11.

EARTHQUAKE PROTECTION &

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 EARTHQUAKE PROTECTION OF BUILDING:
• Buildings are usually very complex in regard to the dynamic behaviour, and they
require a very high standard in safety questions.
• Earthquake resistant is the minimum permissible earthquake protection.
• Earthquake resistant buildings whether zone iii, iv or v are all based on life safety
concept.
• Earthquake resistant buildings are so designed so as to prevent a total building
collapse thereby saving lives.
• An earthquake resistant building will sustain structural damage during a major
earthquake.
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 BASIC CONCEPT OF EQ. LOAD:
Force calculation by building code
F=wt. X factor
Factor=zone X importance X performance X seismic coefficient where,
zone (what is the probability that a large earthquake occurs in the vicinity?)
Importance (is the building a hospital?)
Performance factor (detailing according to code?)
Seismic coefficient (height of building, soil type, interaction)
Weight: not all live load will be active during Eq (25-50 percent)
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CONT…….
Example:
Zone = (1) Kathmandu (Nepal-Zone V)
Importance = (1) residential building
Performance = (2) properly detailed with brick wall
Seismic coefficient C= 0.08 (3 story= 10m and 10mx10m building)
Factor = (1X1X2X0.08) = 0.16
Force = wt X 0.16 (OR 16 percentage of wt.)
Wt. = 25 to 50 % of live load + DL

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Important: performance factor

If the structure isn’t properly detailed:

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 GENERAL PRINCIPLES REGARDING BUILDING FORMS:
• The aspects of form which are important include the building plan, internal
partitions and size and location of openings in both internal and external walls.
• Building shape in plan and elevation
For the overall form of buildings being planned there are two basic rules to
follow:
• Simple rectangular buildings are the most desirable, the length of the block being
not more than about three times the width; and
• Symmetrical buildings in plan and elevation are better than asymmetrical ones.

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 Cont……..
• The seismic behavior of old existing buildings is affected by their original
structural inadequacies, material degradation due to time, and alterations carried
out during use over the years such as making new openings, addition of new
parts inducing dissymmetry in plan and elevation.

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 CAUSES OF FAILURE
• Structural layout
• Quality of materials and construction practices
• Lack of earthquake resistance features
To prevent building failure load bearing :
Elements should be uniformly distributed along both the axes, with no
sudden change in stiffness in vertical or horizontal direction.
 Vertical elements are tied together at the floor.
Good quality of materials and correct construction methods are essential
to prevent building failure. 8
 BUILDING FORMS FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE:
Building configuration.
Height and number of storey.
Floor height and number of storey should be limited according to the structural
system and construction materials
Location and size of doors and windows openings.

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 DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS IN BUILDING:
Compressive test:
• Cubical
• Cylindrical
Non destructive test (NDT)
• Elastic wave tomography
• Rebound Hammer / Schmidt Hammer
• Ultrasonic pulse velocity
• Impact echo test
• Flat jack test
• Push shear test 10
 REBOUND METHOD
• Can be used to determine the in-place compressive strength of concrete within a
range of 1500 – 8000 psi (10-55mpa)
• Quick and simple mean of checking concrete uniformity
• Measure the distance of rebound of a spring-loaded plunger after it struck a
smooth concrete surface.
• Results of the test can be affected by factors such as smoothness of concrete
surface, size, shape, rigidity of specimen, age & moisture condition,
• Type of coarse aggregate & the carbonation of the surface.
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 ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY
• Uses measurement of the speed of ultrasonic pulses through the concrete to
correlate concrete strength to standard strength.
• Allows the determination of compressive concrete strength and location of
cracks.
• Identify non homogenous condition in the structure such as honeycomb, voids
and cracks.
• Size of cracks can also be determined.

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 IMPACT ECHO TESTING:
Locate top and bottom delamination caused by corrosion at the top and bottom
reinforcement.
Impact echo scanner was used to scan on the top of the balcony deck.
A “point by point” impact echo test was used from the underside to confirm the
top delamination.

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 ELASTIC WAVE TOMOGRAPHY
 Used for locating shallow delaminations, cracks, and voids.
Based on two basic principles from heat transfer: conduction and radiation.
Sound materials with no voids, gaps, or cracks are more thermally conductive
than materials that are delaminated or contain moisture.
Allows rapid areal mapping of internal conditions.
 Useful for the detection of shallow defects and flaws.
Tests for: voids, cracks, moisture.

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 FLAT JACK TEST:
Nondestructive test of evaluating existing masonry structure.
 Does not require removal of masonry units - only the removal of small portions
of mortar is enough.
Uses small, thin, hydraulic jacks to apply a force to a section of an existing
masonry wall.
Uses measuring devices to determine the resulting displacement of the masonry.

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 APPLICATION OF FLAT JACK TESTING:
• Used to determine masonry compressive modulus, which is the stress/strain
relationship of the masonry, or axial stress by applying axial load and measuring
resulting axial deformation.
• Used to estimate compressive strength and measure the shear strength.
• If the destruction of the masonry units is acceptable, it can be used to directly
measure the compressive strength by testing the masonry to failure.

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 TECHNIQUES OF RETROFITTING AND RETROFITTING
MATERIALS:
Seismic strengthening of existing buildings
• The seismic behavior of old existing buildings is affected by their original
structural inadequacies, material degradation due to time, and alterations carried
out during use over the years such as making new openings, addition of new
parts inducing dissymmetry in plan and elevation.

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 GENERAL FEATURES OF REPAIR, RESTORATION AND
STRENGTHENING REPAIRS:
Repair:
Patching up of defects such as cracks and fall of plaster
Repairing doors, windows, replacement of glass panes
Checking and repairing electric wiring
Checking and repairing gas pipes, water pipes and plumbing services
Rebuilding nonstructural walls, smoke chimneys, boundary walls
Re-plastering of walls as required
Rearranging disturbed roofing tiles
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Relaying cracked flooring at ground level and
Redecoration - white washing, painting.

Restoration:
• Removal of portions of cracked masonry walls and piers and rebuilding them in
richer mortar. Use of non shrinking mortar will be preferable.
• Injecting cement slurry or epoxy like material, which is strong in tension, into the
cracks in walls, columns and beams.
• Replacing defective or weathered elements of wooden roof trusses.
• Tightening the joints of roof trusses with thin wires/ropes.

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 Strengthening:
May cost as high as 50 per cent of the cost of rebuilding. Therefore justification
of such costly strengthening must be fully considered and the most economical
alternatives worked out.
The main items related to seismic strengthening are as follows:
A) Modification of roofs;
B) Substitution or strengthening of floors; and
C) Modifications in plan and strengthening of walls.

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 SPECIAL MATERIALS AN TECHNIQUES:
a) Shotcrete :
Method of applying a combination of sand and Portland cement which is mixed
pneumatically and conveyed in dry state to the nozzle of a pressure gun, where
water is mixed and hydration takes place just prior to expulsion.
The material bonds perfectly to properly prepared surface of masonry and steel.

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 b)Epoxy resins:
Excellent binding agents with high tensile strength.
These are chemical preparations.
Low viscosity type can be injected in fine cracks.
 High viscosity type is formed into mortar by mixing with sand which can be
used for filling larger cracks and voids.

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 C)Anchors:
Mechanical anchors employ wedging action to provide anchorage.
 Provide both shear and tension resistance.
Chemical anchors bonded in drilled holes with polymer adhesives can be used.

When using a) and b) above the feasibility and cost should be carefully
determined before adopting them.

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 TECHNIQUES OF RETROFITTING AND RETROFITTING
MATERIALS:
General:
• Decision to repair or replace a structure or its component can be taken only after
consideration of likely service life of the structure is established based on the
technical & economic evaluations.
• Repairs, proper diagnosis, identification & extent of distress in structural
members has to be correctly assessed.
• A detailed methodology should be developed, which should include available
o Methods of repair &
o Repair materials
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Cont……
• Repair strategy can be adopted, keeping the objective in view.
• Priority should be assigned to
Repair of structural defects to ensure safety of the structure and
Protection of the structure from further deterioration

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 The selected method of repair should achieve one or more of the following
objectives:
• Reinstate the structural integrity of the member by restoring or increasing its
strength & stiffness.
• Prevent the ingress of distress promoting agents such as moisture, chlorides and
carbon dioxide to improve durability.
• Maintaining the aesthetics/appearance of concrete surface

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 REPAIR OPTION:
Depending upon the specific condition of deteriorated structure:
Grouting & crack repair
Patch repair
Replacement of structurally weak concrete
Replacement of spalled, and / or delaminated concrete
Replacement of carbonated concrete surrounding steel reinforcement
Cleaning and passivating the corroded steel reinforcement

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Cont…….
Concrete overlays with normal, low or highly fluid concrete, latex modified
concrete & corrosion protection such as jacketing etc.
Re-alkalization of carbonated concrete.
Electro-chemical removal of chloride from concrete
Water proofing and/or protective coating.

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 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT OF REPAIR SYSTEM:
• Strength, serviceability and durability
• Protection of steel
• Bond with parent surface
• Dimensional stability
• Resistance to environmentally induced damage.
• Ease of application
• Appearance

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 IMPORTANCE FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR
SELECTION OF REPAIR METHODS:
• Type and extent of distress
• Location of distress
• Environmental exposure
• Availability of skill
• Availability of time and access for repairs
• Appearance
• Cost

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 REPAIR STAGES:

• Concrete removal and surface preparation

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 APPLY BONDING COAT AND REPAIR APPLICATION:
Based on engineering judgment considering various options as under:
 Filling of cracks with cement and / or resin based grout
 Injecting grout into a mass of dry aggregate
 Poured concrete
 Sprayed concrete ( shotcrete)
Repair and strengthening methods/systems be in three groups
• Materials
• Methods
• Systems 32
 REPAIRS METHODS:
Methods which could be used singly or in combination of more than one
are described in the following subsections:
1. Repair using mortars
o Portland cement mortars
o Epoxy mortars
2. Shotcrete
3. Concrete replacement
4. Protective seal coats on the entire surface

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Cont………….
5. Ferrocement
6. Plate bonding
7. RCC jacketing
8. Propping and supporting
9. Foundation rehabilitation methods
o Shoring
o Underpinning

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 Repairs using mortars:
• Common form of repairs being resorted to in the field without knowing the
limitations of such repairs in structural rehabilitation/strengthening.
Portland cement mortars:
Applied cement mortar repairs will be given only for very small repair areas, not
associated with critical performance of the structure.
Epoxy mortars:
Consist of resin, hardener and silica sand and are applied over an epoxy bonding
coat over old hardened concrete surface.
Attain strength in few hours.
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Very high strength and are abrasion resistant, water resistant
Used in few millimeter thickness overlays.
Used for repairs at locations where
• It is difficult to use epoxy bonded concrete.
• Depth of repair is less than 40mm or
• Repair areas are small (less than 0.1sqm) and few in number.

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 CONCRETE REPLACEMENT:
Used on areas of damaged or unacceptable concrete greater than 0.1sqm, depth
greater than 150mm or depth extending 25mm below or behind the back-side of
reinforcement.
Used for holes extending entirely through concrete sections and for longer areas
of repair greater than 100mm in depth when the concrete to be repaired is less
than 7 days old.
Epoxy bonding agents, latex bonding agents, dry neat cement, cement paste or
cement and sand mortar shall not be used.

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 SHOTCRETE:
Defined as pneumatically applied concrete or mortar placed directly on to a
surface.
The mix process shall consists of
• Thoroughly mixing the materials
• Feeding of these materials into mechanically feeder or gun
• Carrying the materials by compressed air through a hose to a special nozzle
• Introducing water at nozzle point and intimately mixing it with other ingredients
at the nozzle.
• Jetting the mixture from the nozzle at high velocity on to the surface to receive
38
the shotcrete.
 PROTECTIVE SEAL COATS ON THE ENTIRE SURFACE:
• Defined as liquids that are applied to the surface of hardened concrete to prevent
or decrease the penetration of liquid or gaseous media, such as water, aggressive
solutions, gases like carbon dioxide during the service exposure conditions.
• Patch repairs carried out on patch work .
• Polymer modified cementitious mortars or epoxy mortars are used.
• Chemical effects are not anticipated.
• Protect the remaining areas from the environmental attacks.
• Avoid subsequent repairs .
• Application of seal coats becomes necessary. 39
Cont……
• Suitably pigmented so that besides protection, aesthetics of the structure can also
be taken care .
• Coatings like polyurethane, epoxy, alkyds, chlorinated rubbers, acrylic emulsions
can be used.
Selection should be done considering the following points:
• Adhesion to surface
• Compatibility with the alkalinity of surface

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Cont………
• Coating should be impermeable enough but simultaneously, it should permit
evaporation of moisture from concrete mass.
• Resistance to various aggressive environmental chemical attacks.
• Expected life of the treatment.
• Capacity to cover surface irregularities
• Ease of application and aesthetics.

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 FERRO-CEMENT
Is a thin wall type composite, having a total thickness ranging between 12 to
30mm.
Composed of hydraulic cement mortar reinforced with a minimum two layers of
continuous and relatively small diameter orthogonally woven wire mesh
separated by 4 to 6 mm dia galvanized spacer wires.
Cement mortar is admixed with plasticizers and polymers for sealing pores.
Wire mesh is mechanically connected to the parent surface by u-shaped nails
fixed with suitable epoxy bonding system.

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Cont…………..
Orbital vibrators used to ensure proper encapsulation of wire mesh in mortar.
 Durable composite material are distributed uniformly due to the presence of
closely spaced, thin woven galvanized wire mesh.
 Used for providing protective reinforced membrane for rehabilitation of
distressed RCC structures.
Acts as a protective layer against the varieties of the environment.
 Used as a water proofing technique over reinforced concrete shell structures and
RCC slabs .
Provides impermeable thin membrane, which prevents seepage and leakage of
water. 43
 PLATE BONDING:
 Is an inexpensive, versatile and advanced technique for rehabilitation, up
gradation of concrete structures by mechanically connecting MS plates by
bolting and gluing to their surfaces with epoxy .
Substantially increase strength, stiffness, ductility and stability of the reinforced
concrete elements.
Used effectively for seismic retrofitting.
Bolts are first used to hold the plates in position during construction act as
permanent shear connectors and integral restraints.

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Cont……………..
Bolts are designed to resist interface forces.
The epoxy glue used as non-existent.
 Epoxy is prone to premature de-bonding.
Use of mechanical anchorage along with epoxy bonding is considered more
reliable.
Steel plates are unobtrusive.
Original sizes of the structural members are not increased significantly.
 Preferred where enlargement of the members is going to affect the headroom,
existing windows, doors and fixtures.
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46
 RCC JACKETING
 Increases the member size significantly.
 Increasing the member stiffness is useful where deformations are to be
controlled.
RC jacketing provides a better solution for avoiding buckling problems.
Design for strengthening/repair work is based on composite action between the
old and the new work.
Strain compatibility calculations may have to be carried out carefully.

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Cont…………….
New jacket can take additional loads only with the increase in the stresses &
strains in the old one.
The problem arises if the:
• Old concrete has reached limiting strain and is not likely to sustain any
more significant strain
• Old concrete is weak and porous and started deteriorating due to
weathering action and corrosion of reinforcement.
 Detailing must be right to ensure transfer of load to the new jacket, if the old
concrete fails.

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Cont………………………………..
Bond should be perfect between the old and new concrete.
Plate bonding and RC jacketing are the common methods of strengthening RCC
structures.
Cost difference between the two methods is not significant.
Based on actual needs and the suitability of each method with respect to the
structural/architectural and other details of buildings should be chosen.

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50
 PROPPING AND SUPPORTING:
• Problem arises in deciding on propping and supporting the structure to give relief
in stresses and strains in some of the existing weak members being strengthened.
• More vertical props sitting in some beams & slabs may not be enough.
• Diagonal bracing to transmit the loads to the adjacent columns should also be
considered.

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 Foundation rehabilitation methods:
 Shoring & underpinning

Study yourself……………….

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