The Fundamentals of Reproduction

The process of reproduction involves the formation of DNA copy and

other cellular apparatus required by the cells of an individual.

DNA is the blueprint of all the basic design of organisms. It is

present in the nucleus of a cell as a condensed structure called
chromosome.

It acts as the information source and helps in making different

proteins and cellular machinery of cell, which makes up the different
body designs.

Variations

DNA copying during cell division always causes some or other type
of variations in newly formed cells. This brings the differences found
in the morphological and physiological features of an organism.

Since no biochemical reaction is absolutely reliable, DNA copies

generated are similar, but not absolutely identical. Variations lead to
evolution by increasing the chances of survival of some individuals.
Hence, important for

Types of Reproduction

Reproduction is mainly of two types, i.e. asexual reproduction and

sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction. It is a rapid mode of multiplication in which

one parent (either male or female) is involved. The new individuals
produced are identical to their parents.

Sexual Reproduction. In this process, the gametes from parents of

opposite sex (male and female) fuse together to fonn a zygote. This
zygote develops further and gives rise to new offspring. The
individual produced by this method exhibits variation.

I. Modes of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs in unicellular organisms fission,

budding, spore formation, fraginentation, regeneration fin animals)
and vegetative propagation (in plants). It oeeurs in multicellular
organisms by budding and regeneration.

These are as follows

(i) Fission. The process where a unicellular organism splits itself

into two or more daughter cells. It is of two types,

(a) Binary Fission In this process, parent cell divides into two
identical daughter cells, e.g. Amoeba, Leishmania.
(ii) Fragmentation The parent body on maturation breaks up into
two or more small fragments, which later grow into a complete new
organi e.g. Spirogyra,

(iii) Regeneration. In this process, all fragments or parts that are

separated from the body develop in new animals, e.g. sponge,
Planaria, Hydra, etc.

(iv) Budding. A daughter organism is formed from a small

projection known as bud. It develops as an outgrowth due to
repeated cell divisions of the parent body. When fully grown, it
detaches to grow into a new independent individual, e.g. Hydra.

(v) Vegetative Propagation. The process of obtaining a complete

plant from any vegetative part of a plant is called vegetative
propagation. This is mainly of two types

(a) Natural Vegetative Propagation The vegetative propagation

that occurs automatically in plants is called natural vegetative
propagation. It can be achieved by root, stem, leaf, etc, e.g.
Bryophyllum.
(b) Artificial Vegetative Propagation The artificially made
vegetative propagules in plants by humans, is called artificial
vegetative reproduction, e.g. cutting, layering, grafting, etc.

Grafting A small part of stem from one plant without roots (scion) is
attached to the part with root (stock) of another plant.

Layering The development of roots on a stem, while the stem is still

attached to the parent plant is called layering.

Tissue culture It is a technique used for growing new plants using

living tissues (like flower buds, stems, growing tips? leaves, etc.) in
vitro in an artificial culture medium.

Using this technique, a large number of plants can be developed

from a single parent.

(vi) Spore Formation It is a type of asexual reproduction where

blob-like structures called sporangia are involved. These cells or
spores have the ability to germinate under favorable conditions
forming new plants, e.g. Rhizopus.
ll. Modes of Sexual Reproduction

In this type of reproduction, both sexes, i.e. male and female are
involved. Sex cell or gatnete of one parent (male) fuses with the sex
cell or gatnete of another parent (fenmle). This results in production
of a new cell called zygote.

Thus. the sexual nmode of reproduction involves two Imior

processes

(i) Formation of gametes by meiosis

(ii) Fusion of gametes

1. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Angiosperms bear the reproductive parts within the flower and

their seeds are enclosed in a fruit, Most plants have both male and
female reproductive organs in the same flower and are known
as bisexual flowers.

While others have either male or female reproductive parts in a

flower known as unisexual flowers.

A flower comprises four main parts, i.e. sepals, petals, stamens and
carpels. Stamens and carpels are the reproductive parts of a flower.

Stamen. It is the male reproductive part of the flower.

Anther It is a bilobed structure containing two pollen sacs present

at the tip of stamen. These produce pollen grains that are yellowish
in color

Carpel (Pistil) It is the female reproductive part, which is present in

the center of the flower. It comprises of three parts

 Stigma It is the terminal part of the carpel which may be

sticky. It helps in receiving the pollen grains during pollination.
 Style It is the middle elongated part of the carpel. It helps in
the attachment of stigma to the ovary.
 Ovary. It is the swollen bottom part of carpel. It contains
ovules having an egg cells (female gamete)
Pollination
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the
stigma of a flower is termed as pollination. The pollen grains can be
transferred by various agents like wind, water, insects and animals.

Pollination usually occurs in two ways

 Self-pollination. The pollen from the stamen of a flower is

transferred to the stigma of the same flower or another flower
of same plant.
 Cross-pollination The pollen from the stamen of a flower is
transferred to the stigma of another flower of different plant of
the same species.
Fertilization
It is the process of fusion of male and female gametes. It gives rise
to a zygote. As soon as the pollen lands on suitable stigma, it
reaches the female germ cells in the ovary. This occurs via pollen
tube.

The pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain, travels through the
style and finally reaches the ovary.

After fertilization, the ovule develops a rough coat around itself and
gets converted to seeds and the ovary ripens as fruit.

The seed contains a future embryo that grows under suitable

conditions (germination). The fertilization in the flowering plant is
shown in the given figure.
2. Sexual reproduction in human being

Human being can reproduce sexually after attaining puberty. It

represents period of adolescence when reproductive organ start
developing and sexual maturity is attained.

Some changes during puberty are common in males and females

such as hair growth in armpit and genitals oily skin, acne etc.

Specific changes in boys include facial hair growth, hoarse voice,

etc. In girls these changes are enlargement of breast size beginning
of menstruation etc.

Human Reproductive System

The system of organs required by males and females for the process
of sexual reproduction is called reproductive system,

Male Reproductive System It includes parts which produce the

germ cells and those, deliver these cells at the site of fertilisation.
Parts and Details of the Male Reproductive System

Testes

 Paired, oval-shaped male sex organs.

 Consist of seminiferous tubules, where the sperms are
produced.
 Produce a male sex hormone called testosterone, which brings
about changes in appearance of boys at puberty
Scrotum

 Small pouch that contains testis.

 Present outside the abdominal cavity. As sperms are formed
here, this requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature.
Vas deferens Tube-like structure which connects testis to the
urethra deferens in order to allow the passage of semen.

Urethra Common passage for both the spertus and urine. It never
carries both of them at the same time.

Prostate gland seminal and Seminal vesicles

 Secretes seminal fluid and nutrients.

 Fluid and nutrients combine with sperm to form semen. Milky
vicious fluid contains Fructose, protein and other chemicals
foundation and stimulating semen.
Penis

 External male genital organ.

 Transfers sperm into the vagina of the female during
copulation.
Sperms

 Tiny and motile bodies that use their long tail to move through
the female reproductive tract.
(ii) Female Reproductive System

It includes internal and external sex organs that function in

reproduction of new offspring. In human, female reproductive
system is immature at birth to maturity at puberty to be able to able
to produce gametes, and carry a fetus.
Parts and Details of the Female Reproductive System

Ovaries

 Paired, oval-shaped organs located in the abdominal cavity

near the kidney.
 Produce thousands of ova or egg cells.
 Secrete female sex hormones like oestrogen and
progesterone.
Oviduct (Fallopian tube)

 It has a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary.

 Carries ova or egg from ovary to the uterus.
 It is the site of fertilization.
 These open into the uterus from both the sides.
Uterus (womb)

 Hollow, pear-shaped, bag-like structure.

 The growth and development of the fetus takes place.
Cervix.

It is the lower and the narrower portion of the uterus which opens
into the vagina.

Vagina. Receives the sperm from the male partner. Serves as a

birth canal.

Fertilization and Post-Fertilisation

Changes
  Fusion of sperm with ovum is called fertilization. It results in
the formation of diploid zygotes. This process takes place in
the oviduct or Fallopian tube. The formation of embryos is the
result of cleavage and growth in zygote.
 The embryo sinks downward, reaches into the soft uterine
lining and gets embedded. This process is known as
implantation.
 A disc-like structure called placenta grows between the
uterine wall and embryo. It has finger-like projections called
villi, which provide surface area for the exchange of nutrients,
oxygen and waste products between the embryo and the
mother.
Childbirth (after a gestation period of approximately 9 months)
occurs by strong rhythmicI contractions of uterine muscles.

Menstruation

In the absence of fertilization, the uterine lining, which is thick and

spongy to receive a fertilized egg, is no longer required. It sheds out
blood and mucus which lasts for about 2-8 days acnl occurs every
month. This phase is known as menstruation.

Reproductive Health

It can be defined as the state of physical, mental and social fitness

to lead a healthy reproductive life. Good reproductive health
provides both male and female with

 the fertility control methods.

 awareness about how to limit their family size.
 protection from infection and sexually transmitted diseases.
Sex Ratio

The ratio of the number of females to the number of males in a

population is known as sex ratio. A balanced female-male sex ratio
is necessary for a healthy society.

Population Size

The rates of birth and death in a given population determine its size.
The population size increases if the birth rate is higher than the
death rate and vice-versa.

Methods of Family Planning

The sexual act always carries the risk of potential pregnancy. In
order to avoid unplanned pregnancies, many ways have been
devised, which are called contraception or birth control methods.

Female Foeticide

The killing of an unborn girl child is called female foeticide. It is

happening because of misuse of ultrasound technique by which

people get to know the sex of the child. If it is female, they get it
removed by surgery.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are caused by different

pathogens transmitted by an intimate contact between healthy
person and an infected person.

Short Answer Type Questions

1. What is the importance of DNA copying in
reproduction ? (NCERT)
Ans. The importance of DNA copying during reproduction are
(i) It is responsible for the transmission of parental characteristics to
the offsprings.
(ii) During DNA copying in reproduction, the changes occur due to
the inheritance of traits from both the parents. This leads to certain
genetic variations, which are useful for the evolution of species over
a period of time.
2. Why is variation beneficial to the species, but not
necessary for the individual?
Ans. Variations allow organisms to exist in diverse habitats or
niches. In its absence, a species may remain restricted to a
particular area. If this area gets drastically altered due to various
natural or man-made causes, the species may be wiped out.
However if some variations are present in few individuals it would
help them to colonize other habitats and survive.
But if variations are present in a single organism, there would be a
very little chance for it to survive and species are lost forever.
Hence, variations is beneficial to the species but not necessary for
the individuals
3. What is a clone? Why do offspring formed by asexual
reproduction exhibit remarkable similarity? (NCERT
Exemplar)
Ans. Clones are the offsprings produced by one parent through
sexual reproduction. These are genetically identical to the parents;
the clone pauses an exact copy of the DNA of their parent and
hence shows remarkable similarity to the parent and to one another.
4, Colonies of yeast fail to multiply in water, but multiply in
sugar solution. Give one reason for this. (NCERT Exemplar)
Ans. When the colony of yeast is in water, it does not get any
nutrition. Sugar solution on the contrary provides nutrition. As the
yeast gets nutrition and thus energy, it grows and begins to produce
buds. This is why colonies of yeast fail to multiply in water, but
multiply in sugar solution.
5. Illustrate with example, the division and fragmentation
method of reproduction in living organisms.
Ans. Multicellular organisms like filamentous algae (Spirogyra) and
sea animal called sea anemone on maturation breakup into two or
more small fragments or pieces. Each fragment subsequently grows
to form a complete new organism. This type of asexual reproduction
is known as fragmentation
6. List two advantages of vegetative propagation over other
modes of reproduction.
Ans. Two advantages of vegetative propagation are as follows
(i) Vegetative reproduction is easier and faster methods of
reproduction.
(ii) It is useful in those plants/animals, which cannot reproduce
sexually.
7. Name a plant in which layering produces a new plant.
Ans. Layering is a type of vegetative propagation, e.g. lemon, rose,
jasmine, strawberry, etc., can produce new plant by the process of
layering.
8. Write one main difference between asexual and sexual
mode of reproduction. Which species is likely to have
comparatively better chances of suvival, the one
reproducing asexually or the one reproducing sexually? Give
reason to justify your answer. (CBSE 2018)
Ans. The main difference between sexual and asexual reproduction
involves the production and union of gametes in the process of
fertilisation in sexually reproducing organisms which do not occur in
asexual mode of reproduction.
Sexual reproduction is considered to be superior over asexual
reproduction as it leads to variations, while asexual reproduction
does not induce variations among progeny individuals.
Advantages of variations in individuals are
(i) It brings adaptation in individuals.
(ii) It helps in the survival of species.
(iii) It is the basis of evolution.
Hence, the species that reproduce through sexual reproduction have
better chances of survival,
9. In tobacco plants, the male gametes have twenty four
chromosomes. What is the number of chromosomes in the
female gamete? What is the number of chromosomes in the
zygote? (NCERT Exemplar)
Ans. The number of chromosomes in the female gamete would be
the same as that in the male gamete, i.e. it will have 24
chromosomes. The number of chromosomes in the zygote would be
double the number present in the gainete and hence, it would be 48.
10. Differentiate between self-pollination and cross
pollination.
Ans. Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the
stigma of a flower. It is of two types
(i) Self-pollination. Transfer of pollen from the stamens Of a flower
to the stigma of the same flower or on the stigma of other flower of
the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination. Transfer of pollen from the stamens of a
flower to the stigma of different flowers of different plailt of same
species.
11. In a bisexual flower inspite of the young stamens being
removed artificially, the flower produces fruit. Provide a
suitable explanation for the above situation. (NCERT
Exemplar)
Ans. A bisexual flower has the the male as well as female
reproductive organs. If the young stamen (male unit) is removed
artificially the flower still has its pistil (female unit) intact therefore
cross pollination can occur.
When the pollen grains from the anther of another flower are
transferred to the stigma of this flower with the help of pollination
agent such as insects these winds and water it causes cross
pollination after the pollen grains fall on stigma the next step is
fertilization followed by formation of fruits and seeds.
12. Differentiate between unisexual and bisexual flowers
and give one example of each.
Ans. Stamens and carpels (pistils) are the reproductive organ of a
flower organs by which sexual reproduction in flowering plants takes
place. Most plants have both male and female reproductive organs
in the same flower and are known as bisexual flowers e.g. Lily, roses
etc. while others have either male or female reproductive parts in a
flower known as unisexual flower e.g. papaya watermelon etc.
13. (i) List two reasons for the appearance of variations
among the progeny fonned by sexual reproduction. (CBSE
2016)
(a) Name the part marked as A in the diagram.
(b) How does A reach part B?
(c) State the importance of the part C.
(d) What happens to the part marked as D after fertilization
is over?
Ans. . (i) Variations appear among the progeny formed by sexual
reproduction due to the following reasons
(a) Sexual reproduction results in new combinations of genes that
are brought together during the formation of gametes by meiotic
divisions (I and Il).
(b) The combination of two sets of chromosomes, one between the
homologous chromosome arms set from each parent during zygote
formation, leads to variation within a species.
(ii) (a) A—Pollen grain
(b) Pollen grain reaches part B, i.e. stigma by pollinating agents such
as insects, wind, water, etc. This process is known as pollination.
(c) Part C is the pollen tube. It allows the passage for the male
gametes to reach the ovary having female gametes for fertilization.
(d) Part D, i.e. female gamete or egg cell that forms zygote after
fertilization.
14. (i) Draw a diagram showing germination of pollen on
stigma of a flower and mark on it the following
organs/parts (CBSE 2020)
(a) Pollen grain
(b) Pollen tube
(c) Stigma
(d) Female germ cell
(ii) State the significance of pollen tube.
(iii) Name the parts of flower that develop after fertilization
into
(a) Seed (b) Fruit
Ans. 14. (i)

(ii) The pollen

tube takes its origin from the intestines of pollen grains. It grows
through the style and reaches the micropyle of the ovule. It carries
male nuclei to the ovule for fertilization.
(iii) (a) Ovule develops into seed.
(b) Mature ovaries develop into fruit.
15, Why cannot fertilization take place in flowers if
pollination does not occur? (NCERT Exemplar)
Ans. In a flower, fertilization requires both male and female
gametes. So, it is necessary that the male gamete reaches the
female gamete. This can happen when the pollen grains are
transferred to the stigma through any means of pollination.
Hence, fertilisation cannot take place in flowers if pollination does
not occur due to absence of pollen lube (i.e. the male gamete).
16. How are general and sexmal maturation different from
each other?
(NCERT Exemplar)
Ans. General growth refers to different types of developmental
process in the like increase in height, weight gain, changes in shape
and size of the body. During this phase, the reproductive organs
develops at a slower rate,
During sexual maturation, the changes that occur prepare the body
for sexual reproduction. These are specific changes reflected at
puberty like cracking of voice new hair patterns development of
breast in female etc.
17. Draw the human female reproductive system and label
the following parts
(i) Which organ produces ovum?
(ii) Where does fertilization take place?
(iii) Where does implantation of embryos take place?

(i) Ovum is
produced by ovaries which are paired, oval-shaped organs.
(ii) Oviduct or Fallopian tubes are the site of fertilization. They have
a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary and carry ova or egg from
ovary to uterus.
(iii) Implantation refers to the embedding of the embryo in the thick
lining of the uterus.
18. List two functions of ovary of female reproductive
system. (CBSE 2016)
Ans. Ovary in females is responsible for the production of female
gametes (ova) and also produces female sex hormones, i.e.
oestrogen and progesterone.
19. A newly married couple wants to conceive as quickly as
possible.
What is the first sign of pregnancy shown by the woman ?
Ans. The absence of a menstrual cycle may be the first indication of
pregnancy in a woman.
20. What changes are observed in the uterus if fertilization
does not occur? (Exemplar)
Ans. If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day. Since, the
ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares itself
every month to receive a fertilized egg. Its lining becomes thick and
spongy, which is required for nourishing the embryo.
If fertilization, however, does not take place this lining is not needed
in the absence of fertilization and it slowly breaks and comes out
through the vagina as blood and mucus. This cycle takes place
roughly every month and is known as the menstruation cycle and
usually lasts for about 2-8 days.
21. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the
mother’s body? (NCERT, CBSE 2015)
Ans. The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the
help of a special tissue called placenta. This is a disc-like tissue
which develops between the uterine wall and embryo.
As mother eats, the food passes through the digestive system where
it breaks down into small particles. These nutrients travel through
the mother’s bloodstream and get exchanged with the bloodstream
of the fetus through the placenta.
22. What is the function of the umbilical cord ?
Ans. The umbilical cord contains blood vessels which supply blood
between the fetus and the placenta.
23. Why are testes located outside the abdominal cavity?
Ans. Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity because
sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature.
24. Trace the path of sperm during ejaculation and mention
the glands associated with the male reproductive system
and their functions. (NCERT Exemplar)
Ans. Path of sperm during ejaculation Formation of sperms takes
place in testis. Sperms come out from testis into the vas deferens, It
then unites with another tube called urethra coming from the
urinary bladder. Along the path of vas deferens. glands like the
prostate and the seminal vesicle add their secretion, so that sperms
are in fluid medium to make their transport easier. This fluids also
provides nutrition. Glands associated with Male reproductive system
are:
Testes it secrets the male sex hormone testosterone
Prostate gland it makes the semen medium alkaline
Cowper’s Gland. Its secretion of this gland lubricates the urethra
before ejaculation Seminal vesicle It adds fluid content to semen
25. What would be the ratio of chromosome number
between an egg and its zygote? How is the sperm
genetically different from the egg?
Ans. The ratio of chromosome number between egg and its zygote
is 1 : 2. An egg is a female gamete and it has haploid nurnber of
chromosomes. During fertilization, it fuses with male gametes (also
having haploid number of chromosomes) to form a zygote which
now has diploid number of chromosomes.
Sperms and eggs are genetically different in terrns of nature of sex
chromosome. The sperm contains either X or Y-chromosome,
whereas an egg will always have an X-chromosome.
26. State any two methods of contracting an STD other than
the se-wal contact.
Ans. Two methods of contracting an STD other than the sexual
contact are as follows
(i) Sharing needles with an infected person.
(ii) Transfusion of STD unscreened blood.
27. How can people praetiee safe sex to avoid contracting an
STD ?
Ans.
27. People can practice safe sex by using condoms as it acts as
barrier method of contraception and does not allow entry of semen
into vagina. Therefore, prevent STDs and avoid chances of
pregnancy.
28. If a woman is using a copper-T, will it help in protecting
her from sexmally transmitted disease. (NCERT)
Ans.
28. No, copper-T does not prevent the transmission of sexually
transmitted diseases. Copper-T only prevents implantation. The only
safe method that can be used to prevent the transmission of
sexually transmitted diseases is condoms.
29. Write a short note on family planning,
Ans. Family planning refers to the regulation of conception by the
use of contraceptive methods or devices to limit the number of
offspring.
The methods used to prevent the occurrence of pregnancy are
called contraceptive methods. These can be barrier, hormonal,
chemical and surgical methods.
30. (i) ‘Use of a condom is beneficial for both the sexes
involved in a sexual act’. Justify this statement. Give two
reasons.
(ii) How do oral contraceptives help in avoiding pregnancies?
(iii) What is sex selective abortion? How does it affect a
healthy society? State any one consequence) (CBSE 2020)
Ans. (i) Use of a condom is beneficial for both the sexes involved in
a sexual act. It is because of the following facts
(a) It prevents pregnancy which is not desired by a couple.
(b) It saves both the partners froun sexually trausnlitted diseases
like AIDS, etc.
(ii) Oral contraceptives are the hormonal pills which at? taken by the
females after their menstruation encls up. It is taken for 21 days
daily. It changes the cyclic events of ovulation etc. So mature ovum
is not available for fertilization
(iii) Sex selective abortion means the foetus is female, it is killed and
extracted. This creates an imbalanced in the society by disturbing
the sex ratio.
31. What are the various ways to avoid pregnancy?
Elaborate any one method (NCERT Exemplar)
Ans. Ways to avoid pregnancy are called contraceptives methods.
It includes a number of ways such as
(i) Mechanical barrier; e.g. condom
(ii) Drugs(oral pills for female).
(iii) IUCD, e.g. copper-T.
(iv) Surgical method for permanent contraception,
Mechanical Barrier There are a number of methods that create
barrier between sperm and egg some of them are as Follows
Condom It is a fine rubber balloon-like structure worn over the
penis during sexual intercourse. Semen is collected in it and not
discharged into the vagina. This method also prevents the spread of
STDs like AIDS, syphilis, etc.
Diaphragms or Caps It can be fitted in the cervix of a woman to
prevent semen from reaching the Fallopian tube.
Long Answer Type Questions
32. Reproduction is essentially a phenomenon that is not for
the survival of man but for ‘the stability of a species. Justify
(NCERT Exemplar)
Ans. All the living organisms need energy for their survival and
growth. This energy is obtained from various life processes such as
nutrition, excretion and respiration.
Thus, these phenomena are essential for the survival of an
individual. Compared to these life processes, reproduction is not
essential for survival of an individual.
It is basically important for continuity of the generation of an
organism or species as DNA copying during reproduction helps to
produce similar individuals as their parents to maintain stability of a
species.
33. ‘Reproduction helps in providing stability to the
population of a species’. Justify this statement.
Ans. A species occupies a well-defined niche in an ecosystem, using
its ability to reproduce. During reproduction, copies of DNA pass
from one generation to the next. This copying of DNA takes place
with consistency in reproducing organisms and this is important for
the maintenance of body design features (physiological as well as
structural) which allows the organism to use that particular niche.
Reproduction is therefore linked to the stability of the population of
a species.
34. (i) Name the mode of reproduction of the following
organisms and state the important feature of each mode
(a) Planaria (b) Hydra (c) Rhizopus
(ii) We can develop new plants from the leaves of
Bryophyllum. Comment.
Ans. (i) (a) Planarian—Regeneration
(b) Hydra—Budding
(c) Rhizopus—Sporulation
(ii) The leaves of Bryophyllum bear vegetative adventitious buds
which on separation can give rise to new plants.
35. Explain the fertilization process in plants with the help of
a labeled diagram of a longitudinal section of a flower.
Ans. Stamens and carpels are the reproductive parts of a flower.
Stamen is the male reproductive part of the flower.
Anther is a bilobed structure containing two pollen sacs present at
tip of stamen. These produce pollen grains that are yellowish in
color.
Carpel (Pistil) is the female reproductive part, which is present in
the center of the flower. It comprises of three parts:
(i) Stigma It is the terminal part of carpel which may be sticky. It
helps in receiving the pollen grains during pollination.
(ii) Style It is the middle elongated part of the carpel. It helps in the
attachment of stigma to the ovary.
(iii) Ovary It is the swollen bottom part of the carpel. It contains
ovules having an egg cell (female gamete).

Fertilization is the process of fusion of male germ cells with the

female gamete. It gives rise to a zygote. As soon as the pollen lands
on suitable stigma, it reaches the female germ cells in the ovary.
This occurs via a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows out of the pollen
grain, travels through the style and finally reaches the ovary,
36. Define pollination. Explain the difference of pollination.
List two agents of pollination. How does suitable pollination
lead to fertilization? (CBSE 2019)
 Ans. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to
the stigma of a flower is termed as pollination. There are two types
of pollination
(i) Self-pollination The pollen from the stamen of a flower is
transferred to the stigma of the same flower or another flower on
the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination The pollen from the stamen of a flower is
transferred to the stigma of another flower of different individuals of
the same species.
The pollen grains can be transferred by various agents like water,
insects and animals. As soon as the pollen lands on suitable stigma,
it reaches the female germ cells in the ovary. This occurs via a
pollen tube.
The pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain, travels through the
style and finally reaches the ovary where it fuses with female
gamete (ovule) to give rise to zygote.
Hence, pollination is followed by fertilization in plants.
37. Distinguish between pollination and fertilization.
Mention the site and product, or in a flower. Draw a neat,
labeled diagram of a pistil pollen tube and its entry into
the ovule. (NCERT Exemplar)
Ans. Distinguishes between pollination and fertilization are as
follows:
Pollination Fertilization

It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma. It is the fusion of male and female gametes.

It is a physical process. It is a biological process.

The site of fertilization is ovule in the ovary.
The product of fertilization is a zygote.
38. Trace the change that takes place in a flower from
gamete formation to fruit formation. (CBSE 2020)
Ans. Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen
grains. The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.
The pollen grain is transferred from the stamen to stigma. It is
transferred if pollen occurs in the same flower, it is referred to as
self-pollination.
On the other hand, if the pollen is transferred from one flower to
another, it is known as cross pollination. After the pollen lands on
a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ cells which are
present in the ovary.
For thus, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through
the style to reach the ovary.
Germination of pollen on stigma
The male germ cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the female
gamete precut in the ovule. This fusion of germ cells is called
fertilization and gives rise to the zygote.
After the fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an
embryo within the ovule. The ovule develops a hard coat and is
gradually converted into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens
to form fruit. Meanwhile the petals, sepals, stamens, style and
stigma may shrivel and fall off.
39. Based on the given diagram, answer the questions given
below.
(i) Label the parts A, B, C and D.
(ii) Name the hormone secreted by testis and mention its
role.
(iii) State the functions of B and C in the process of
reproduction. (CBSE 2020)
Ans.
(i) A—Ureter B—Seminal vesicle
C—Urethra D—Vas deferens
(ii) Testosterone hormone is secreted by testis. It controls
spermatogenesis (formation of sperm) and secondary sexual
characters in male adolescents.
(iii) Seminal vesicle B temporarily stores sperm.
Urethra (C) It transports and releases urine and sperms outside the
body.