurs between carbon dioxide (CO2) rom

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Structure Defects Annotations in the inspection.

atmospheric air or soil with the alkaline components of the
concrete Ca (OH)2. It can generate corrosion of the reinforcing
steel. The report of this damage must be done consigning the
affected area (m2).
Concrete They are affections of concrete due to chemical attacks of
pollution. substances produced by the presence of microorganisms or
vegetation on the surface of structures. These chemical attacks
can increase the permeability of the concrete, generate color
changes in the concrete, and others. Damages are reported by
quantifying the area of damage in (m2) and should be noted in
the diagram.
Panels They must verify if they are fractured or detached, and in any
case, place the number of affected panels. Record the
characteristics of the exposed material in observations.
Mechanically
stabilized dirt

Settlement The filling may have compressibility drawbacks, particularly

(reinforced)

when it is part of the bank. Any type of settlement manifests on

the surface. The magnitude of the settlement should be noted in
case of having a reference point, and the area where it is
presented, accompanied in the damage scheme. Note if there
is possibility of evolution.
Exposure of In case the geotextile is visible, or the basket of electro welded
reinforcement. steel if it exists, it should be noted the area affected by this
damage and the oxidation conditions of the steel.
Punching It is the concentration of the charges on the anchor side and in
a small area around it. It is characterized by the appearance of
fissures in the side and its surrounding area. In the report the
opening, depth and length of the fissures and depth of
penetration of the die in the surface should be recorded; in the
Anclajes

diagram, the distribution of these within the die and around it

should be illustrated.
Loss of bolts. This situation occurs in the press-cables that hold the tension of
the anchor. The number of bolts lost relative to the total must be
entered (e.g. 1/3 to indicate that a bolt of three required bolts
has been lost.
Plate cracking A fissure pattern in the plate that holds the anchor. Illustrate the
distribution of cracks in relation to the plate.
Source: Manual for the visual inspection of stabilization works, Ministry of Transport of the Republic of
Colombia, 2006.

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Table 5.17 Damage record (page 1 of 2)

STUDY AND INVESTIGATION OF THE CURRENT STATE OF SLOPES.

Region: Date:
Logo 1 Logo 2

Surveyed by: ______________________________ Sheet of

INSPECTION OF SLOPES AND CONTAINMENT WORKS. CONTRACT ______________________________

Name of the road: ___________________________________ Name of the sector: _____________________________

Road code.: ___________ Concession.: Integral maintenance: Road Administration Sector N °

ID
1)Location: 2) Characteristics of the work.:
Coordinates X: __________________ Type of work N°. ___________________ Other _____________________________________

Y: __________________ Length: ____________ m Height: _____________ m Width: __________________

SLOPES STABILITY
a) Movement type
Landslides: Flows:
Fall Overturn Rotational Flujo plástico
Translational Flujos de detritos
Flujos de lodos
b) Longitud de calzada afectada: ____________ m
WORKS OF CONTAINMENT.
Works Type of damage Dimensions N °. photo Remarks
Scouring
Gyres
Collapse
Overturn
Fissures
General

Cracks
Fracturing
Leaks
Vegetation
Insufficient drains.
Clogged drains.
Clogged berms.
Reconfor
mation

Flows
Ground instability
Cold joints
Exposed reinforcement
Segregation
Concrete walls

Anthill
Efflorescence
Carbonation
Concrete pollution
Punching
Anchor

Loss of bolts
s

Plate cracking
Panels
Reinfor

earth

Settlement
wall.
ced

Exposure of reinforcement.
Mesh
Corrosion
Mesh failure.
Gabions

Coating loss
Aggregates
Weathering
Inadequate size
Source: Manual for the visual inspection of stabilization works, Bogotá D. C. 2006

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Table 5. 18 Damage registration study (sheets 2 of 2)

STUDY AND INVESTIGATION OF THE CURRENT STATE OF SLOPES
WORK TYPOLOGY

Reconformation Buttress walls. Semi-gravity walls Soil anchors Soil nailing

Gabion walls Anchored walls. Crib walls Rock anchors Piles and caissons
Cantilevered walls Gravity walls. Reinforced earth Anchored screens Rock retaining structures

SCHEME

REMARKS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Source: Manual for the visual inspection of stabilization works, Bogotá D. C. 2006

Maintaining the slope lawn is essential for growth and propagation which can last for a
while depending on the type of soil where it lies, Table 5.19, contains maintenance
information according to the type of soil and Table 5.20, shows a summary of
maintenance after executing seeding work.

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Table 5.19 Maintenance classified by soil type on slopes with planned vegetation cover.
It is planned for poor germination.
Any broken coverage is
The surface should be covered as
dangerous. Additional fertilizer
Sandy soon as possible. An erosion
is immediately needed if you
ground forecasting agent should be used if
Methods and find bare portions of the
the seeds are not ready for the
soft soil ground.
heavy rain season.
cutting. Maintenance is almost
Clay unnecessary. Additional fertilizer
Slow growth
floor is required according to
growth.
Shortage of water immediately after It takes a long time for the
work or lack of fertilizer occurs stabilization of the seed. The
Hard ground cutting
quickly. Sufficient water spray and additional fertilizer must be
additional fertilizer is necessary. continued for several years.

Complement of the inspection of structures developed in Table 5.17 and 5.18, it was
considered necessary to present two more Tables for the inspection, Table 5.20 and
5.21; the first one for raising formed slopes and natural slopes where civil works do not
exist, only drainage works and a second where civil works exist.

Table 5.20 Summary of maintenance after executing seeding work (maintenance classified by
method of execution)
MINISTERIO DE OBRAS PÚBLICAS (EJEMPLO DE COSTA RICA)
LOGO 1 LOGO 2
FORMULARIO PARA INSPECCIÓN VISUAL (TALUDES Y LADERAS)

ZONA: Día mes año Hoja de Estruc. Ruta Sentid Lado Km

o
REGIÓN:

RUTA: EMPRESA:

SELECCIÓN DE CONTROL:
RESPONSABLE:

DATOS GENERALES

Ubicación Dimensiones Definición Esquema

Km. Inicial Sentido Longitud (m) Ladera natural

pendiente Talud artificial

Km. final Lado
promedio (°) (corte)
FOTOGRAFÍA

Altura Terraplén
Coordenadas X Coordenadas Y
máxima (m) (relleno)

ESTADO DEL TALUD

Movimientos

Tipo de movimiento Magnitud Tipo de material

De caída Volcamiento < 20 m3 Roca

− Flujos Deslizamiento entre 20 m3 y 100 m3 Coluviales (detritos)

− −
detritos y tierra Rotacional >100 m3 Tierra

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− de lodos − Traslacional Especificar: Especificar:

− Plástico Movimiento
−
(reptación) complejo

SEÑALES DE MOVIMIENTO

Patología Dimensiones Fotos Anotaciones

Erosión superficial
<10 (%) superficie
10 -30 (%) Superficie
>30 (%) superficie
Agrietamiento
Cuerpo del talud
Corona del talud
Pie del talud
Carretera (grietas de tracción)
Caída de material suelto
Hundimiento de corona de talud
Hundimiento de subrasante en
terraplén
Levantamiento de pie de talud
Socavación de pie de talud
Deformación de estructuras
adyacentes
DEFICIENCIA DE DRENAJE Y SUBDRENAJE

Severidad
Patología Medi Fotos Anotaciones
Baja Alta
a
Taponamiento de drenajes
profundos
Obstrucciones en drenajes
Agrietamiento en drenajes
Rotura en drenajes
Inexistencia de drenaje
Observaciones:

Source: Final graduation project "Model of prioritization of geotechnical works for the intervention and
maintenance of road infrastructure works of CONAVI”, Calvo Vargas, 2013

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Table 5.21 For visual inspection (structures)

MINISTERIO DE OBRAS PÚBLICAS
LOGO 1 LOGO 2
FORMULARIO PARA INSPECCIÓN VISUAL (ESTRUCTURAS)

ZONA: Día mes año Hoja de Estruc. Ruta Sentido Lado Km

REGIÓN:

RUTA: EMPRESA:

SELECCIÓN DE CONTROL:
RESPONSABLE:

ESTRUCTURAS

De contención Otras

Dique de contención en tierra Muro de concreto reforzado Pantallas y anclajes

Muro de gaviones Muro anclado obras de drenaje y subdrenaje

Muro de gravedad en concreto

Muro de encofrado o cribas
(ciclópeo)

Muro de tierra armada

DATOS GENERALES DE LA ESTRUCTURA

Ubicación Dimensiones Anotaciones Esquema

Km. Inicial: Sentido:

Km. final: Lado:

Coordenadas X: Coordenadas Y:

PATOLOGÍAS DE OBRAS DE CONTENCIÓN

Falla parcial o total por: Daño por impacto (fractura miento) Erosión de juntas

Volteo Erosión, no grietas Longitud afectada:

Deslizamiento Erosión y grietas Vegetación:

Capacidad portante Rotura % área afectada

Deflexión excesiva % área afectada Corrosión:

Abombamiento Agrietamiento % de área afectada

Rotura o expansión de refuerzo

Asentamiento < 3 mm (concreto ref.), malla (gaviones),
geotextil (tierra armada)

Otros 3 a 5 mm % área afectada

Erosión de la superficie de la estructura >5 mm Otra:

< 2 cm % área afectada

>2 cm, <10% superficie Desplazamiento de juntas

>2 cm, >10% superficie Pérdida de sello <20%, sin infiltración

Perdida de sello entre 20-40%, sin FOTOGRAFÍA

% área afectada
infiltración

Observación: Pérdida de sello >20%, hay infiltración

Dimensiones: Longitud afectada:

PATOLOGÍA EN PANTALLAS Y ANCLAJES

Daños o pérdidas en cabezales Desprendimiento de cobertura rígida

Corrosión Fisuramiento de pantalla FOTOGRAFÍA

% área afectada Otros:

PATOLOGÍA DE DRENAJES Y SUBDRENAJES

Patología Medición Severidad Anotaciones FOTOGRAFÍA

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Baja Media Alta

Taponamiento drenajes profundos

Obstrucciones en drenajes

Agrietamiento en drenajes

Rotura drenajes

Inexistencia drenajes

Observaciones

Source: Final graduation project "Model of prioritization of geotechnical works for the intervention and
maintenance of road infrastructure works of CONAVI", Calvo Vargas, 2013

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6. CHAPTER 6 RISK MANAGEMENT

CA-1. Los Chorros, Colón, La Libertad, El Salvador

CA-04. La Libertad, El Salvador
 MANUAL DE CONSIDERACIONES GEOTÉCNICAS Y SÍSMICAS PARA LA INFRAESTRUCTURA VIAL CENTROAMERICANA

Risk analysis

The risk, according to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
(ECLAC), an organization of the United Nations, is defined as "the result of the
interaction of three factors: Threat, vulnerability and exposure4”. The risk can also be
defined according to ECLAC as "the probability of harmful consequences or expected
losses (deaths, injuries, damage to public or private property, interruption of economic
activities)5” and at present the environmental part and its deterioration, but it is being
integrated as an implicit term in the exhibition.

Derived from the above concepts, we can say that the disaster risk is made up of two
parts:

▪ The threat
▪ The vulnerability

This is expressed as follows:

Disaster risk = f (threat, vulnerability)

To better understand the issue of Risks some basic concepts and terminology are
explained which have been taken from the publication "Terminology on Disaster Risk
Reduction. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction "of the United Nations in 2009
and of the" Basic Guide for the elaboration of the state and municipal atlas of hazards
and risks "of CENAPRED in 2014.

Risk, in a technical context, emphasizes the consequences or in terms of "possible

losses" related to a cause, place and time. This should be taken as the concept of
probability or the possibility of something, such as the "risk of an accident”

Vulnerability is defined as the internal disposition to be affected by a threat; so that

without vulnerability there is no loss, damage or destruction. It is also defined as "the
characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or good that make them
susceptible to the harmful effects of a threat".

4
The impact of natural disasters on development: Basic methodological document for national case
studies. ECLAC. December 14, 2005.
5
Public policies for reducing vulnerability to natural and socio-natural disasters. Jorge Enrique Vargas.
Environment and Development Series. ECLAC. UN Chile. April 2002

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For sliding slopes or hillsides, there are no methodologies to determine the damage
functions; the difficulty is in the different phenomena that can attack them, for
example, in the seismic case, velocities or maximum acceleration should be taken as a
single parameter. The problems of landslides are given depending on several
parameters that depend on each type of movement considered, the parameter or the
physical parameters that define the vulnerability, are different.

The degree of loss of a given element or of a set of elements within the area affected
by the landslide(s). It is expressed on a scale of 0 (no loss) to 1 (total loss). In the case of
a property, the loss will be the value of the property; for the case of people, it will be the
probability that a life (the element at risk) is a loss, given the person (s) affected by the
landslide.

Danger: A condition with the potential to cause an undesirable consequence.

Descriptions of landslide dangers, particularly for zoning purposes, should include the
characteristics of landslides. These may include the volumes or areas of the landslides
and the probability of their occurrence. The description of the sliding speeds can also
be valuable. Alternatively, danger can be understood as the probability with which a
landslide occurs within a given lapse.

Hazard: A phenomenon, substance, human activity or dangerous condition that can

cause death, injury or other health impacts, as well as damage to property, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

Risk assessment: A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by

analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that
together could potentially harm people, property, services and media exposed
livelihood, as well as the environment on which they depend. Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1
show some geological and meteorological processes that cause risks.

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Table 6. 1 Geological and meteorological processes that can cause risks.

Phenomenon Potential risks.

External geodynamic processes -Landslides and loosening
-Sinking and subsidence
- Erosion
- Expansibility and collapsibility of soils
Internal geodynamic processes - Earthquakes and tsunamis
- Volcanism
- Diapirism
Weather processes - Torrential rains and intense rainfall.
- Floods.
-Rivulets processes.
-Hurricanes.
-Tornadoes.
Source: González and others 2002.

The criteria that allow to establish the degree of slip hazard that the slopes can present,
are shown in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Hazard scales to landslide*

Hazard Type of Slope
Very high Slope/Hillsides with cracks, escarpments or ledges. Very disturbed soils (see Fig. 6.1),
loose and/or saturated. Presence of unfavorable discontinuities. History of landslides in
the area or site. Slope/Hillside deforested.
High Slope/Hillsides that exhibit fault zones. Weathering from moderate to high. It has
unfavorable discontinuities, where landslides have occurred. Slope / Hillside deforested.
Moderate Slope/Hillsides with some fault zones. Rock formations with alteration and moderate
cracking. No history of landslides in the site or region.
Low Slope/Hillsides in rock formations with low to moderate alteration. Discontinuities planes
are less favorable to the landslide. Hillside without deforestation. A layer of compact
soils of little thickness.
Very low Slope/Hillsides in rock formations not altered, little cracked or fissured. Without
discontinuity planes that favors the landslide. Slope/Hillsides without deforestation.
* Source: Basic guide for the elaboration of the state and municipal atlases of dangers and risks "of the
CENAPRED, page 234.

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Figure 6. 1 Alteration profile of residual soil and basal rock.

* Source: Basic guide for the elaboration of the state and municipal atlases of dangers and risks "of the
CENAPRED

To determine or estimate the danger of landslide on a slope/hillside, Table 6.3 should be

considered, and each factor should be evaluated to later add the given score and
review Table 6.4 to know the scale of danger of the slope/hillside.

Table 6.3 Factors to estimate the landslide danger of a slope/hillside.

Topographical and historical factors.
Score
Factor Intervals or categories Score Remarks
1 2
Slopes dip. More than 45° 2.00 Estimate the
35° to 45° 1.80 average value. Use
25° to 35° 1.40 clinometer.
15° to 25° 1.00
Less than 15° 0.50
Height Less than 50 m 0.60 Unevenness between
the crown and the valley
50 to 100 m 1.20 or bottom of the glen.
100 to 200 m 1.60 Use leveling, plans or
More than 200 m 2.00 topographic charts.
Doubtful levels with GPS.
History of landslides in It is not known. 0.30 Plausible reviews of
the site, area or
region.
Some briefly 0.40 locals.
Yes, even with dates. 0.60
Geotechnical factors
Types of soils Slightly compacted granular soils 1.5 to 2.5 Vulnerable to
and rocks. to loosen. Soils that soften with the erosion; or soils of
absorption of water. soft consistency.
Unconsolidated formations.
Metamorphic rocks (shales, slates 1.2 to 2.0
and schist.) from low to very
weathered.

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Consistent clay soils or 0.5 to 1.0 Multiply by 1.3 if it is

compacted silty sand. cracked.
Sedimentary rocks (sandstones, 0.3 to 0.6 Multiply by 1.2 to 1.5,
depending on the scale
conglomerates, etc.) and of weathering.
competent tuffs.
Healthy igneous rocks (granite, 0.2 to 0.4 Multiply by 2 to 4,
basalt, rhyolite, etc.) depending on the
scale of weathering.
Thickness of the soil Less than 5 0.50 Check cuts and
layer m ravines; or, recur to
5 to 10 m 1.40 manual exploration.
15 m to 20 1.80
m
Structural Dip of discontinuity. Less than 0.30 Consider contact
aspects in rock 15° planes between
formations. 25 to 35° 0.60 formations, cracks,
joints and planes of
More than 0.90 weakness. (Figure 6.2)
45°
Angle between the More than 0.30 Positive differential
dip of the 10° angle if the dip is
discontinuities and 0 to 10° 0.50 greater than the
the inclination of the 0° 0.70 inclination of the
slope. 0° to 10° 0.80 slope. (Figure 6.3)
Less than - 1.00
10°
Angle between the More than 0.20 Consider the
course of the 30° direction of the
discontinuities and 10° to 20° 0.30 most
the course of the Less than 5 0.50 representative
direction of the ° discontinuities.
slope.
Geomorphological and environmental factors
Geomorphological Nonexistent 0.00 Forms of shells or
evidence of Moderate volumes 0.50 funnel (flows)
"holes" in
Large missing volumes 1.00
contiguous hillsides
Vegetation and Urban zone 2.00 Consider not only
ground use. Annual crops 1.50 the slope, but also
Intense vegetation 0.00 the platform at the
Rocks with roots of bushes in their 2.00 top.
fractures.
Moderate vegetation 0.80
Área deforestada 2.00
Water regime in Surface water Table 1.00 Detect possible
the hillside Non-existent water Table 0.00 emanations of
water in the slope.
Ditches or depressions where 1.00
water accumulates on the slope
or platform.
Summation 0 0
* Source: Basic guide for the elaboration of the state and municipal atlas of dangers and risks "of
the CENAPRED.

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Table 6.4 Landslide hazard estimation of slope/hillside.

Landslide hazard estimation.
Grade Description Sum of the scores.
1 Very low danger Less than 5
2 Low danger 5 to 7
3 Moderate danger 7 to 8.5
4 High danger 8.5 to 10
5 Very high danger More than 10
* Source: Basic guide for the elaboration of the state and municipal atlas of dangers and risks "of the
CENAPRED.

Figure 6.2 Course and dip of a geological formation.

Source: Basic guide for the elaboration of the state and municipal atlas of dangers and risks "of the
CENAPRED.

Figure 6.3 Relation between the dip of discontinuities and the inclination of the slope.
Source: Basic guide for the elaboration of the state and municipal atlas of dangers and risks "of the
CENAPRED

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Determination of the elements at risk.

The objective is to determine the distribution of probability for the number, nature and
characteristics of the elements at risk (people, infrastructure, properties), which may be
affected by the danger. This involves determining the number and nature of the
elements. Some relevant characteristics that need to be considered are the location of
the element in relation to the hazard and its size; for example, if it is located on the
slope/hillside, its top, at the foot or at a certain distance from the foot. Also, if the item
has a fixed position, for example a house; or if it is a mobile element, such as a person
or a car.

A summary of the "HGGeoA Road Geomatics Management Tool Manual" is presented

in Annex I. This tool was developed through the GENSAI project for the Department of
Adaptation to Climate Change and Strategic Risk Management (DACGER) of the
Ministry of Public Works of El Salvador, to determine and evaluate the risk, the
"HGGeoA" tool allows road management planners to analyze and assess road
geological hazard risks and thus promote and carry out efficient investments in
reducing the risk of road geohazard. HGGeoA is a tool developed in Excel to facilitate
its use by any geohazard road management planner.

Geological hazards or geohazards.

In 2005, Solheim, A., R. Bhasin, F. V. D. Blasio, L. H. Blikra, S. Boyle, A. Braathen, J. Dehls, et

al. in its publication in the International Centre for Geohazards (ICG): Assessment,
prevention and mitigation of geohazards. Norwegian Journal of Geology. 85. 45-62,
they defined the Geohazard as "events caused by geological, geomorphological and
climatic conditions or processes that represent serious threats to human life, property
and the natural and built environment".”

Geohazards on roads cover almost all hazards that affect road infrastructures, such as
landslides, collapses, earth flows, debris flows, floods and erosion. Most geohazards are
related to climate activity, such as rain, snowmelt or snow. In recent years, climate
change has increased the intensity of rain and the average temperature, increasing
the geological risk events of the flow type, such as debris or earth flows and floods.
Geological risks damage road infrastructure threatens lives and livelihoods, and cause
secondary impacts, disrupting traffic and services, such as water and energy supplies in
some cases.
There are several types of geohazards that affect roads, and these can be classified
according to their location and types of movement (i.e., fall or collapse of the

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mountain, collapse of the side of the valley or erosion of the river, landslide and flow);
and the dominant material involved (i.e., bedrock, soil and water).

Regarding the location of the geohazards on the road, these can be on the gradient of
the mountain hillside or on the gradient of the valley side, this refers to a cut gradient or
gradient of the embankment or a natural gradient on the surface of the road, in
addition to the case in which the point in question is at a point of intersection with a
river.

The most relevant risks for road systems are addressed below, such as floods, geological
processes in volcanoes, earthquakes, landslides and slope collapses, debris flows, land
flows.

6.2.1 Floods

Floods can occur when rainfall in a region exceeds the capacity of the soil and
vegetation to absorb all the water that arrives and runs off into the ground. They also
occur due to the overflowing of rivers, failure of embankments, dikes and dams,
obstruction of pipes, the rise in sea level, or the discharges of water from reservoirs.

Floods damage roads, property, cause soil erosion and deposit sediments. They also
affect crops and wildlife (Figure 6.4). Among the important factors that condition the
floods are the spatial distribution of the rain, the topography, the physical
characteristics of the streams and rivers, the forms and lengths of the channels, the type
of soil, the gradient of the ground, the vegetation cover, the use of soil, the location of
dams and the elevations of river banks.

Figure 6.4 Flood due to channel change due to storm 12E, Usulután Salinas Sisiguayo, El Salvador 2012
(MOP El Salvador)

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6.2.2 Volcanoes (pyroclastic flows, lahars, lavas ash)

▪ Volcanoes

Volcanoes are dangerous, but their location is punctual, so delimiting an area of

possible disaster is easier, unlike other natural disasters. It is practically impossible to
have a history with all the eruptions of a volcano so to be able to predict the behavior
is difficult.

Having knowledge of the volcanic hazards that may occur in a given volcano, will
result in a reduction in human and economic losses, figure 6.5. In addition, it will allow
an improvement in building techniques for housing and buildings in general,
implementation of restrictive measures for construction in hazardous areas and the
development of better evacuation and disaster mitigation plans.

Figure 6.5 San Miguel volcano in El Salvador. (MOP El Salvador)

▪ Pyroclastic flows.

Pyroclastic flows can receive various names: pyroclastic flows, burning clouds, hot ash
flows; It is one of the most destructive phenomena of an active volcano. In the
eruptions, pyroclastic flows can be created that consist of a hot mixture of gases, ashes
and fragments of rock that descend through the volcano at great speed. These gases
travel to the bottom of ravines and valleys, as well as rise above high reliefs. It is
impossible for anything in its path to be saved whether they are constructions or living
beings. The flow can destroy well-built buildings and even entire forests, leaving nothing
standing, and can travel distances ranging from meters to hundreds of meters.

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▪ Lahars

The lahars comprise a mixture of volcanic materials deposited on the slopes (rocks, ash,
pumice, slag), mostly ashes which are mobilized by the action of water or rain that
erode the deposited material. The water mixes with the loose volcanic material that is in
its path and quickly becomes a flow with characteristics like fresh concrete. Due to its
density, this flow can transport rocks, bridges, trees, houses and anything in its path. It
can also travel very long distances (figure 6.6), so its destructive power is equally great.

Figure 6.6 View of the lahars from the Volcano of Guatemala (General Directorate of roads,
Guatemala.)

6.2.3 Earthquake

Seismic are phenomena that shake the earth, these are produced by the internal and
proper interaction of the earth's crust. This phenomenon in which accumulated energy
is released in the form of a jolt can be produced by geological faults (Figure 6.7) or by
friction at the edges of the tectonic plates or by some volcanic process. There may be
other non-geological factors that produce earthquakes such as nuclear detonations or
the impact of an asteroid. There is no reliable way to predict earthquakes, but these
can have a great impact on road structures notably.

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Figure 6.7 Landslide induced by earthquake in "La Leona" Curve CA-01. 2001. El Salvador (MOP
El Salvador)
6.2.4 Landslides and rock falls.

Fall: a rapid downward movement of a mass of rock or soil that travels mainly through
the air by free fall, jump or sway, with little or no interaction between one moving unit
and another.

Collapse: a gradual or rapid downward movement of soil or rock under gravitational

stress, often because of artificial factors, such as the removal of foot material from a
slope. (Figure 6.8).

Landslide: a massive movement of earth, snow or rock in shear mode along one or
more sliding surfaces. (Figure 6.9)

Figure 6.8 Collapse of rocks induced by rains on the national route RN-15. June 2018. (MOP El
Salvador)

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Figure 6.9 Road landslide to the turns, Chalatenango 2016. (MOP El Salvador)

For more information on these topics see Chapter 4 section 4.1.1

6.2.5 Debris/Mud flows.

According to the CENAPRED document "Diagnosis of Hazards and Identification of

Disaster Risks in Mexico" in the classification of landslides there is a group that is
designated as flows, which are usually associated with extraordinary rainfall, with highly
devastating consequences.

The extreme climatic conditions facilitate the rapid disintegration of rocks, in addition,
the intense and sustained rains act as a very efficient transport agent. The mechanism
with which the mud and debris flows are generated is the sudden and sustained
saturation of the unconsolidated sediments that are found in the upper part of the
areas of steep terrain, such as the mountain ranges.

When the saturation of the material is generated, it increases its weight, which
destabilizes the soil, increasing the destabilizing forces of the body of the slope; at the
same time the internal pressure developed by the newly accumulated water, in
addition to the one that runs downhill from the highest parts through the interior of the
same mass of sediments, generates a significant reduction in the internal resistance of
the earth material. Under these circumstances, the collapse of large volumes of
materials, such as silts, clays, sand, gravels and rock fragments of various sizes, inevitably
occurs.

In this way, the collapsed material falls like an avalanche, at high speed, until reaching
an area of land with a lower slope, where there is a sudden reduction in the flow
velocity, so the fragments of heavier material are deposited. (Refers to figure 6.10)

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Figure 6.10 Debris flow in Joateca, El Salvador 2018. (MOP El Salvador)

6.2.6 Hurricanes

The document "Diagnosis of Hazards and Identification of Disaster Risks in Mexico" of

CENAPRED describes that a hurricane or tropical cyclone consists of a large mass of
warm and humid air with strong winds that rotate in a spiral around a central area of
low pressure. Tropical cyclones generate heavy rain, strong winds, large swells and
storm surges. Hurricanes / tropical cyclones present an almost circular area in the plant
and have the lowest pressure in the center. The trajectories that describe the cyclones
are a function of the existing climatological conditions and can enter or not to earth. Its
average pattern is known, although in some cases there are cyclones with erratic
trajectories. The forecast of the trajectory of the hurricanes / tropical cyclones serves as
a guide for the decision making on the protection of the population, since one can
have an idea of the positions that the cyclone will have in the immediate future and of
the evolution of its intensity. From these, alert times are established and the eventual
evacuation of the inhabitants in the risk areas is prepared.

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GLOSSARY
Alluvium: Soil whose components were transported in suspension by a stream of water
and subsequently deposited by sedimentation.

Altered sample: Part of the soil extracted for laboratory study, which does not require its
conservation in its natural state.

Angle of internal friction: The angle between the axis of normal stresses and tangent to
the Mohr envelope at a point representing a given condition of rupture strength of a
solid material. The internal friction angle of a soil corresponds to the angle whose
tangent is the average coefficient of friction between the particles of a soil.

Anticline: It is a fold of the earth's crust that has the oldest strata in its core. It is formed
by the tectonic effects of terrestrial dynamics.

Block: Rock fragment, which may be rounded by abrasion, whose diameter is greater
than 25 cm.

Cohesion: Shear strength of the ground when the effective normal pressure is zero.

Cohesive floor: When the proportion in the weight of fine content that has plasticity is
equal to or greater than 35%.

Colluvium: A term applied to any soil mass deposited by runoff, which is usually found at
the base of hills or hillsides of a moderate gradient. The colluviums or colluvial deposits
are formed by poorly graded sands and gravels. In a broad sense, this concept has
been used to generically designate hillsides deposits or gravitational deposits.

Cone test: Soil exploration method, consisting of the penetration of a penetrometer with
the conical tip. The number of strokes for the advance for drilling in a certain depth
allows the calculation of the shear strength of the soil.

Diaclases: (In Spanish) Surface of discontinuity of the rock mass caused by the tensions.

Dip: It is the angle that forms the line of the maximum gradient of a surface of a stratum,
vein or fails with its projection with the horizontal plane.

Direction fault (course, transcurrent or tear): When the displacement is horizontal and
parallel to the course of the fault, it can correspond to the direction of the blocks
(referenced to the position of an observer located on one of the blocks), sinistral or left

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direction: when the block opposite the one occupied by the observer moves to the left,
dextral or right direction: when the block moves to the right. The fault plane can be
inclined or vertical.

Discontinuity: Discontinuities in soil and rock masses include faults, joints, stratification
planes, foliation planes, fractures and cracks, and fill material.

Discordant contact: Separates two materials that are not parallel to each other, that
have no temporal continuity. (It is presented by a dashed line).

Fault with indication of sinking: Movement of the terrestrial surface in which the shallow
descending sense predominates and that takes place in areas of different
characteristics and gradients. It differs from subsidence by its much shorter temporal
and spatial scales. It can be induced by different causes and can develop at very fast
or very slow speeds depending on the mechanism that leads to such instability.

Geogrid: Net manufactured with synthetic materials to be used with soil, rock, earth or
other material related to a project, structure or system. Normally geogrids are used as
reinforcement elements in the construction of reinforced earth structures.

Geohazard: Events caused by geological, geomorphological and climatic conditions

or processes that represent serious threats to human life, property and the natural and
built environment. Geo-hazards on roads cover almost all hazards that affect road
infrastructure, such as landslides, collapses, earth flows, debris flows, floods and erosion.

Geomembrane: Laminar element, manufactured with synthetic materials, whose

waterproof characteristics allow it to be used as a coating or as a barrier to control the
passage of fluids in a project, structure or system.

Geophysical methods: Exploration methods that are used to analyze physical

phenomena, such as the gravity of the earth, seismic waves, resistivity and the
magnetism of the earth.

Geotechnical unit: Each one of the superposed layers of the land that presents
common physical and mechanical characteristics, relative to its origin, identification of
the materials that compose it, state, resistance and deformability.

Geotechnics: Application of engineering principles to the generation, interpretation

and use of knowledge of materials and processes that occur in the earth's crust for the
solution of engineering problems. For a complete developent, the application of

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differentfields of knowledge is required, especially; soil mechanics, rock mechanics,

geology, geophysics, hydrology, hydrogeology and related sciences.
Geotextile: Permeable laminar element, manufactured from polymers. Geotextiles are
commonly used as a drainage or protection element for drainage works; occasionally
they are also used as reinforcement elements.

Granular soil: When the ratio in weight of sand and gravel content is greater than 65%.

Granulometric analysis: Determination of the relative amounts of particles in a granular

material that is within defined ranges of diameter, by separating them on screens of
different sizes of aperture, or by other processes suitable for the effect such as
sedimentation or examination by optical means.

Groundwater: Which can move in the saturation zone of a mass of soil or rock by the
effect of gravitational attraction.

Moisture content: Ratio of the weight of the wáter contained in a certain simple to its
dry weight.

Interstitial pressure: Pressure (more than atmospheric pressure) of water in the voids of a
saturated soil or rock.

Jet grouting: High pressure injections.

Joints: Discontinuity in a rocky massif. This generic term includes joints, faults and
stratification planes as elements of discontinuity.

Landslide: Generic term that includes a wide variety of erosion processes in mass that
includes the downhill transport of soil and rock masses. Normally the removed material
moves along a surface or a restricted shear zone, and is preceded, accompanied and
followed by a perceptible deformation along a sliding surface and inside the mass of
soil affected by these processes.

Liquefaction: Cancellation of the capacity to resist shear stress of fine granular soil,
saturated and with relatively low density, because of increased interstitial pressure
caused by vibrations.

Liquid limit: Moisture content of remolded soil corresponding to the boundary between
its liquid consistency and plastic states. Moisture content of which a mass of remolded
and cut soil with a standard size router flows to join 13 mm under the impact of 25 blows
in a standardized device for liquid limit determination.

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Loan zone: Land intended for the extraction of materials for the construction of earth
embankments and dams.

Loosening: Also called collapse; mass movement characterized by the fall of a mass of
rock or soil controlled mainly by gravity, with minimal influence of water as a
destabilizing factor.

Mechanical contact: The contact plane is a fault. (It is presented by a continuous line).

Mylonitized zone: When the deformation takes place in the ductile or fragile-ductile
domain of the rocks, in conditions of metamorphism the mylonite are produced, which
define the shear bands, with a characteristic rock swaying.

Normal fault: When the hanging of ceiling block moves downwards with respect to the
adjacent or wall block. The fault plane is tilted.

Normal or concordant contact: Separate two materials parallel to each other, which
can be assumed to be consecutive in geological time. (It is represented by a dotted
line).

Normally consolidated soil: Consolidation of a soil is called a process of volume

reduction of cohesive fine soils (clays and plastic silts), caused by loads on its mass and
that takes place in a generally long time. This causess vertical subsidencem and if this
occur on a large scale in construction site, this can lead to considerable damege to
buildings.

Percussion drilling: A technique that is practiced by inserting a tool in the field through
successive blows.

Piezometric height: Height that reaches the water level when placing a piezometric
tube at a point.

Piezometric level: Level that will reach the water in a hole in contact with the
atmosphere.

Plastic limit: The moisture content of a remolded soil corresponding to the boundary
between their states and rigid plastic consistency. Moisture content with which a soil
begins to crumble when a cylinder of 3 mm in diameter is formed with it.

Plasticity index: Measurement of the plasticity of a soil given by the absolute value of
the moisture interval in which the soil behaves as a plastic material, numerically the

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plasticity index is equal to the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit. PI
= wL – wp.

Reverse or rider fault: When the hanging block moves upwards relative to the lying one.
They are denominated the reverse faults of low angle of dip. The fault plane is tilted.

Rivulets process: Geological processes carried out by the water that circulates on the
surface without a fixed channel and gives rise to a high erosion giving rise to grooves,
gullies and ravines.

Rock jumping: Trajectory of the movement of a rock slope down, depending on the
geometry of the slope, the rock can reach high speeds and rebound along the route.

Rock mechanics: Theoretical and practical science that deals with the properties and
mechanical performance of rocks.

Rock Quality Designation (RQD): Quality classification of a rock mass proposed by

Deere based on the state of the drilling cores with diameter Nx. Numerically the RQD is
defined as the percentage ratio of a) the sum of the lengths of the pieces of cores
larger than 10 cm to b) the total length of the perforated section.

Rotary drilling: A technique that is practiced when advancing in the field a drill that
rotates on its axis while applying a pressure on it.

Safety factor: 1. Numerical relation between a) the ultimate strength of a material, b)

the admissible stress. 2. Numerical relation between a) the theoretical support capacity,
b) the allowable support capacity, or, alternatively, the contact stress. 3. On hillsides
stability, numerical relation between, a) the resistant forces or moments, and b) the
forces or moments of a soil mass.

Sample unaltered: Soil sample whose structure has not been modified by manipulation
through the sampling process and transport to the laboratory to perform special tests
and determine the mechanical properties of the stratum studied.

Sample: Portion of material that is taken to determine the characteristics or properties

of a part or of its totality. Soil or rock material taken for study in a soil mechanics
laboratory.

Schistosity: Property of certain rocks and soils, shales or slates, which leads them to
organize themselves into sheets or surfaces parallel to each other. It is linked to the

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micro structure of the material, because in certain configurations the presence of a

perpendicular force allows the reorientation of minerals that comprise it.

Scouring: Erosion of the land caused by the movement of water.

Seismicity: Degree of frequency or intensity of earthquakes that occurs in a certain

area.

Soil mechanics: Application of the principles of mechanics and hydraulics to

engineering problems that deal with the nature and behavior of soils, sediments and
other accumulations of solid particles. Detailed and systematic study of the physical
properties and the use of soils, especially in relation to road engineering, foundations,
with the study of problems related to the stability of slopes and slopes.

Stability factor: A dimensionless factor, used in the analysis of slope stability, defined by
Terzaghi, 1962 with the following equation: Ns = Hc γe/c, where, c = soil cohesion, Hc =
critical height of the slope and γe = submerged unit weight of the soil.

Standard penetration test: Soil exploration method that consists of driving a

penetrometer by hitting a pile driver, where the number of strokes is the main
parameter to calculate the shear stress of the soils studied.

Stereographic projection: Two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional

directions used in the solution of structural problems and in the stability analysis of rock
slopes. In it the lines are represented by points that indicate their direction and the
planes by maximum circles, or by points that represent the lines perpendicular to the
planes. There are two types of network for stereographic representations; Wulf and
Schmidt or Lambert. The first is used if you want to maintain the angular relations and
the second if you want to maintain the relation of areas.

Stratigraphy: It defines the description of the component layers of the subsoil, its depth,
thickness and some of its properties.

Stress: Force per unit area on which the force is applied. The stresses can be normal,
sharp or torsional.

Syncline lying down: It is a fold of the Earth's crust that presents the most recent strata in
its nucleus with the axial plane with an angle in relation to the vertical axis.

Syncline: It is a fold of the earth's crust that presents the most recent strata in its nucleus.
It is formed by the tectonic effects of terrestrial dynamics.

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Tilted anticline: It is a fold of the earth's crust that has the oldest layers in its core with the
axial plane with an angle in relation to the vertical axis.

Tilting (in Spanish: basculamiento): Inclination of a geological block, in the manner of a

scale or balance. Along with the folding, it is responsible for the inclination of the strata.

Varnes: It refers to hillside landslides based on the classification made by (Varnes, 1978)
which includes: movements of a rock mass, soil or debris, of a hillside in a downward
direction. Any type of mass movement is included, but erosion, subsidence and karstic
subsidence are excluded.

Water Table: Height at which water is found in a hole; position of the upper surface of
the water in an aquifer. In free aquifers, the water Table coincides with the piezometric
level.

Weathering: Process of disintegration and decomposition of a material because of its

exposure to the atmosphere, the action of chemical agents, water and temperature
changes.

GLOSSARY 255
7. REFERENCE SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

CA-01, La Cantera, Colón, La Libertad, El Salvador

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PRIMARY SOURCES OF CONSULTATION.

Composed by engineer members of the Regional Technical Group (GTR) of the Central
American countries:

List of primary sources of national consultation.

Country GTR member Institution
Panamá Porfirio Rangel Moreno Ministry of Public Works (MOP)
Costa Rica Antonio José Romero Castro Ministry of Public Works and Transportation
(MOPT)
Nicaragua Marco Antonio Perez Lara Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure (MTI)
Honduras Hugo Fernando Martinez Silva Ministry of Infrastructure and Public Services
(INSEP)
El Salvador Mónica Patricia Gutiérrez de Guevara Ministry of Public Works, Transportation and
Housing (MOP)
Guatemala Juan Carlos Galindo General Directorate of Roads. (MCIV)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Jiménez Salas, J. A. / Justo Alpañes, J. Geotecnia y cimientos I; propiedades de los
suelos y de las rocas. Rueda Editorial, 1975.

2. Jiménez Salas, J. A. J. L. de Justo Alpañes, A. A. Serrano Gonzalez. Geotecnia y

cimientos II; Mecánica del suelo y de las rocas; 2da. Rueda Editorial 1981.

3. Jiménez Salas, J. A. Geotecnia y cimientos III; Cimentaciones, excavaciones y

aplicaciones de la geotecnia; Primera parte; Rueda Editorial 1980.

4. Jiménez Salas, J. A. Geotecnia y cimientos III; Cimentaciones, excavaciones y

aplicaciones de la geotecnia; Rueda Editorial 1980.

5. González de Vallejo, Luis. I. Ingeniería geológica; impreso 2002.

6. Suárez Díaz, J. Deslizamientos y estabilidad de taludes en zonas tropicales. Instituto de

investigación sobre erosión y deslizamientos 1998.

7. Suarez, J. Deslizamientos, análisis geotécnico. Edición 2009.

8. Deslizamientos, técnicas de remediación: Jaime Suarez, 2009.

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para la infraestructura vial en Centroamérica. Edición 2,016.

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deslizamientos.pdf
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25. Martínez, Luis Fernando (1995), aplicaciones civiles del GPS. Documento de internet
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&isAllowed=y

26. BOLFOR; ETSFOR. 1999. Cartografía y Uso de la Tecnología GPS. Edición: Ramiro
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27. International Society for Rock Mechanics, ISMR, 1981.

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estabilidad-de-taludes-en-zonas-tropicales-jaime-suarez.html?download=142:191-12-
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bioingeniera-compilado-de-varios-autores-por-miriam-downs-cooperacion-suiza.html

31. Ministerio de Transporte de la República de Colombia (2006). Manual para la

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tecnicos/manuales-de-inspeccion-de-obras/973-manual-para-la-inspeccion-visual-de-
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34. Marcoah (2016). Contenido de un estudio geotécnico. Documento de internet

disponible en: https://marcoah.com.ve/2016/01/contenido-de-un-informe-geotecnico/

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37. Junta Técnica de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, 2014. Reglamento Estructural de Panamá,

REP.
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40. Asociación Salvadoreña de Ingenieros y Arquitectos, (asia) 1997. Norma técnica para
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seguridad estructural de edificaciones y obras de infraestructura para la República de
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42. Junta Técnica de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, 2014. Reglamento estructural de Panamá,

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Construcción, CHOC.

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45. Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres (CENAPRED): Diagnóstico de Peligros e

Identificación de Riesgos de Desastres en México. México. ISBN: 970-628-593-8. Versión
Electrónica 2014

46. Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres (CENAPRED): Guía básica para la

elaboración de atlas estatales y municipales de peligros y riesgos, serie nacional de
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47. Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL): El impacto de los
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nacionales de caso. CEPAL. LC/MEX/L.694. 2005

48. Oficina de las Naciones Unidas para Reducción de Riesgo de Desastres (UNISDR):
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internacional para la reducción de desastre de las Naciones Unidas. Ginebra, Suiza. .
2009.

49. Solheim, A & Bhasin, Rajinder & Blasio, F & Blikra, Lars & Boyle, S & Braathen, A & Dehls,
John & Elverhøi, Anders & Etzelmüller, Bernd & Glimsdal, Sylfest & Harbitz, Carl &
Heyerdahl, Håkon & Hoydal, Oyvind & Iwe, H & Karlsrud, Kjell & Lacasse, Suzanne &
Lecomte, Isabelle & Lindholm, C & Longva, Oddvar & M. Strout, J. (2005). International
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50. Vargas, Jorge Enrique. Políticas públicas para la reducción de la vulnerabilidad frente
a los desastres naturales y socio-naturales. Autor institucional: División de Medio
Ambiente y Asentamientos Humanos LC/L.1723-P ISBN: 9213220138 79 p. Editorial:
CEPAL abril 2002, chile.

51. Estadísticas de registros 2006. Cronología de sismos destructivos de El Salvador.

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52. Manual de Obras de Protección de Taludes” del Proyecto GENSAI, Ministerio de Obras
Públicas, Transporte y Vivienda y Desarrollo Humano de El Salvador, 2018. Modificado
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movimientos de tierra en caminos y estabilidad de taludes. Código ISBN 978-4-89950-
415-6

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8. ANNEXES

Guadalupe, San Vicente, El Salvador

 MANUAL DE CONSIDERACIONES GEOTÉCNICAS Y SÍSMICAS PARA LA INFRAESTRUCTURA VIAL CENTROAMERICANA

APPENDIX
APPENDIX I

Road Geohazard Management Tool, HGGeoA

According to the "GeoHMT Road Geohazards Management Tool Operation Manual",

this tool allows road management planners to analyze and evaluate road geological
geohazard risk and thus promote and carry out efficient investments in the risk
reduction of road geohazards. GeoHMT has been developed as an Excel-based tool to
facilitate its use by any road planner.

This tool can be downloaded from the website of the Ministry of Public Works, Transport,
Housing and Urban Development (www.mop.gob.sv) by entering the Department of
Adaptation to Climate Change and Strategic Risk Management (DACGER) to then
search in the technical reports download center the name “GeoMT - Road Geohazards
Management Tool” and proceed to download, the tool has its version in Spanish and
English.

GeoMT is a road geohazard management tool that targets geohazard road events,
both seismic and non-seismic. Non-seismic geohazard events on the road occur mainly
or are induced by heavy rains or events that occur independently of earthquakes or
storms. In this tool, the geohazards are classified according to a mass of rocks, soil
(debris or earth) and water. In most cases, the material is a mixture of these, such as the
mixture of soil and water. The types of movement of geohazards are classified as i) fall
or collapse, ii) erosion, iii) landslide, and iv) flow or flood.

The GeoMT, evaluates the probability of occurrence of a geo-hazard event on the

road, the potential loss of an event, the risk of potential annual loss of a risk-prone road
location, the benefits of an investment in the risk reduction of road geohazard and
cost-benefit indicators such as the net present value of the risk reduction investment.
From these, we can determine the most efficient plan for a road location prone to
geohazards risks, to reduce road geohazard risks and prioritize projects, using this tool.

The types of location to which GeoHMD should be applied are:

• Road location with mountainside slope (M) (falling risk, collapsing or landslide of
mountainside slope);
• Location road with valley side slope (V) (collapse risk, landslide or erosion of the
road foundations);
• Road location with stream crosses (S) (with geohazards risks of type flow such as
flash flood and debris flow); and

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• Road bridge (B) (with failure risk of the bridge superstructure or foundation).
• For the road location with stream crossings and bridge structures, it is required
that both evaluation groups be carried out for the road location with stream
crossings (S) and bridges (B).

Figure 1. Type of Road Location for Geohazard Management

In the case of a bridge, its risls are evaluated separately for each part of it:

i) Bridge piers,
ii) Abutment on the origin side,
iii) Abutment on the destination side y
iv) Bridge Superstructure

These are added to calculate the total risk of a bridge.

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The GeoMT is a set of files developed in Excel sheets, therefore, it is necessary to have
Microsoft Excel, because the files are in "xlsx" format and facilitates the manipulation of
data. GeoMT consists of eleven (11) worksheets which are explained in the “GeoMT
Road Geohazard Management Tool Operation Manual”.

N°. Worksheet N°. Purpose of Uses.

1 Spreadsheet 1-M Estimation of the probability of occurrence of geo-hazard
events, for a road location with Mountainside Slope.

2 Spreadsheet 1-V Estimation of the Probability of Occurrence of Geo-Hazard

Events for a Road Location with Valley-side Slope.

3 Spreadsheet 1-S Estimation of the Probability of Occurrence of Geo-Hazard

Events for a highway location with a Flow or Stream Crossing.

4 Spreadsheet 1-BP Estimation of the Probability of Occurrence of Damage Events

in Bridge (Bridge Pillars)

5 Spreadsheet 1-BA (O) Estimation of the Probability of Occurrence of Bridge Damage

Events (Bridge Abutment on the Origin Side)

6 Spreadsheet 1-BA (D) Estimation of the Probability of Occurrence of Bridge Damage

Events (Bridge Abutment on the Destination Side).

7 Spreadsheet 1-BS Estimation of the Probability of Occurrence of Bridge Damage

Events (Bridge superstructure)

8 Spreadsheet 2 Estimate of Monetary Losses due to road Geohazard events.

9 Spreadsheet 3-SS Estimation of Annual Economic Loss and Benefit of the Risk
Reduction for a Current Slope or Stream Crossing with Hazard
Potential.
10 Spreadsheet 3-BR Estimation of the Annual Economic Loss and Benefit of the Risk
Reduction for a Bridge with Hazard Potential.
11 Spreadsheet 4 Cost-Benefit Analysis for a Location at Risk.

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Table 1 shows each set of worksheets required by each type of location since it may
not require the eight (8) spreadsheets, for example, if the selected road location is in a
location with mountainside slope, the Worksheets 1-M, 2, 3-SS and 4 are necessary.

Table 1. Worksheets required for each type of location

Worksheet Mountainside Valley-side Stream Bridge
Slope Slope Crossing
1-M Yes
1-V Yes
1-S Yes Yes
1-BP Yes
1-BA(O) Yes
1-BA(D) Yes
1-BS Yes
2 Yes Yes Yes Yes
3-SS Yes Yes Yes
3-BR Yes
4 Yes Yes Yes Yes

Regarding a bridge, users should know that Spreadsheet 1-B is divided into three
worksheets of 1-BP, 1-BA (divided into 1-BA (O) and 1-BA (D)), and 1-BS. Worksheets 1-
BP, 1-BAs and 1-4S are for "group of pillars", "abutment" and "superstructure"
respectively. Two worksheets 1-BA should be prepared because a bridge has two
abutments.

Spreadsheet 1-M Estimation of the Probability of Occurrence of Geohazard Events, for a

Road Location with Mountainside Slope, and Spreadsheet 1-V Estimation of the
Probability of Occurrence of Geohazard Events for a Road Location with Valley-side
Slope are showed as follows.

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Worksheet 1-M: Rating Checklists for Probability for Geohazard damages

for a road location with mountainside slope GeoMT
Users are allowed to enter data into white cells only.
Date of Data Entry (MM/DD/YYYY) MM DD 2017
I. General Data
[I-1] Location ID
[I-2] Road Name
[I-3] Station Origin
[I-4] Station Destination:
[I-5] Extension along the road: E m
[I-6] Number of road lanes
[I-7] Total road width (m) m
[I-8] Widths of road elements from the mountain-side (m)
a) Mountain-side strip m
b) 1st lane m
c) Center divider between 1st and 2nd lanes m
d) 2nd lane m
e) Center divider between 2nd and 3rd lanes m
f) 3rd lane m
g) Center divider between 3rd and 4th lanes m
h) 4th lane m
i) Center divider between 4th and 5th lanes m
j) 5th lane m
k) The other lanes and center dividers m
l) Valley-side strip m
II. Observations

III. Location Data

Latitude and Longitude Deg. Min. Sec.
a) Latitude 0
b) Longitude 0
c) Elevation m
IV. Historical road damage events due to geohazards (Three Latest Events)
a-1) Geohazard movement/material type
b-1) Date of event (MM/DD/YYYY) MM DD
c-1) Historical occurrence frequency period in years of a specific extent of a road damage event (unit: years) Years
d-1) Description
a-2) Geohazard movement/material type
b-2) Date of event (MM/DD/YYYY) MM DD
c-2) Historical occurrence frequency period in years of a specific extent of a road damage event (unit: years) Years
d-2) Description
a-3) Geohazard movement/material type
b-3) Date of event (MM/DD/YYYY) MM DD
c-3) Historical occurrence frequency period in years of a specific extent of a road damage event (unit: years) Years
d-3) Description
Safety degree of probability
V. Rating of safety degree of probability (SDP) in years (SDP) in years Critical PGA
Non-seismic damage level of seismic
One- Tow- damage in
Roadside gal
Checklist items Categories lane lanes
damage
closure closure
[V-1] Extension (Length) of the hazardous location: E a) E ≥300 m 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-2] Angle of the mountain-side slope up to the point of the inclination change: AS a) AS ≥ 60° 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-3] Height of the whole mountain-side slope: WH a) WH ≥ 200 m 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-4] Height of the mountain-side slope up to the point of the inclination change: H a) H ≥ 90 m 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-5] Offset from the toe of the mountain-side slope to the nearest vehicle lane: D b) 4 m > D ≥ 2 m 0.1 0.3 0.4 7.9
[V-6] Type of the mountain-side slope up to the point of the inclination change a) Valley type 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-7] Dominant material of the mountain-side slope surface c) Gravels 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3
[V-8] Dominant geology of the mountain-side slope f) Quaternary: Volcanic rock (Lava) 0.0 0.0 0.1 2.0
b) The discontinuity extends vertically in the
[V-9] Geometry of the dominant discontinuity against the mountain-side slope surface 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5
slope.
[V-10] Spring (groundwater) condition of the mountain-side slope b) Spring water is recognized seasonally. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5
[V-11] Surface water of the mountain-side slope b) Surface water is recognized seasonally. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5
b) Sparse vegetation: vegetation covers 20%
[V-12] Dominant vegetation of the mountain-side slope 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5
or less of the slope.
[V-13] Type of the mountain-side slope up to the point of the inclination change b) Engineered slope of cutting 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5
[V-14] Soil covers the impervious bedrock of the mountain-side slope. a) Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-15] A hard rock layer lies on a soft rock layer a) Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-16] Slope protection c) There is no slope protection. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-17] Frequency of rockfalls by the slope a) Once a year 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-18] Distresses (predictable phenomena to road damages)
a) Minor collapses/falls on the mountain-side slope of the road Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
b) Fallen/inclined trees on the mountain-side slope of the road Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
c) Open-cracks below an overhang on the mountain-side slope of the road Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
d) Open-cracks to cause wedge-shaped slide on the mountain-side slope of the road Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
e) Continuous cracks (more than 5 m long) of the road surface Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
f) Upheaval on the road No 3.1 15.4 31.0 126.0
g) Rill erosion (10-100 cm deep) on the mountain-side slope of the road Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
h) Erosion as trenches or gullies (deeper than 1 meter) Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
i) Over 5-m-long continuous cracks in the slope Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
j) Apparent deformation due to land-sliding Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
k) Open-cracks by toppling Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
l) Open-cracks by sliding Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
m) Depression of the road surface Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
n) Surface erosion (1-10 cm deep) Yes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
o) Subsurface erosion of the slope due to piping. No 3.1 15.4 31.0 126.0
[V-19] Average annual rainfall: AAR a) AAR < 500 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
[V-20] Average annual maximum daily rainfall: AAMDR b) 50≦AAMDR < 100 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.5
[V-21] Average number of months with rainfall (more than 10mm of a month) of a year:
a) ANMR < 2 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
ANMR
[V-22] Rated safety degree of probability (SDP) or critical peak ground acceleration (PGA)
10.6 31.1 62.5 265.6
(when not considering existing measures)
VI. Safety degree of probability (SDP) considering existing measures
[VI-1] Existing measures (specify in the white cells to the right)
[VI-2] Design safety degree of probability (SDP) of existing measures (years)
[VI-3] Design peak ground acceleration (PGA) of exiting measures (gal)
[VI-4] Safety degree of probability (SDP) or critical peak ground acceleration (PGA) considering existing measures 10.6 31.1 62.5 265.6
[VI-5] Safety degree of probability (SDP) considering existing measures for seismic damage 10.6 31.1 62.5 470.0

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Worksheet 1-3: Estimation of Occurrence probability of damage events due to geohazards

in a road location with a stream-crossing GeoMT
Users are allowed to enter data into white cells only.
Date of Data Entry (MM/DD/YYYY) MM DD 2017
I. General Data
[I-1] Location ID
[I-2] Road Name
[I-3] Station Origin
[I-4] Station Destination:
[I-5] Extension along the road: E m
[I-6] Number of road lanes
[I-7] Total road width (m) m
[I-8] Widths of road elements from the mountain-side (m)
a) Mountain-side strip m
b) 1st lane m
c) Center divider between 1st and 2nd lanes m
d) 2nd lane m
e) Center divider between 2nd and 3rd lanes m
f) 3rd lane m
g) Center divider between 3rd and 4th lanes m
h) 4th lane m
i) Center divider between 4th and 5th lanes m
j) 5th lane m
k) The other lanes and center dividers m
l) Valley-side strip m
II. Observations

III. Location Data

Latitude and Longitude Deg. Min. Sec.
a) Latitude 0
b) Longitude 0
c) Elevation m
IV. Historical road damage events due to geohazards (Three Latest Events)
a-1) Geohazard movement/material type
b-1) Date of event (MM/DD/YYYY) MM DD
c-1) Historical occurrence frequency period in years of a specific magnitude of a road damage event (unit: years) Years
d-1) Description
a-2) Geohazard movement/material type
b-2) Date of event (MM/DD/YYYY) MM DD
c-2) Historical occurrence frequency period in years of a specific magnitude of a road damage event (unit: years) Years
d-2) Description
a-3) Geohazard movement/material type
b-3) Date of event (MM/DD/YYYY) MM DD
c-3) Historical occurrence frequency period in years of a specific magnitude of a road damage event (unit: years) Years
d-3) Description
Score of occurrence probability of road damage
V. Rating Checklist of Occurrence Probability in years without Existing Measures Whole width closing Critical Peak Ground
Acceleration (Gal)
[V-1] Width of the stream crossing: W d) 3 m > W 55.1 223.6
[V-2] Angle of the streambed at the road crossing: G d) 10° > G 55.1 223.6
[V-3] Area of the watershed of the stream at the road crossing point: A d) 0.1 km2 > A 55.1 223.6
[V-4] Height from the streambed to the road surface at the stream crossing: H a) H ≥ 5 m 55.1 223.6
[V-5] Dominant material of the upstream bed surface h) Hard intact rock 55.1 223.6
[V-6] Dominant geology of the valley-side slope k) Precambrian 55.1 223.6
[V-7] Dominant vegetation of the valley-side slope d) Intense vegetation: vegetation covers 55.1 223.6
80% and more of the slope.
[V-8] Water flow at the stream crossing d) No water flow is seen. 55.1 223.6
[V-9] Geometry of the streambed at the stream crossing: DEG d) The downstream bed is steeper than 55.1 223.6
the upstream bed: 10° ≤ DEG
[V-10] Plan shape of the stream at the stream crossing section a) Straight 55.1 223.6
[V-11] Slope failures in the drainage area of the stream d) Newly-formed collapses (bare/no 55.1 223.6
vegetation) are not recognized.
[V-12] Timing of the last deposit of volcanic ash f) 160 ≤ Ys 55.1 223.6
[V-13] Timing of the latest pyroclastic flow or volcanic lava flow in the basin (Years ago: Ys) f) 160 ≤ Ys 55.1 223.6
[V-14] Relation: Aa/Da
Aa 1 m
Da 10 m
θ 6 °
c) atan(Aa/Da)=θ [°]: θ < 3° 55.1 223.6
[V-15] Relation: Ab/Db
Ab 1 m
Db 5 m
α 11 °
c) atan(Ab/Db)=θ [°]: α < 3° 55.1 223.6
[V-16] Abnormalities (predictable phenomena to road damages)
At least one past debris flow deposit/trace is recognized on the road Yes 0.0 0.1
At least one past flood or debris flow event is recognized on the road Yes 0.0 0.1
Debris of trees is seen in the channel. Yes 0.0 0.1
[V-17] Average annual rainfall: AAR a) AAR < 500 1.0 0.0
[V-18] Average annual maximum daily rainfall: AAMDR a) AAMDR < 50 1.0 0.0
[V-19] Average number of months with rainfall (more than 10mm of a month) of a year: ANMR a) ANMR < 2 1.0 0.0
[V-20] Occurrence probability of Whole width closing (years)
(when not considering existing measures) 829.9
[V-21] Critical horizontal peak ground acceleration (CPGA: gal) 3353.5
VI. Occurrence Probability considering Existing Measures
[VI-1] Existing measures, specify in the white cells to the right
[VI-2] Effect of existing measures to the occurrence probability (years): 20
[VI-3] Design P.G.A. of Exiting Structural Measures (gal) 10
[VI-4] Occurrence probability of
W.W.C. (years) 829.9
(when considering existing measures)
[VI-5] Horizontal peak ground acceleration by considering the effect of engineering improvement measures (gal) 3353.52
[VI-6] Occurrence probability of the critical horizontal peak ground acceleration (years)

APPENDIX 272