Geometric Modelling

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PT
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Prof. Janakarajan Ramkumar
Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
• Understand the various requirements for the information that is
generated during the geometric modelling stage.

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• Study various types of geometric models possible and their
applications

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• Develop various methodologies used for geometric construction
such as sweep, surface models, solid models, etc.

• Recognize the various types of surfaces and their application as used

N
in geometric modelling
•
• Understand the solid construction methods including b-rep and CSG
methods

2
• The computer compatible mathematical description of the geometry of
the object is called as geometric modeling.

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• The CAD software allows the mathematical description of the object to be
displayed as the image on the monitor of the computer.

PT
• A geometric model contains description of the modelled object’s shape.
Since geometric shapes are described by surfaces, curves are used to
construct them.
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• Computer geometric modelling uses curves to control the object’s surfaces
as they are easy to manipulate.

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Geometric modelling of a computer mouse

https://www.coroflot.com/MJFellis/Mouse-Design-CAD-Nov-2011
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❖ There are three steps in which the designer can create geometric models
by using CAD software, these are:

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1) Creation of basic geometric objects: In the first step the designer
creates basic geometric elements by using commands like points, lines, and
circles.

PT
2) Transformations of the elements: In the second step the designer uses
commands like achieve scaling, rotation and other related transformations
of the geometric elements.
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3) Creation of the geometric model: During the final step the designer uses
various commands to that cause integration of the objects or elements of
the geometric model to form the desired shape.

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https://in.pinterest.com/pin/753860425103945294/?lp=true
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1. Design analysis:

• Evaluation of areas and volumes.

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• Evaluation of mass and inertia properties.

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• Interference checking in assemblies.

• Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies.

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• Analysis of kinematics — mechanics, robotics.

• Automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis.

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2. Drafting

• Automatic planar cross sectioning.

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• Automatic hidden line and surface removal.

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• Automatic production of shaded images.

• Automatic dimensioning.
N
• Automatic creation of exploded views for technical illustrations.

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3. Manufacturing

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• Parts classification.

• Process planning.

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• Numerical control data generation and verification.
N
• Robot program generation.

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4. Production Engineering
 Bill of materials.

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 Material requirement.

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 Manufacturing resource requirement.

 Scheduling.
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5. Inspection and Quality Control:
 Program generation for inspection machines.

 Comparison of produced part with design.

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❖ Two-dimensional

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❖ Three-dimensional

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The three principal classifications can be

• The line model (wireframe modelling),

N
• The surface model, and

• The solid or volume model

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 EL
PT
N

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

Features Line model Surface model Volume model
Automatic view Impossible Impossible Possible

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generation (perspective
and orthographic)

Cross-sectioning

Elimination of hidden
PT
Manually guided

Manually guided
Manually guided

May be possible
Possible, even
automated cross-
hatching is possible
Possible
N
details
Analysis functions Difficult or Difficult or Possible
(Geometric calculations) impossible impossible

Numerical control Difficult or Automatic possible Automatic possible

application impossible

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1. Point definitions

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2. Line definitions

3. Circle definitions

4. Arc definitions PT
N

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1. Point Definitions

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Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

2. Line Definitions

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Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

3. Circle Definitions

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Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

4. Arc Definitions

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N

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

 Wireframe Data representation for a Cube 8
Vertex number X coordinate Y coordinate Z coordinate 8 7
1 0 0 0
7
2 10 0 0 5 12
3 10 10 0 5 6

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4 0 10 0 6
5 0 0 15 11
9
6 10 0 15 4
7 10 10 15 4 3

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8 0 10 15 10
1 3
Edge number Start point End point
1 1 2 1 2
2 2 3
2
3 3 4
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4 4 1
5 5 6
6 6 7
7 7 8
8 8 5
9 1 5
10 1 6
11 1 7
12 1 8
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❖Planar surface

• A planar surface is a flat 2D surface.

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❖Curved surface

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• Single curved surface: It is a simple curved surface.

• Double curved surface: It is a complex surface generated not by a

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straight line but a curved surface.

❖Ruled surface: Ruled surface is a surface constructed by transitioning

between two or more curves by using linear blending between each
section of the surface.

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 EL
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https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/465207836504089607/
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❖ Types of surfaces used in Geometric Modelling

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PT
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Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

❖ Ruled surface on the left is shown the curves from which the ruled
surface on the right is formed.

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PT
N

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

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❖ Two different ruled surfaces formed between two space curves

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Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

• Implicit form and Parametric form

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• In implicit form, the curve is represented as
f (x, y, z) = 0
g (x, y, z) = 0

• PT
In parametric form, the curve is represented as
X = x(u)
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Y = y(u)
Z = z(u)

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Major curves:

 Line

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 Circle
 Ellipse
 Parabola



Hyperbola

Bezier
PT
N
 B-splines
 NURBS

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Major curves:

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PT
N

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• Y=mX+b

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•
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The parametric form for the line can be given as
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X = ax u + bx for 0  u  1
Y = ay u + b y
Z = az u + b z

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• (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2

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•
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The parametric form of a circle is given by

X = r cos 
N
Y = r sin 
Where 0    2
r is the radius of the circle.

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 The parametric form of an ellipse whose centre lies at the origin of the
co-ordinate system is given by

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x = a cos 
y = b sin 

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N

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• Implicit form
y2 = 4ax

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•

X = a u2
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One of the parametric form is given by
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y=2au

Where 0 ≤ u ≤ ∞

Since parabola is not a closed curve like an ellipse, the value of u needs to be
limited for display purpose.
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• The implicit form of a hyperbola is given by

x2 y2

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2
− 2 =1
a b
• One of the parametric forms of a hyperbola is given by

PT
x = a cosh 
y = b sinh 
N

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• A Bezier curve is a mathematically defined curve used in two-
dimensional graphic applications.
• The curve is defined by points: the initial position and the terminating
position (which are called "anchors") and middle points (which are

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called "handles or control points").
• The shape of a Bezier curve can be altered by moving the control points.

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N

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B%C3%A9zier_3_big.gif
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Bezier curves and the Associated Control Polygon

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https://plus.maths.org/content/bridges-string-art-and-bezier-curves Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

Example:

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https://plus.maths.org/content/bridges-string-art-and-bezier-curves Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

❖In the case of Bezier curve, it is a single curve controlled by all the control
points.
• With an increase in the number of control points, the order of the

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polynomial representing the curve increases.

❖B-spline generates a single piecewise parametric polynomial curve

PT
through any number of control points with the degree of the polynomial
selected by the designer.
N

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 Non-uniform rational basis spline (NURBS) is a mathematical model
commonly used in computer graphics for generating and representing
curves and surfaces.

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 It offers great flexibility and precision for handling both analytic
(surfaces defined by common mathematical formulae)

PT
and modeled shapes.

 NURBS is flexible for designing a large variety of shapes by manipulating

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the control points and weights.

 Weights in the NURBS data structure determine the amount of surface

deflection toward or away from its control point.

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 Evaluation of NURBS is reasonably fast and numerically stable.

EL
PT
N

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 EL
❖The three-dimensional geometric construction methods which extend
from the 2D that is normally used are:

• Linear extrusion

• translational sweepPT
N
• Rotational sweep etc.

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Geometric Construction Methods

❖ Extrusion

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PT
N

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

Geometric Construction Methods
❖ Linear sweep between two cross sections

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PT
❖ Sweep two cross sections along a guide curve
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Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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Geometric Construction Methods

❖ Component Model by Rotational Sweep

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PT
N

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

❖ Various Solid-Modelling Primitives

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PT
N

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 Geometric Construction Methods

❖ Boolean Operators and their effect on Model Construction

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Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

 Geometric Construction Methods
❖ Boolean Operators examples:

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PT
N

Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH

 Geometric Construction Methods
❖ Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• It is a technique used in solid modeling.
• Constructive solid geometry allows a modeler to create a complex

EL
surface or object by using Boolean operators to combine simpler
objects.
• potentially generating visually complex objects by combining a few
primitive ones.
PT
N

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_solid_geometry
Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, 2010, TMH
Geometric Constraints

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Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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Geometric Constraints

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Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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Geometric Constraints

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Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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Geometric Constraints

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Zeid, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2004, TMH

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 Summary

 Geometric Modelling
 Function of Geometric Modelling

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 Comparison of different modelling methods
 Free form curves



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Geometric Construction Methods
Geometric Constraints
N

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 References

1. Rao, P.N., 2004. CAD/CAM: principles and applications. Tata McGraw-

Hill Education.

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2. Zeid, I., 1991. CAD/CAM theory and practice. McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.

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N

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PT
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N
PT
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Computer Numerical Control

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Prof. Janakarajan Ramkumar
Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Objective

• Numerical Control (NC)

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• Computer Numerical Control(CNC)

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• Difference between NC & CNC

• Types of CNC machines

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• Elements of CNC System
 Numerical Control
• Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method of
automation in which various functions of machine tools are controlled
by letters, numbers and symbols.

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• It is the automation of machine tools that are operated by precisely
programmed commands encoded on a storage medium, as opposed
to controlled manually.

PT
• Most NC today is computer numerical control (CNC), in which
computers play an integral part of the control.
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 History of CNC

• 1949:US Air Force asks MIT to develop a "numerically controlled" machine.

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• 1952:Prototype NC machine demonstrated (punched tape input).

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• 1980:CNC machines (computer used to link directly to controller).
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• 1990:DNC: external computer “drip feeds” control programmer to machine

tool controller.
 Basic Components of an NC System

1. Program of instructions
– Called a part program in machining

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2. Machine control unit
– Controls the process

– PT
3. Processing equipment
Performs the process
N
 Part program

• A series of coded instructions required to produce a part.

• Controls the movement of the machine tool and on/off control of auxiliary

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functions such as spindle rotation and coolant.

• The coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers and symbols.

•
PT
The program input device is the means for part program to be entered into
the CNC control.
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• Three commonly used program input devices are punch tape reader, magnetic
tape reader, and computer via RS-232-C communication.
 Part program

• Word address format

• Program Coding Systems

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– Binary
– Decimal
– BCD
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• Part Program Input
– Paper tape (now obsolete)
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– Manual Data Input (MDI)
– Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
 Machine Control Unit

The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a NC and CNC system. It is used to
perform the following functions:

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• To read the coded instructions.
• To decode the coded instructions.
• To implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to generate axis
motion commands.
PT
• To feed the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the
axis mechanisms.
N
• To receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
• To implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off
and tool change.
Principle of operation of a
NC machine tool

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Elements of NC tool operation

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 Configuration of NC machine

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Configuration of a typical NC machine: (a) the machine control unit, (b) hand
wheel dial, and (c) closed-loop control.

Chang, 2003. Product Manufacturing and Cost Estimating using CAD/CAE. Elsevier Inc.
Control of axis motion in a
NC machine tool

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PT
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Elements CNC tool operation

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PT
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http://www.helmancnc.com/cnc-lathe-main-parts/
Principle of operation of a
CNC machine tool

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Control of axis motion in a
CNC machine tool

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PT
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N
PT
EL
 Why NC?

• For the parts having complex contours, that cannot be manufactured by

conventional machine tools.

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• For jobs requiring very high accuracy and repeatability.

PT
• For jobs requiring many set-ups and/or the setups very expensive.

• The parts that are subjected to frequent design changes and consequently
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require more expensive manufacturing methods.

• Inspection time is reduced, since all the parts in a batch would be identical
provided proper care is taken about the tool compensations and
 Advantages of NC

• Nonproductive time is reduced

• Greater accuracy and repeatability
• Lower scrap rates

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• Inspection requirements are reduced
• More complex part geometries are possible
•
•
PT
Engineering changes are easier to make
Simpler fixtures
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• Shorter lead times
• Reduce parts inventory and less floor space
• Operator skill-level requirements are reduced
 Other Applications of NC

• Rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing

• Water jet cutting and abrasive water jet cutting

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• Component placement machines in electronics assembly

• Coordinate measuring machines

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• Wood routers and granite cutters

• Tape laying machines for polymer composites

N
• Filament winding machines for polymer composites
 Disadvantages of NC

• Higher investment cost

– CNC machines are more expensive

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• Higher maintenance effort
– CNC machines are more technologically sophisticated
• Part programming issues
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– Need for skilled programmers
– Time investment for each new part
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– Repeat orders are easy because part program is already available
 Common NC Machining Operations

a) Turning

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b) drilling
c) milling
d) grinding

PT
N

Turning
NC vs CNC

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PT
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CNC Machine working

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PT
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https://giphy.com/gifs/duet-cZWZQQynj7sNq
Input, process, output

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PT
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 Other operations in CNC

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CNC Plasma Cutter
PT CNC Engraving
N

CNC Electric Discharge Machining

 Computer Numerical Control
Additional Features
• Storage of more than one part program
• Program editing at the machine tool
•

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Fixed cycles and programming subroutines
• Adaptive control
• Interpolation
•
PT
Positioning features for setup – to help operator align work part on
machine tool table
• Acceleration and deceleration computations
N
• Communications interface
• Diagnostics
 Automatic Functions in Tool
spindle

• Starting and stopping of machine tool spindle

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• Controlling the spindle speed

• Positioning the tool tip at desired locations and guiding it along desired

PT
paths by automatic control of the motion of slides
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• Controlling the rate of movement of the tool tip (i.e. feed rate)

• Changing of tools in the spindle.

Finding directions in a Right Hand
Co-ordinate System

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PT
N
 NC Coordinate Systems

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PT
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(a) For flat and block-like parts and (b) for rotational parts
 Designating the Axes

• First axis to be identified is the Z-axis. This is followed by the X

and Y axes respectively.

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PT
N
Vertical axis Milling machine

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PT
N
Axes designation for CNC turning
center

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PT
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CNC Horizontal axis boring mills in
3 and 4 axes versions

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PT
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5 axes CNC Vertical axis machining
center configuration

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PT
N
 Types of CNC machines

• Based on Control Loops:

Open loop or Closed loop

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• Based on Motion Type:
Point-to-Point or Continuous path

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• Based on Power Supply:
Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic
N
• Based on Positioning System
Incremental or Absolute
 Control Loops

• Open loop systems have no access to the real time data about the
performance of the system and therefore no immediate corrective action can
be taken in case of system disturbance.

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PT
N
Open Loop Systems

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PT
N
 Control Loops

• In a close loop system, feed back devices closely monitor the output
and any disturbance will be corrected in the first instance. Therefore high
system accuracy is achievable.

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PT
N
Close Loop Systems

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PT
N
 Motion Control Systems

Point-To-Point Control in CNC Drilling of Three Holes in Flat Plate

• System moves to a location and performs an operation at that
location (e.g., drilling)

EL
• Also applicable in robotics

PT
N
 Motion Control Systems

Continuous Path Control in CNC Profile Milling of Part Outline

• Also called contouring systems in machining

• System performs an operation during movement

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(e.g., milling and turning)

PT
N
 Computer Numeric Control

Define Tool

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PT CNC data
N
Make 3D model
Simulate
cutting
 Elements of a CNC System

• Input Device
• Central Processing Unit/ Machine Control Unit

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• Machine Tool
• Driving System
• Feedback Devices
• Display Unit
PT
N
 Input Devices

• Floppy Disk Drive

• USB Flash Drive

EL
• Serial Communication

PT
• Ethernet communication

• Conversational Programming
N
 Central Processing Unit/ Machine
Control Unit

• The CPU is the heart of a CNC system.

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• It accepts the information stored in the memory as part program.

• This data is decoded and transformed into specific position control and
velocity signals.
PT
• It also oversees the movement of the control axis or spindle and whenever
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this does not match with the programmed values, a corrective action as
taken.
Central Processing Unit/ Machine
Control Unit

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PT
N
 Cutting Tools

• Most are made from high speed steel (HSS), tungsten carbide or ceramics.

• Tools are designed to direct waste away from the material.

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• Some tools need coolant such as oil to protect the tool and work.

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N

https://giphy.com/explore/cnc-machine
https://gfycat.com/gifs/search/milling+machine
 Driving System

• The requirement is that the driving system has to response accurately

according to the programmed instructions.

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• The motor is coupled either directly or through a gear box to the machine
lead screw to moves the machine slide or the spindle.

PT
• Three types of electrical motors are commonly used:

1. DC Servo motor
N
2. AC Servo motor

3. Stepper motor
 Servo motors

• Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that produce precise

degrees of rotation.

• Servomotors are also called control motors as they are involved in controlling a

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mechanical system.

• The servomotors are used in a closed-loop servo system

PT
• Input is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls the speed of the
servomotor.
N
• In many servo systems, both velocity and position are monitored.

• Servomotors provide accurate speed, torque, and have ability of direction

control.
 DC Servo Motor

• The principle of operation is based on the rotation of an armature winding

in a permanently energized magnetic field.

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• The armature winding is connected to a commutator, which is a cylinder of
insulated copper segments mounted on the shaft.

PT
• DC current is passed to the commutator through carbon brushes, which
are connected to the machine terminals.
N
 DC Servo Motor

• The change of the motor speed is by varying the armature voltage and the
control of motor torque is achieved by controlling the motor's armature
current.

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• In order to achieve the necessary dynamic behavior it is operated in a closed
loop system equipped with sensors to obtain the velocity and position
feedback signals.

PT
N
 AC Servo Motor

• In an AC servomotor, the rotor is a permanent magnet while the stator

is equipped with 3-phase windings.

EL
• Magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current which
further produce the torque.

•
PT
It has no brushes so there is little noise/vibration. This motor provides
high precision control with the help of high resolution encoder.
N
• The speed and position of the motor is notified by the encoder, which
can be incremental or absolute.
 AC Servo Motor

• The stator is composed of a core and a winding. The rotor part

comprises of shaft, rotor core and a permanent magnet.

EL
• Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It gives digital
signals, which are in proportion of rotation of the shaft.

PT
N
Servo system block diagram

EL
PT
N
 Advantages of servo motors
• Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia ratio, and high
speeds

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• Work well for velocity control
• Available in all sizes
• Quiet in operation
•
PT
Smoother rotation at lower speeds

Disadvantages of servo motors

N
• More expensive than stepper motors
• Require tuning of control loop parameters
• Not suitable for hazardous environments or in vacuum
• Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization of DC type servo
motor
 Stepper Motor

• The stepper motor is known by its property to convert a train of input pulses
(typically square wave pulses) into a precisely defined increment in the shaft
position.

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• Each pulse moves the shaft through a fixed angle.
• Multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped
piece of iron.

PT
• The electromagnets are energized by an external driver circuit or a micro
controller. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.
N
 What does Stepper means?

• To make the motor shaft turn, first, one electromagnet is given power,
which magnetically attracts the gear's teeth.
• When the gear's teeth are aligned to the first electromagnet, they are
slightly offset from the next electromagnet.

EL
• This means that when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is
turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one.
• From there the process is repeated. Each of those rotations is called a

PT
"step", with an integer number of steps making a full rotation.
N

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motor
 Stepper Motor types

Types of stepper motors:

• Permanent Magnet

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Employ permanent magnet
Low speed, relatively high torque

PT
• Variable Reluctance
Does not have permanent magnet
Low torque
N
 Permanent magnet (PM) stepper
motor
• Rotor is a permanent magnet.
• PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right

EL
angle to its axis.
• Figure shows a simple, 90⁰ PM motor with four phases (A-D).

PT
• Applying current to each phase in sequence will cause the rotor to rotate
by adjusting to the changing magnetic fields.
N
• Although it operates at fairly low speed, the PM motor has a relatively
high torque characteristic.
• These are low cost motors with typical step angle ranging between 7.5⁰
to 15⁰
Permanent magnet (PM) stepper
motor

EL
PT
N
Permanent magnet stepper
 Variable Reluctance Motor

• The cylindrical rotor is made of soft steel and has four poles.

• It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰ apart and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart.

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• Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils in sequence.

PT
• It attracts the metal rotor. When the windings are energized in a reoccurring
sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle.

• In the non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the
N
stator is an electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no
detent torque.
 Variable Reluctance Motor

EL
PT
N
Variable reluctance stepper motor
 Hybrid stepper motor

• Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent magnet and a rotor with

metal teeth to provide features of the variable reluctance and permanent
magnet motors together.

EL
• The number of rotor pole pairs is equal to the number of teeth on one of
the rotor's parts.

PT
• The hybrid motor stator has teeth creating more poles than the main
poles windings.
N
• When a winding is energized, north and south poles are created,
depending on the polarity of the current flowing.

• These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor and also
the finer metal teeth present on rotor.
Hybrid stepper motor

EL
PT
N
Hybrid stepper
 Advantages of stepper motors
• Low cost
• Ruggedness

EL
• Simplicity of construction
• Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip
•
•
PT
Will work in any environment
Excellent start-stop and reversing responses
N
Disadvantages of stepper motors
• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
• Limited speed
• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise
occur when running at high speed.
 Stepper Motor calculations

• CNC uses a stepper motor to rotate the lead screw. A stepper motor is
driven by series of electrical pulses generated by MCU (Machine Control
Unit).

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• For each pulse the motor rotates a fraction of revolution called Step Angle,
it is given by:

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Where, ns = Number of step angles for the motor (an integer)
• If np is the pulses received by the motor then angle through which motor
rotates is:
 Stepper Motor calculations

• Lead Screw is connected to the motor shaft through a gear box.

• Angle of the lead screw rotation taking the gear ratio into account is given
by

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PT rg = Gear ratio = Am/A= Nm/ N
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• Nm= RPM of motor, N= RPM of lead Screw
• A: Angle of Rotation(Am/ rg), p= Lead screw pitch
• The linear movement of worktable is given by:
 Stepper Motor calculations

• Total number of pulses required to achieve a specified x-position increment

is calculated by:

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Where ,ns = 360/ α

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• Control pulses are transmitted from pulse generator at a certain frequency
which drives the work table at the corresponding velocity.
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• The rotational speed of lead screw depends on the frequency of the pulse
train
Equation (1)

N = RPM of lead screw, fp = frequency of pulse train (Hz, Pulses/sec)

 Stepper Motor calculations

• The table travel speed in the direction of lead screw axis is determined by:

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝑝

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Equation (2)

Where, Vt = Table travel speed (mm/min)

PTfr = Table feed rate (mm/min)

• The required pulse train frequency to drive the table at a specified linear
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travel rate by combining equations (1) and (2):
 Numerical Problem

Q1. The shaft of a stepping motor is connected directly to the X-axis leadscrew
of the machine table. The pitch of the leadscrew is 3.0mm. The number of step
angles on the stepping motor is 200.

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a) Determine how closely the position of the table can be controlled, assuming
that there are no mechanical errors in the positioning system.
b) b) What is the required frequency of the pulse train and the corresponding

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rotational speed of the stepping motor in order to drive the table at a travel
rate of 100 mm/min?
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Numerical Problem

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 Numerical Problem

Q2. The work table of a positioning system is driven by a leadscrew whose

pitch=6.0mm. The leadscrew is connected to the output shaft of a stepping
motor through a gearbox whose ratio is 5:1(5 turns of the motor to one turn of

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the leadscrew).The stepping motor has 48 step angles. The table must move a
distance of 250mm from its present position at a linear velocity =500mm/min.
a) Determine how many pulses are required to move the table the specified
distance and

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b) the required motor speed and pulse rate to achieve the desired table
velocity.
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Numerical Problem

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PT
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 Linear motion drives

• Linear motion drives are mechanical transmission systems which are used to
convert rotary motion into linear motion.

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• The conventional thread forms like ‘V’ or square are not suitable in CNC
because of their high wear and less efficiency.

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• Therefore CNC machines generally employ ball screw for driving their
workpiece carriages.
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• These drives provide backlash free operation with low friction-wear
characteristics.

• These are efficient and accurate in comparison with that of nut-and-screw

drives. Most widely used linear motion drives are ball screws.
 Ball Lead Screws

• Ball lead screw is the heart of the drive system.

• Advantages of ball lead screw are:
• Precise position and repeatability

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• High Speed capability
• Less Wear
• Longer life

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Ball Lead Screws

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 Feedback Devices

Two types of feed back devices normally used are:

1. Positional Feed Back Devices
1.1 Linear Transducers - a device mounted on the machine table to measure

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the actual displacement of the slide in such a way that backlash of screws,
motors etc. would not cause any error in the feed back data.

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https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/cnc-linear-encoder-12573739991.html
 Feedback Devices

1.2 Rotary Encoders: a device to measure the angular displacement. It cannot

measure linear displacement directly so that error may occur due to the
backlash of screw and motor etc.

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Rotary Encoders

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https://gfycat.com/gifs/search/rotary+encoder
The closed loop feedback control
system

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The absolute encoder disc for rotary
position measurement.

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Operation of a digital rotary encoder
for position measurement

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The encoder disc mounted on
the lead screw

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PT
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 Principle of optical grating for
position measurement in linear scales

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The linear scale fixed to the machine
tool structure

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PT
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 Analysis of Positioning NC Systems

• Precision in NC positioning - three measures:

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1. Control resolution
2. Accuracy

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3. Repeatability
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 Positioning NC Systems

Three measures of precision:

1. Control resolution - distance separating two adjacent

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addressable points in the axis movement
2. Accuracy - maximum possible error that can occur between
the desired target point and the actual position taken by the
system
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3. Repeatability - defined as 3 of the mechanical error
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distribution associated with the axis
Control Resolution, Accuracy, and
Repeatability

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PT
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 Velocity Feedback Device

• The actual speed of the motor can be measured in terms of voltage

generated from a tachometer mounted at the end of the motor shaft.

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• The voltage generated by the DC tachometer is compared with the
command voltage corresponding to the desired speed.

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• The difference of the voltages is used to actuate the motor to eliminate the
error.
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 Display Unit

Interface between the machine and the operator.

The Display Unit displays:
• position of the machine slide

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• spindle RPM
• feed rate
• part programs

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• graphics simulation of the tool path.
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 Interpolation Methods

1. Linear interpolation
– Straight line between two points in space

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2. Circular interpolation
– Circular arc defined by starting point, end point, center or radius,
and direction

– PT
3. Helical interpolation
Circular plus linear motion
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4. Parabolic and cubic interpolation
– Free form curves using higher order equations
 Linear interpolation

• The axis of the spindle moves in the orthogonal movement from the beginning
to the end of the path

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• The program is divided into short straight lines.

• More line better is the approximation of the actual path.

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 Circular Interpolation

• The axis of spindle moves in a series of straight line cord segment to

generate a circular motion
• More segment better will be the approximation.

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• Approximation of a curved path in NC by
a series of straight line segments, where
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tolerance is defined on (a) inside, (b)
outside, and (c) both inside and outside
of the actual curve
 Absolute and Incremental
Positioning
• An ABSOLUTE movement moves TO A COORDINATE based on your ZERO
POINT.

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• An INCREMENTAL movement moves A DISTANCE based on your CURRENT
POSITION. An incremental movement does not take your part zero point

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into consideration.
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 Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning

The work head is presently at

point (20, 20) and is to be moved

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to point (40, 50)
• In absolute positioning, the
move is specified by
x = 40, y = 50
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• In incremental positioning, the
move is specified by x = 20, y =
N
30
 Summary

• What is Numerical Control (NC)?

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• What is Computer Numerical Control(CNC)?

• Difference between NC & CNC?

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• Various types of CNC machines
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• Various elements of CNC System
 References

1. Rao, P.N., 2004. CAD/CAM: principles and applications. Tata McGraw-Hill

Education.

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2. Zeid, I., 1991. CAD/CAM theory and practice. McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.

3.
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Lee, K., 1999. Principles of CAD/CAM/CAE systems. Addison-Wesley
Longman Publishing Co., Inc.
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Thank You

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