Week 2 – Thinking Critically

TOPIC GOALS

 Explore the importance of critical thinking

 Learn how educators think critically

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 a) Introduction

“Too often we enjoy the comfort of opinion without the discomfort of

thought.”
(John F. Kennedy, 1944)

b) The importance of critical thinking

critical thinking The idea of critical thinking has provided the impetus for one of the great
growth areas in philosophy of education over the last thirty years, especially in America. […]
So, for instance, Ennis holds that rational thinkers exhibit certain proficiencies, tendencies and
good habits. Under proficiencies Ennis listed: observing, inferring, generalizing, conceiving
and stating assumptions and their alternatives. Such thinkers tend to offer well-organized or
well formulated lines of reasoning, they evaluate statements and chains of reasoning and are
habitually on their guard to detect standard problems (Ennis 1974). If we can teach such skills
to students then, Ennis believes, we can improve their general thinking skills and thus improve
their performance in whatever domain of intellectual endeavor they are concerned with. […]
First, because educationists are terribly prone to aspire to unattainable ideas of general
excellence at the expense of more modest but valuable and achievable goals, for example, to
bring all educational goals under grand schemes for producing 'good people' or 'good citizens',
and in so doing to overlook the fact that a large proportion of children have problems with basic
literacy […] Therefore, pupils should be taught by people who have the requisite subject
expertise. The alleged transferability of critical thinking skills is largely bogus and, if pupils
need a training in thinking for their everyday lives, this is best approached by a training in the
separate academic disciplines.
(Winch and Gingell, 1999)

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 According to Michael A. Peters, (2017), in his Encyclopedia of
Educational Philosophy and Theory book ‘If we consider critical thinking at early
educational stages, ideally speaking, it would consist of content (knowledge) and
reflection on that content. Therefore, there should be content and a method for
processing that content. In that way, we ensure that the content is understood,
information processed, but also encourage taking a personal critical stand. […] It
is precisely critical thinking that can provide the individual with the proper tools
to resist this manipulation and choose only relevant information while also
developing their own critical thinking. […] Dewey, primarily in How We Think
(1997). Dewey does not use the term “critical thinking,” he says “reflective
thinking.” The idea is the same. Critical thinking is the reflection of our mind
about events and things around us. Dewey’s successors gradually neglected the
expression “reflective thinking,” and critical thinking became more common.’
One of the keys to critical thinking is to ask ‘why?’ when coming across
any new fact, concept or theory. Developing this habit of questioning means that
you are constantly seeking the underlying reasons for things being the way they
are. To develop the skill of thinking for yourself, you must rarely take anything
for granted and seldom rely on someone else’s views (McMillan and Weyers,
2013). Critical professional development ‘…is not a simple template that can be
applied to achieve a desired outcome; rather it provides a conceptual framing to
see where possibilities may already occur, or where they can be developed both
by individuals and/ or organizations. The model is based upon theories of learning
which include structured, non-structured, informal and networked learning.
Learning may be individual, collaborative, face-to-face or involve virtual learning
experiences. We use the terms ‘enabling structures’ and ‘learning spaces’ to
discuss how learning may be organized and structured to support critical
professional development’ (Appleby and Pilkington, 2014).

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Benjamin Bloom, a noted educational psychologist, working with several
colleagues, identified six different processes involved in thinking within
education:
knowledge acquisition
comprehension
application
analysis
synthesis
evaluation

(McMillan and Weyers, 2013)

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 The critical examination of proposed solutions to problems often is hailed
as the method of all rational discussion. The idea of criticism is not meant to be
one of finding fault—in the sense intended, a person offering criticism might
provide either a positive or a negative assessment. The key is that the criticism is
accompanied by reasons, which point, in the case of negative criticism, to
possible routes to improvement (Philips, 2014). ‘One of the more concise
straightforward explanations of what it means to operate critically has been
provided by Robert Cox (1980), when he said: ‘[To be critical is to] stand apart
from the prevailing order of the world and ask how that order came about’ (p.
129)’ (Shacklock and Smyth, 2004).

DISCUSS
SUPPOSE

REFLECTION
ANALYSIS

CREATIVITY

CRITICAL THINKING

ARGUMENTS INFORMATION

DEBATE

CONCEIVE

APPRECIATE

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 c) Thinking critically

Appleby and Pilkington, (2014), argue in their book Developing Critical

Professional Practice in Education ‘As a critical professional, the individual
practitioner needs to engage with her/his own values, assumptions and the
influences of policy and organizational systems and processes. This critical
perspective, based upon the responsibility to question the construction of
professionalism more widely, can for its part support individual and collective
agency.’ “educators,” frequently assume that learning occurs when information
is received by the learner (Popper 1994; Swann 2012). Debates about learning
center mostly on how information received by the learner is processed. Even
constructivists are of the view that learning takes place when the learner is
actively constructing meaning from the information received, based on his or her
previous experience (Dewey 1938; Vygotsky 1978). If educators assume that
learning is a process that begins with the internalization of information received,
they are more inclined, then, to discuss learning from a psychological perspective
rather than from a philosophical one (Vygotsky 1962)’ (Peters, 2017).
When we think critically, we judge the accuracy of statements and the
soundness of the reasoning that leads to conclusions. Critical thinking helps us
interpret complex ideas, appraise the evidence offered in support of arguments,
and distinguish between reasonableness and unreasonableness. Both problem
solving and decision making depend on critical thinking, as does the meaningful
discussion of controversial issues (Ruggiero, 2011).

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How to:

critical listening
A mode of monitoring how we are listening so as to maximize our accurate
understanding of what another person is saying. By understanding the logic of
human communication—that everything spoken expresses point of view, uses
some ideas and not others, has implications, etc.—critical thinkers can listen so
as to enter sympathetically and analytically into the perspective of others.

critical reading
Critical reading is an active, intellectually engaged process in which the reader
participates in an inner dialogue with the writer. Most people read uncritically
and so miss some part of what is expressed while distorting other parts. A critical
reader realizes the way in which reading, by its very nature, means entering into
a point of view other than our own, the point of view of the writer. A critical
reader actively looks for assumptions, key concepts and ideas, reasons and
justifications, supporting examples, parallel experiences, implications and
consequences, and any other structural features of the written text, to interpret
and assess it accurately and fairly. A critical reader does not evaluate a written
piece until s/he accurately understands the viewpoint of the author.

critical writing
To express ourselves in language requires that we arrange our ideas in some
relationships to each other. When accuracy and truth are at issue, then we must
understand what our thesis is, how we can support it, how we can elaborate it to
make it intelligible to others, what objections can be raised to it from other points
of view, what the limitations are to our point of view, and so forth. Disciplined
writing requires disciplined thinking; disciplined thinking is achieved through
disciplined writing.

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critical thinking
1) Disciplined, self-directed thinking that exemplifies the perfections of thinking
appropriate to a particular mode or domain of thinking. 2) Thinking that displays
mastery of intellectual skills and abilities. 3) The art of thinking about your
thinking while you are thinking in order to make your thinking better: more clear,
more accurate, or more defensible. 4) Thinking that is fully aware of and
continually guards against the natural human tendency to self-deceive and
rationalize in order to selfishly get what it wants. Critical thinking can be
distinguished into two forms: "selfish" or "sophistic," on the one hand, and "fair-
minded," on the other. In thinking critically, we use our command of the elements
of thinking and the universal intellectual standards to adjust our thinking
successfully to the logical demands of a type or mode of thinking.
(Paul and Elder, 2013)

‘A major outcome of education is the development of thinking ability. It is

unclear, however, whether or not thinking can be taught. Likely it is a function of
both nature and nurture — heredity and environment. […] Teachers, perhaps
above all others, should be capable of using the mind. Foremost they need to be
vigorous investigators of their own thinking. Ideally, by nature and nurture, they
should possess and demonstrate higher-order mental abilities they intend to
propagate in their pupils’

(Cruickshank, 1986)

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The requirements for critical thinking:

1. Identify and critically analyze the principles and practice that underpin

effective provision in your chosen setting, relating to one or more policy

frameworks of central significance for the operational practice of your chosen

setting.

2. Demonstrate an evidence-based understanding of service user participation

and the welfare requirements for children and young people in a specific service

context or setting.

3. Demonstrate an in-depth knowledge of the roles and responsibilities of

professionals within the education and/or social care sectors.

4. Demonstrate a critically informed understanding of organizational culture and

the influential potential of the practitioner as an agent for change.

‘The importance of context is not to be underestimated. Understanding the

context of a situation will enable professionals to better understand/make sense
of what they see and read. […] Finn (2011) adds to this analysis:
Critical thinking is the ability and willingness to assess claims and

make objective judgements on the basis of well-supported reasons and

evidence rather than emotion or anecdote. They realise that criticising

an argument is not the same as criticising the person making it … is

not merely negative thinking. It includes the ability to be creative and

constructive… . (Finn, 2011: 70)’

(Appleby and Pilkington, 2014).

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 The spirit of critical thinking is an organized and disciplined way of

achieving continual improvement in thinking and therefore of attaining fuller and

more complete success over time. It consists in thinking at progressively higher

levels in virtue of a deliberate and practical commitment to quality of thinking.

To develop critical thinking skills, educators need to:

 have a sound knowledge base from which to support students as they

delve more deeply into content

 remain open to challenge by students, not representing themselves as the

sole source of knowledge

 encourage students to look at the big picture by engaging them in critical-

thinking processes that have relevance beyond the classroom

 be prepared to listen to voices that originate in the classroom and to use

students' personal experiences as starting points for gathering

information

 encourage students to question and challenge existing beliefs, structures,

and practices

 avoid offering 'how to do it' approaches

 encourage students to be sensitive to the feelings of others

 provide opportunities for inquiry by giving students time for planning,

processing, and debriefing

 structure lessons so that students can work safely and co-operatively and

develop creative forms of shared responsibility

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  encourage students to take critical action. When students learn to use

democratic processes inside the classroom, they can transfer these to

situations outside the classroom

(Smyth, 2000)

Critical thinking skills:

a) Identification
The first step in the critical thinking process is to identify the situation or
problem as well as the factors that may influence it. Once you have a clear
picture of the situation and the people, groups or factors that may be
influenced, you can then begin to dive deeper into an issue and its potential
solutions.
How to improve: When facing any new situation, question or scenario,
stop to take a mental inventory of the state of affairs and ask the following
questions:
 Who is doing what?
 What seems to be the reason for this happening?
 What are the end results, and how could they change?

b) Research
When comparing arguments about an issue, independent research ability is
key. Arguments are meant to be persuasive—that means the facts and
figures presented in their favor might be lacking in context or come from
questionable sources. The best way to combat this is independent
verification; find the source of the information and evaluate.
How to improve: It can be helpful to develop an eye for unsourced claims.
Does the person posing the argument offer where they got this information
from? If you ask or try to find it yourself and there’s no clear answer, that
should be considered a red flag. It’s also important to know that not all
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 sources are equally valid—take the time to learn the difference between
popular and scholarly articles.

c) Identifying biases
This skill can be exceedingly difficult, as even the smartest among us can
fail to recognize biases. Strong critical thinkers do their best to evaluate
information objectively. Think of yourself as a judge in that you want to
evaluate the claims of both sides of an argument, but you’ll also need to
keep in mind the biases each side may possess.
It is equally important—and arguably more difficult—to learn how to set
aside your own personal biases that may cloud your judgement. “Have the
courage to debate and argue with your own thoughts and assumptions,”
Potrafka encourages. “This is essential for learning to see things from
different viewpoints.”
How to improve: “Challenge yourself to identify the evidence that forms
your beliefs, and assess whether or not your sources are credible,” offers
Ruth Wilson, director of development at Brightmont Academy.
First and foremost, you must be aware that bias exists. When evaluating
information or an argument, ask yourself the following:
 Who does this benefit?
 Does the source of this information appear to have an agenda?
 Is the source overlooking, ignoring or leaving out information that
doesn’t support its beliefs or claims?
 Is this source using unnecessary language to sway an audience’s
perception of a fact?

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d) Inference
The ability to infer and draw conclusions based on the information
presented to you is another important skill for mastering critical thinking.
Information doesn’t always come with a summary that spells out what it
means. You’ll often need to assess the information given and draw
conclusions based upon raw data.
The ability to infer allows you to extrapolate and discover potential
outcomes when assessing a scenario. It is also important to note that not all
inferences will be correct. For example, if you read that someone weighs
260 pounds, you might infer they are overweight or unhealthy. Other data
points like height and body composition, however, may alter that
conclusion.
How to improve: An inference is an educated guess, and your ability to
infer correctly can be polished by making a conscious effort to gather as
much information as possible before jumping to conclusions. When faced
with a new scenario or situation to evaluate, first try skimming for clues—
things like headlines, images and prominently featured statistics—and then
make a point to ask yourself what you think is going on.

e) Determining relevance
One of the most challenging parts of thinking critically during a
challenging scenario is figuring out what information is the most important
for your consideration. In many scenarios, you’ll be presented with
information that may seem important, but it may pan out to be only a minor
data point to consider.
How to improve: The best way to get better at determining relevance is
by establishing a clear direction in what you’re trying to figure out. Are
you tasked with finding a solution? Should you be identifying a trend? If

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 you figure out your end goal, you can use this to inform your judgement of
what is relevant.
Even with a clear objective, however, it can still be difficult to determine
what information is truly relevant. One strategy for combating this is to
make a physical list of data points ranked in order of relevance. When you
parse it out this way, you’ll likely end up with a list that includes a couple
of obviously relevant pieces of information at the top of your list, in
addition to some points at the bottom that you can likely disregard. From
there, you can narrow your focus on the less clear-cut topics that reside in
the middle of your list for further evaluation.

f) Curiosity
It’s incredibly easy to sit back and take everything presented to you at face
value, but that can also be also a recipe for disaster when faced with a
scenario that requires critical thinking. It’s true that we’re all naturally
curious—just ask any parent who has faced an onslaught of “Why?”
questions from their child. As we get older, it can be easier to get in the
habit of keeping that impulse to ask questions at bay. But that’s not a
winning approach for critical thinking.
How to improve: While it might seem like a curious mind is just
something you’re born with, you can still train yourself to foster that
curiosity productively. All it takes is a conscious effort to ask open-ended
questions about the things you see in your everyday life, and you can then
invest the time to follow up on these questions.
(Erstad, 2018)

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Further reading from the Weekly EBooks:

Book: Mason M., (2008), Critical Thinking and Learning, ProQuest EBook - 1
Critical Thinking and Learning, pages 1 - 11

Additional Material:
Video 1: Education- Critical Thinking
Video 2: What is Critical Thinking?

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References:

Appleby, Y. and Pilkington, R. (2014). Developing Critical Professional Practice in

Education. [online] Leicester, England: Niace.

Cambridge International Education Teaching and Learning Team, 2019. Getting started with
Reflective Practice. [online] Cambridge-community.org.uk.

Cruickshank, D.R. (1986). CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS FOR TEACHERS. Teacher

Education Quarterly, [online] 13(1), pp.82–89.

Erstad, W. (2018). 6 Critical Thinking Skills You Need to Master Now. [online] Rasmussen.edu.

McMillan, K. and Weyers, J. (2012) How to improve your critical thinking and reflective
skills. 1st ed. [online] Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited.

Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2013). Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Professional
and Personal Life. 2nd ed. [online] USA: Pearson Education.

Peters, M.A. (2017) Encyclopedia of educational philosophy and theory. 1st ed. [online]
Singapore: Springer.

Phillips, D.C. (2014). Encyclopedia of educational theory and philosophy. [online] Los
Angeles, California: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp.134–136.

Ruggiero, V.R. (2011). Beyond Feelings: A Guide to Critical Thinking. 6th ed. [online]
Mountain View, Calif.: Mayfield Pub. Co.

Shacklock, G. and Smyth, J. (2004). Being Reflexive in Critical and Social Educational
Research (Social Research and Educational Studies Series). 2nd ed. [online] London:
Falmer Press.

Smyth, J. (2000). Reclaiming Social Capital Through Critical Teaching. The Elementary
School Journal, [online] 100(5), pp.491–511.

Winch, C. and Gingell, J. (1999) Key concepts in the philosophy of education. [online] London
UK: London Routledge.

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