Sensors and Transducers

Definition of Sensors
A sensor or transducer is a device that gives usable output (preferably, an electrical quantity) in
response to a specified measurand (physical quantity such as light, sound, temperature…etc)
Daily life examples of sensors include microphones, thermometer, accelerometers, infrared
sensors, speakers…etc
Sensor produces a usable output in response to a specified quantity. it uses sensing principle, that
is it senses or detects a physical phenomenon.
A transducer converts one form of energy to another form. The process of conversion of energy
from one form to another is called transduction.
Not all sensors are transducers, but all transducers contain sensors. Sensing is the first stage of
transduction.
Principle of transduction
The input/output signals (in the form of energy) in a sensor can be divided into six. They are,
1. Mechanical
2. Thermal
3. Electrical
4. Magnetic
5. Radiant
6. Chemical
Some of the physical and chemical transduction principles can be grouped according to the form
of energy in which signals are received and generated.
Mechanical input signal
Triggered by a mechanical force like stress or a push/pull
• May cause change in temperature (Friction effect, cooling effects)
• May cause change in magnetic intensity (Piezomagnetic effect)
• May cause change in electricity (piezoelectric effect, resistive, capacitive and inductive
changes)
• May cause change in radiant energy (Photoelasticity, Doppler effect)
Thermal input signal
• May cause change in mechanical energy (Thermal expansion)
• May cause change in electricity (Seebeck effect, thermoresistance)
• May cause change in radiant energy (Thermo optical effects)
• May cause change chemical reaction (Thermal dissociation)
Electrical input signal
• May cause change in mechanical energy (Electrokinetic effects)
• May cause change in temperature (Peltier effect)
• May cause change in electricity (Charge controlled devices)
• May cause change in magnetic intensity (Biot-Savart’s electromagnetic law)
 • May cause change in radiant energy (Kerr effect)
• May cause change chemical reaction (Electrolysis)
Magnetic input signal
• May cause change in mechanical energy (Magnetometers)
• May cause change in temperature (Magnothermal effects)
• May cause change in electricity (Galvanomagnetic effect)
• May cause change in radiant energy (Magneto-optical effect)
Radiant input signal
• May cause change in mechanical energy (Radiation Pressure)
• May cause change in temperature (Bolometer)
• May cause change in electricity (Photoelectric effect)
• May cause change in radiant energy ( Photorefractivity)
• May cause change chemical reaction (Photosynthesis)
Chemical input signal
• May cause change in mechanical energy (Photoacoustic effect)
• May cause change in temperature (Thermal conductivity)
• May cause change in electricity (Potentiometry, conductimetry)
• May cause change in magnetic intensity (Nuclear magnetic resonance)
• May cause change in radiant energy (Spectroscopy)
Some of the measurands corresponding to each energy type are given in the table.

ENERGY MEASURANDS

Mechanical Length, area, volume, force, pressure…etc

Thermal Temperature, heat flow…etc

Electrical Charge, current, voltage, resistance, capacitance…etc

Magnetic Field intensity, flux density, permeability…etc

Radiant Intensity, phase, refractive index, wavelength…etc

Chemical Concentration, reaction rate, pH…etc

Classification of Sensors
Several criteria are adopted for the classification of sensors. Some of these include
• Based on the principle of operation (transduction principle)
• Based on energy requirements
• Based on material and technology used
• Application-based classification
• Property-based classification
Based on transduction principles
The transduction principle is the basic criteria which should be followed for a systematic approach
of classification. This classification is based on the method used in the process of converting
measurand into usable output.
Active/Passive Transducers
Based on the energy requirements of a transducer, they are classified as active transducers and
passive transducers.
Active transducers do not need any external power supply to operate and hence it is also called
self-generating transducers.
Eg: Thermocouple
Transducers which require an external power source to operate is called Passive transducers.
Eg: LVDT
Based on material and technology
Another classification is based on the material and technology that have acquired more
importance lately. The following table shows the emerging sensor technologies with its
applications.

Sensor Image Sensor Motion detectors Bio Sensors Accelerometers

Technology CMOS Based IR, ultrasonic, Electrochemical MEMS based

microwave,radar

Applications Traffic and security Obstruction detection Food testing Patient monitoring
surveillance, Light activation Water testing Vehicle dynamic
Video conferencing, Security detection Medical care device system
Blindspot detection, Toilet activation Biological warfare
Biometrics, agent detection
Consumer-
electronics.

Application based classification

Application based classification of sensors are represented as :
Property based classification
A much more elaborate classification is based on the properties like pressure, displacement,
temperature …etc. It is subdivided in technology scale. Pressure property is used in technologies
such as manometer and piezo electricity. Semiconductors and thermal conductance use gas and
chemical properties.

Characteristics of Sensors
General characteristics of sensors are two, namely
1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic Characteristics
Static Characteristics of Sensors
Static characteristics of sensors describe the performance of a transducer with very slow changes
in the measurand. Static characteristics include accuracy, linearity, precision, sensitivity…etc
Error
Accuracy of a sensor is usually specified by error. it tells you how closely the measured value
matches the true value.
Error is given by

Where t stands for true value, m for measured value and x stands for the measurand.
For multi error systems, the overall error can be assessed either through finding the linear sum of
all errors (E1 + E2 +…+En) or through the root mean square approach where total performance
error can be assessed as,

Precision
Precision describes how close a measured value is to the true value and how far it is reproducible.
Repeatability is the defined as the capability of a sensor to provide the same output repeatedly
when used each time to measure the same input.
Resolution
Resolution is the smallest change in the input that is needed to produce a detectable change in
output. For a detectable output Δy, if the minimum change in x is Δxmin, then the maximum
resolution is

Minimum detectable change

It is the minimum signal level that produces a detectable output in the sensor. If the input signal
doesn’t contain any noise, the minimum detectable output from the sensor is determined by its
noise characteristics. For this, the equivalent noise source is connected to the input of the sensor
to produce an output which is the actual output level of the sensor. The RMS equivalent input
noise is then taken as the minimum detectable change.
Threshold
The threshold is the smallest input change that is needed to produce a detectable output at the
zero-value condition of the measurand.
Sensitivity
It is the ratio of incremental output to incremental input, that is,

If the sensitivity of a sensor varies with ambient conditions like time, temperature, humidity etc
without any change in input level, drift is said to occur in the system.
Selectivity and Specificity
The output of a sensor may change with environmental parameters or other variables. Selectivity
is the ability of a sensor to discriminate the response to input changes from other interfering
quantities.
Nonlinearity
Non-linearity is the deviation of a sensor output value (real value) from its ideal output value. The
maximum nonlinearity is shown in the figure.

Nonlinearity can be specified either by finding deviation from best fit straight line obtained or by
finding the deviation from a straight line joining the endpoints of the scale.
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the difference in the output of the sensor for a given input x when x reaches this
value in upscale direction and downscale direction.
It is caused by the normal hesitance of a material to come back to its original state after having a
physical change. It depends on the hysteresis property of the sensor.
Output Impedance
Impedance is a measure of the overall opposition of a circuit to the current. The output impedance
of a transducer specifies the impedance across its output terminals.
Isolation and grounding
Isolation eliminates or at least reduces the undesirable coupling in the system. Grounding
establishes a common node among different parts of the system with respect to which potential
of any point in the system remains constant.
Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors
Dynamic characteristics of a sensor tell us how fast a transducer responds to the changes in input.
Transfer function
The transfer function is a measure of the magnitude of the input signal and the magnitude of the
output signal.
Frequency response
It is the relationship between the frequency of the input signal and the magnitude of the output
signal.
Impulse response
The output of a sensor for a brief input signal, called an impulse, is called impulse response.
Requirements of a Sensor
The basic requirements of a sensor are
1. Accuracy: It is the level of exactness between the measured value and the true value.
 2. Hysteresis: It is the difference in the output of the sensor for a given input x when x
reaches this value in upscale direction and downscale direction.
3. Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of non-linearity. Non-linearity is the
deviation of a sensor output value (real value) from its ideal output value.
4. Range: It shows the minimum and maximum limits in which the input can vary.
5. Repeatability: Repeatability is the capacity of a sensor to deliver the same output for
various applications without changing the input value.
6. Response Time: It shows how fast the output changes on a stepwise change in input.
7. Ruggedness: It shows how durable a sensor is when operated under extreme conditions.
8. Sensitivity: It is the ratio of incremental output to incremental input

Resistance Transducers: Basic Principle, Advantages, Disadvantages and Examples

Resistance transducer is one of the simplest and important groups of transducers. These are
transducers whose electrical resistance is varied in accordance with the input quantity
(measurand). Quantities like displacement, acceleration, force, pressure, temperature etc. can be
transduced using this type of transducers.
Basic Principle of Resistance Transducer
The basic principle of a resistance transducer is very simple.
Resistance of a conducting wire is given by

Where s is the resistivity of the material of the wire, l is the length of the wire and A is the area of
cross-section.
Any measurand which varies any of these quantities like s, l or a, will result in a change in
resistance of the wire. These change in resistance can be converted to a change in voltage by an
electrical circuitry and thus a transducer is obtained.
Advantages
The advantages of using a resistance transducer are,
• Quick response
• Low cost
• Suitable for both AC and DC
• Available in different sizes
• Easy operation
Disadvantages
• Sliding contact can exhaust and may create noise in the output
• Huge power is necessary for many sliders.
Examples
• Potentiometer: The resistance is varied with the variation in their length and hence is used
for measurement of displacement
• Strain gauge: Resistance is changed when applying strain and this property is used for
measuring pressure, force etc.
• Thermistors (Resistance thermometers): Resistance changes with change in temperature
and is used as thermometers.

Potentiometer and Loading effect on potentiometer

A potentiometer is a device where a resistive wire is wound on an insulating core provided with a
sliding contact. It can be excited with a DC or AC voltage source. The slider movement can be
translational (straight) rotational or a combination of both.
Schematic diagram of a resistive potentiometer is shown in figure.

Here, Xt is the total length between two endpoints and the resistance between these two
endpoints are always constant. The resistance between sliding point and endpoint will change
with respect to the input displacement X0.
If V is the excitation voltage, then the output voltage V0 can be expressed as

If the total resistance is Rt and the resistance between sliding point and the endpoint is R 0 then by
voltage dividing rule V0 can be expressed as

It is clear that the output voltage in the potentiometer is proportional to the displacement.
Loading effect on Potentiometer
The output of a potentiometer is generally connected to an amplifier or a meter(measuring
device). The input impedance of this connected device acts as a load of the potentiometer and it
will affect the current between the sliding contact and the end terminal. This situation is called the
loading effect on a potentiometer.
If the input resistance of the connected meter is Rm, and the resistance between sliding point and
the endpoint is R0 then the total effective resistance is given by

The effective voltage after connecting the load is

The error occured by connecting the load is

Resistance strain gauge: Principle and Types

A Strain gauge(resistance strain gauge) is an important type of resistance transducer whose
resistance varies with applied force. It can be used to convert force, pressure, tension into a
change in electrical resistance. The applied strain can be measured by this change in resistance.
Basic Principle
We know that the resistance of a conductor is given by

Where ρ is the specific resistivity, L is the length and a is the area of cross-section of the resistance
material.
When this material is under a strain, the resistance R will change because of the change in L, a or
ρ.
Gauge factor
The gauge factor of a strain gauge is defined as the unit resistance change per unit strain. The
resistance change is due to the change in length, the change in the area of cross-section and the
change in resistivity(piezoelectric change). The sensitivity of a strain gauge is expressed in the
gauge factor.
The strain that is applied to the gauge can be determined by the gauge factor and by the measure
of the resistance change.
Gauge factors of different gauge materials are given in the table.
GRID MATERIAL COMPOSITION GF

Nichrome 80% Ni, 20% Cr +2.0

Constantan 45% Ni, 55% Cu +2.0

Isoelastic 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 0.5% Mo, remaining Mn, Fe and Si +3.5

Iridium-Platinum 5% Ir, 95% Pt +5.10

Types of Strain gauges

Based on the construction method used strain gauges are classified as
1. Unbonded type
2. Bonded type
Based on the type of resistance material strain gauges can be classified into
• Fine wire strain gauge
• Metal foil strain gauge
• Semiconductor strain gauge.
• Photo-electric strain gauge
Unbonded type Strain gauge
A strain gauge which is not directly bonded on the surface under study is called an unbonded type
strain gauge. It has two frames P and Q with fixed insulated pins as shown in the figure. These two
frames are held together by a string loaded mechanism and they can move relatively with respect
to each other. A fine wire is stretched around the insulated pins. To measure the strain, the gauge
is connected to a Wheatstone bridge.
When a force is applied on the frames, frame P moves relative to frame Q, and the length and area
of cross-section of gauge will change, due to this strain. This strain changes the resistance of strain
gauge and this change in resistance is measured using a Wheatstone bridge. It can be analysed to
measure the applied force and change in dimension of the structure under study.
Bonded type Strain gauge
These strain gauges are directly bonded on the surface of the structure under study.

A fine resistance wire is made into a form of a grid and is cemented between the carrier.
Resistance wire with a high gauge factor is chosen. The wire is spread so that the stress is
uniformly distributed over the grid.
The carrier material should have high mechanical strength and good adherence to cement used.
For this purpose, a thin sheet of paper, Bakelite, Teflon sheet are commonly used. it is covered on
top with a thin sheet of material and this prevents the wire from any mechanical damage.
The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material and due to this, a good transfer of strain from
carrier to a grid of wires is achieved.
Fine wire strain gauge
A fine wire strain gauge is a type of bonded strain gauge. Resistive wire is bent like a string and is
packed in a plastic or paper bag. When a force is applied, the wires change in dimension and the
resistance is also changed. These change in resistance is analysed to measure the applied force.
Metal components like Nichrome, Constantan are used as resistance materials.
Fine wire gauges have high accuracy and high reliability but it is costly.
Metal foil strain gauge
A metal foil strain gauge is constructed by printing a resistive metal foil on a nonelectrical base
material such as PCB. When a force is applied, the gauge will undergo a change in both length and
area of cross-section resulting in the change in resistance.
Advantages
• Perfect binding is possible with the structure under study.
• Can be manufactured in any shape.
• Good sensitivity and stability even in high temperature.
• Long life.
Semiconductor strain gauge
Semiconductor strain gauges make use of the piezoelectric property of the semiconductors such
as silicon and germanium. It is used where a high gauge factor is required. It is constructed by
bonding semiconductor filaments to a suitable insulating surface. They are very sensitive to
temperature changes. But increasing doping decreases sensitivity towards temperature as well.
For electrical contact, Gold leads are usually used.

When the strain is applied, the filament undergoes a large change in resistance and this change in
resistance can be analysed to measure the strain applied.
Advantages
• High gauge factor.
• Can be used for measuring small strains.
• Long life and high durability.
Disadvantages
• Sensitive to change in temperature.
• Difficult to attach with the structure.
• Costly.
Photo electric strain gauge
A photoelectric strain gauge generates an electric current which is proportional to the applied
strain by using a photocell detector, two fine gratings and a light beam. This type of strain gauges
is not commonly used. They are delicate and expensive.
Inductive Transducer Working Principle
An inductive transducer works on the basic principle of change in inductance due to any change in
the measurand. A change in measurand changes the flux and this change in flux changes the
inductance. This change in inductance can be calibrated in terms of measurand.
Inductive transducers work on one of the following principles
• Change of self-inductance
• Change of mutual inductance
• Production of eddy current
Change of self-inductance
The self-inductance of a coil is given by

Where N is the number of turns and R is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Also, the reluctance R is given by,

Then,

Where μ is the effective permeability of the medium, l is the length of the coil and A is the cross-
sectional area of the coil.
Let G=A/l, known as geometric form factor. Therefore

That is, the self-inductance can be changed by a variation in N, G or μ. If some physical quantity is
able to change any of these parameters, then that quantity can be directly measured in terms of
inductance.
Change of mutual inductance
Mutually coupled multiple coils are used in this principle. The mutual inductance can be then
changed by varying the self-inductance of the coils.
Let’s take two coils and suppose their self-inductance are L1 and L2. Then mutual inductance
between these two coils is given by,

Where K is the coefficient of coupling.

It is clear that the mutual inductance can be changed if the self-inductance of the coils or the
coefficient of coupling is varied. The coefficient of coupling depends on distance, separation and
orientation between these two coils.
To measure displacement, one coil is fixed and the other coil is connected to the moving object.
The coefficient of coupling changes with varying distance and hence the mutual inductance also
changes. This change in mutual inductance can be calibrated in terms of displacement.
Production of Eddy current
When a coil is placed near to a coil carrying alternating current (AC), a circulating current
called Eddy current is induced in the coil. This circulating current produces its own flux and tries to
reduce the flux of the coil carrying the current which in turn changes the inductance of the coil.
When the coils are nearer, the eddy current produced is higher and the reduction in inductance
also increases. So, inductance can be varied by a variation of distance between two coils.
 LVDT – Linear Variable Differential Transformer
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is a passive transducer, that works on the principle
of mutual induction and can be used to measure displacement, pressure, and force.
Construction of LVDT
LVDT consists of one primary coil and two secondary coils wounded on a cylindrical core. The core
is made up of a ferromagnetic material such as iron core and is freely movable inside the coil and
this movement measures the physical quantity.

The primary winding is connected to an AC source. The two secondary winding S 1 and S2 have an
equal number of turns and are set up in series opposition. So, the e.m.f induced in these windings
are 180° out of phase with each other and thus the net effect is cancelled.
Operation of LVDT
When an alternating voltage input is given in the primary winding, an alternating emf is induced in
the secondary winding(S1 and S2).
Suppose V1 is the voltage induced across S1 and V2 is the voltage induced across S2. The overall
output voltage across the secondary winding(V0) is the difference between V1 and V2.
So, the differential output is

The value of V0 depends on the position of the core. Three possible cases are illustrated in the
following figure.
When the core is positioned at the centre (Case 1), voltages induced across winding S1 and S2 are
equal(but in reverse-phase). Then, the resultant voltage V0=0. In this case, we say there is no
displacement.
If the core is displaced from the central position to more in S1(Case 2), then more emf generated in
coil S1. That is V1>V2.
Similarly, if the core is displaced from the central position to more in S2(Case 3), then more emf
generated in coil S2. That is V2>V1.
In case 2, we have upward displacement and in case 3, we have downward displacement. In both
cases, the magnitude of V0 will be proportional to the position of the core relative to the centre.
The input output curve of a LVDT is shown in the figure.

Advantages of LVDT
• No physical contact between the core and the coils.
• Easy to modify.
• High accuracy.
• Fast response.
• Long operating life.
 RVDT – Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer) is a passive transducer, that works on the
principle of mutual induction. It is used to measure the angular displacement. The design of RVDT
is similar to LVDT, except for the design of the core.
Construction of RVDT
RVDT consists of one primary coil and two secondary coils wounded on a cylindrical core. RVDT
uses a cam-type core made up of a ferromagnetic material and it can be twisted among the two
windings using the shaft.

The primary winding is connected to an AC source. The two secondary windings S 1 and S2 have an
equal number of turns and are set up in series opposition.
Operation of RVDT
The working of RVDT is same as LVDT. When an alternating voltage is applied in the primary
windings of an RVDT, an emf is induced in the secondary windings.
Suppose V1 is the voltage induced across coil S1 and V2 is the voltage induced across S2. The overall
output voltage across the secondary winding(V0) is the difference between V1 and V2.
So, the differential output is

Based on the movement of the shaft, following three conditions will be occurred.
• When the core is in the centre position. (NULL Position)
• When the core rotates in a clockwise direction.
• When the core rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.
When the core is placed at the centre position, voltages induced across secondary windings are
equal although reversed in phase. That is V1=V2. Then, the resultant voltage V0=0.
When the shaft is rotated in the clockwise direction, then more emf is generated in coil S1. That is
V1>V2. Here V0 will have a positive value.
Similarly, anti-clockwise rotation of shaft leads to increase in voltage V1. That is V2>V1. Here V0 will
have a negative value.
Advantages of RVDT
• Durable.
• Low cost.
• Easy to handle.
• High accuracy.
• Long life.
• Excellent linearity.
Application of RVDT
• Robotics.
• Modern machine tools.
• The fuel control system of engines.
• Fuel valve as well as hydraulics.

Capacitive Transducers: Construction, Working principle and Advantages

A capacitive transducer is a passive transducer that works on the principle of variable
capacitances. It is used to measure physical quantities such as displacement, pressure, etc.
Construction of capacitive transducer
A capacitive transducer contains two conducting parallel metal plates separated by a dielectric
medium.

Working Principle of capacitive transducer

The capacitance between these two plates can be expressed as

Where ϵ is the permittivity of the medium, A is the area of the plates and d is the distance
between two plates.
The capacitance of the transducer is measured using the bridge circuit. The output impedance of
the transducer is given by

Where C is the capacitance and f is the frequency of excitation. So, a capacitive transducer can be
used to measure the mechanical vibrations.
The capacitance between two plates can be varied by any of the following methods.
• By changing the distance between two plates (d)
• By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium (ϵ)
• By changing the area of overlapping of plates (A)
By changing the distance between two plates
The capacitance can be varied by changing the distance between two plates. From the equation
for C, we can observe that C and d are inversely proportional to each other. That is, the
capacitance value will decrease with increasing distance and vice-versa. This principle can be used
in a transducer by making the left plate fixed and the right plate movable by the displacement that
is to be measured as shown in the figure.

The change in distance between two plates will vary the capacitance of the transducer. Change in
capacitance can be calibrated in terms of the measurand. These types of transducers are used to
measure extremely small displacements.
The distance capacitance curve is shown in the figure.
By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium
Another method to change the capacitance value is by changing the permittivity of the dielectric
material (ϵ). The permittivity and capacitance value are directly proportional to each other.

In this arrangement, a dielectric material is filled into the space between the two fixed plates. It
can be moved using the arm. This causes a variation in dielectric constant in the region. The
change in dielectric constant will vary the capacitance of the transducer.
By changing the area of overlapping of plates
The capacitance can also be changed by varying the area of overlapping of plates.

As shown in the figure, one plate is kept fixed and the other movable. When the plate is moved,
the area of overlapping of plates changes, and the capacitance also changes. The capacitance
value and area are directly proportional to each other. These types of transducers are used to
measure relatively large displacements.
The distance-capacitance curve is shown in the figure.

Advantages of capacitive transducer

• Sensitivity is high.
• Requires small power to operate.
• Loading effect is low because of high input impedance.
• Good frequency response.