Switching Techniques: Circuit Switching, Packet Switching, and Message

Switching

1. What is Circuit Switching? Explain its process and applications.

Answer:
Circuit switching is a communication technique in which a dedicated communication path is
established between two nodes or devices for the duration of the communication session.

Process:

1. Connection Establishment: A physical path is set up before data transfer.

2. Data Transfer: Communication occurs over the established path.
3. Connection Termination: The dedicated path is released once communication ends.

Applications:

● Telephone networks.
● Real-time communication systems (e.g., video conferencing).

Circuit switching ensures consistent quality but is inefficient as the reserved path remains
unused during silence periods.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Circuit Switching?

Answer:
Advantages:

1. Dedicated connection ensures consistent quality and no delay once the connection is
established.
2. Predictable performance suitable for real-time applications.

Disadvantages:

1. Inefficient resource usage since the path remains reserved even during idle times.
2. Long setup time due to the requirement of establishing a connection before
communication.

3. What is Packet Switching? How does it differ from Circuit Switching?

Answer:
Packet switching is a technique where data is divided into small packets before being sent over
a network. Each packet travels independently to the destination.

Differences from Circuit Switching:

1. No dedicated path; packets travel via the best available route.

2. Efficient resource utilization, as bandwidth is shared.
3. Packets may arrive out of order and need reassembly.

Packet switching is used in the internet and other data communication networks.

4. Explain the process of Packet Switching with an example.

Answer:
Process:

1. Data is divided into packets.

2. Each packet is labeled with source, destination, and sequence numbers.
3. Packets travel independently through routers.
4. At the destination, packets are reassembled in order.

Example:
When sending an email, the message is split into packets. Each packet finds its way through the
network and is reassembled at the recipient’s email server.

5. What are the advantages of Packet Switching?

Answer:

1. Efficient Resource Usage: Bandwidth is dynamically shared among packets.

2. Fault Tolerance: Packets can reroute in case of link failure.
3. Scalability: Supports millions of simultaneous connections.

Applications:
Packet switching is the backbone of internet communication protocols like TCP/IP.

6. What is Message Switching? How does it work?

Answer:
Message switching involves sending entire messages from the source to the destination via
intermediate nodes. Unlike packet switching, the complete message is stored and forwarded at
each intermediate node.

How It Works:

1. A message is created at the source and sent to the first intermediate node.
2. The intermediate node stores the message until the next node is available.
3. The process continues until the message reaches the destination.

7. Compare Circuit Switching, Packet Switching, and Message Switching.

Answer:

Feature Circuit Switching Packet Message

Switching Switching

Path Dedicated Shared Stored-and-forward

Efficiency Low High Moderate

Delay Low (after setup) Variable High

Example Telephone Internet (TCP/IP) Telegraph Systems

Logical Addressing: IPv4 and IPv6 Address Schemes, Classes, and

Subnetting

8. What is an IP Address? Explain IPv4 with an example.

Answer:
An IP address is a unique identifier for a device on a network. IPv4 uses 32 bits, represented in
dotted-decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

Structure:

● Divided into four octets.

● Supports approximately 4.3 billion addresses.

Example:
 ● 192.168.0.1 represents a device in a private network.

9. What are the classes of IPv4 addresses? Provide examples.

Answer:
IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes:

Clas Range Default Subnet Mask Purpose

s

A 1.0.0.0 – 126.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Large networks

B 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.0.0 255.255.0.0 Medium-sized networks

C 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 Small networks

D 224.0.0.0 – N/A Multicasting

239.255.255.255

E 240.0.0.0 – N/A Reserved for research

255.255.255.255

10. Explain the IPv6 addressing scheme and its advantages.

Answer:
IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, written in hexadecimal notation (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).

Advantages of IPv6:

1. Larger address space (3.4×10³⁸ addresses).

2. Improved routing and auto-configuration.
3. Built-in security features like IPsec.

IPv6 is essential for the expanding internet.

Switching Techniques: Circuit Switching, Packet Switching, and Message

Switching
11. Describe the working of Circuit Switching in real-time applications.

Answer:
Circuit switching works by creating a dedicated physical communication path between two
endpoints. It is ideal for real-time, uninterrupted communication.

Example in Real-Time Applications:

● During a traditional phone call, a dedicated line connects two telephones.

● Any delay in setting up this line leads to call setup delays.
● The communication remains consistent without interruptions until the call ends.

12. Why is Circuit Switching inefficient in modern networks?

Answer:
Reasons for Inefficiency:

1. Resources are reserved even when no data is being transmitted.

2. The circuit cannot be used by others during idle times.
3. Limited scalability due to the fixed allocation of network bandwidth.

Modern networks prefer packet switching for better utilization of bandwidth and dynamic routing.

13. What are the challenges of implementing Packet Switching in

large-scale networks?

Answer:
Challenges:

1. Congestion Control: Networks can become overloaded with packets.

2. Packet Loss: Packets may be lost due to buffer overflow or network errors.
3. Reassembly Delays: Packets arriving out of order require reassembly, increasing
delays.
4. Quality of Service (QoS): Ensuring consistent quality in multimedia transmissions can
be challenging.

Despite these challenges, packet switching remains the backbone of internet communication.
14. Explain the differences between Datagram Packet Switching and Virtual
Circuit Switching.

Answer:

Feature Datagram Switching Virtual Circuit Switching

Path Dynamic for each packet Predefined before transmission

Overhead High, as headers contain full routing Low, as headers contain

information connection ID

Reliability Less reliable More reliable

Example Internet (UDP protocol) MPLS, ATM networks

Virtual Circuit Switching combines the advantages of circuit and packet switching by predefining
the path while maintaining packet switching flexibility.

15. Compare the storage requirements of Packet Switching and Message

Switching.

Answer:

1. Packet Switching: Requires minimal storage at routers as packets are forwarded

immediately. Buffers hold temporary data.
2. Message Switching: Requires significant storage at intermediate nodes as the entire
message is stored before forwarding.

Example:

● A 100MB file in message switching requires 100MB at every intermediate router.

● In packet switching, only a few KB are buffered at a time.

Logical Addressing: IPv4 and IPv6 Address Schemes, Classes, and

Subnetting

16. What is Subnetting? Explain its purpose with examples.

Answer:
Subnetting is dividing a large network into smaller, manageable subnetworks (subnets).

Purpose:

1. Efficient IP address utilization.

2. Improved network management and security.
3. Reduced broadcast traffic.

Example:
A Class C network 192.168.1.0/24 can be divided into 4 subnets:

● Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0/26 (64 addresses).

● Subnet 2: 192.168.1.64/26.
● Subnet 3: 192.168.1.128/26.
● Subnet 4: 192.168.1.192/26.

Each subnet can serve a smaller group of devices.

17. Compare IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes.

Answer:

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address Length 32 bits 128 bits

Format Dotted-decimal Hexadecimal

Example 192.168.0.1 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:733

4

Address Space ~4.3 billion 3.4×10³⁸ addresses

addresses

Header Size Smaller Larger

Security Optional (IPSec) Mandatory (IPSec built-in)

IPv6 overcomes IPv4's limitations, especially with the growing number of devices.

Network Layer Protocols: ARP, RARP, BOOTP, and DHCP

18. What is ARP? Explain its purpose with an example.

Answer:
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) maps an IP address to a MAC address in a local network.

Purpose:
When a device knows an IP address but needs the MAC address for communication within a
LAN, ARP resolves this.

Example:

1. A device (192.168.1.1) needs to send data to 192.168.1.2.

2. It broadcasts an ARP request for the MAC address of 192.168.1.2.
3. The target device replies with its MAC address.

The mapping is stored in an ARP table for future use.

19. What is the difference between ARP and RARP?

Answer:

Feature ARP RARP

Purpose Resolves IP to MAC address Resolves MAC to IP

address

Direction Request from source Request from destination

Usage For outgoing communication For booting diskless devices

20. How does DHCP simplify network configuration?

Answer:
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automates IP address assignment in networks.

Steps:

1. A device sends a DHCP Discover request.

2. A DHCP server responds with an IP offer.
3. The device requests the offered IP.
4. The server confirms and assigns the address.
This reduces manual configuration errors and simplifies network management.

Routing Techniques: Interdomain and Intradomain Routing with Examples

21. What is Intradomain Routing? Explain with examples.

Answer:
Intradomain routing refers to routing within a single autonomous system (AS). It focuses on
efficiency and simplicity.

Examples:

1. RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A distance-vector protocol using hop counts.

○ Example: A router selects the shortest path based on the least number of hops.
2. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A link-state protocol that uses cost metrics to
determine the best path.

22. What is Interdomain Routing? How is it implemented?

Answer:
Interdomain routing manages routing between multiple autonomous systems.

Implementation:

● BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): The primary protocol for interdomain routing. It
ensures policies are maintained between ISPs while routing packets.
● Example: Google and an ISP exchanging routing information via BGP.

23. Compare Intradomain and Interdomain Routing.

Answer:

Feature Intradomain Routing Interdomain Routing

Scope Single Autonomous Multiple Autonomous Systems

System
 Protocol RIP, OSPF BGP
s

Focus Efficiency and simplicity Policy and scalability

24. Explain Message Switching with an example. How does it differ from
Packet Switching?

Answer:
Message switching is a technique where the entire message is stored at each intermediate
node before being forwarded to the next node.

Example:

● A 10MB email sent from a user in New York to a recipient in London is stored fully at
each intermediate router.
● Each router processes and forwards the entire email sequentially.

Difference from Packet Switching:

● In packet switching, the email is divided into smaller packets, which are transmitted
independently.
● Packet switching is faster and more efficient, as no complete message is stored at
routers.

25. What are the advantages of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching?

Answer:
Advantages of Packet Switching:

1. Efficient Utilization: Network resources are shared among multiple users.

2. Scalability: Can handle a large number of users dynamically.
3. Fault Tolerance: Packets can take alternate routes if a link fails.
4. Cost-Effective: No dedicated paths are needed, reducing setup costs.

Example: The internet relies on packet switching for efficient communication.

26. What are the limitations of Message Switching, and why is it rarely used
today?
Answer:
Limitations:

1. High Latency: Entire messages must be stored before forwarding, causing delays.
2. Storage Requirements: Intermediate nodes need significant storage for large
messages.
3. No Real-Time Communication: Unsuitable for applications like video calls.

Example: While suitable for applications like emails in the past, message switching has been
replaced by more efficient techniques like packet switching.

27. How does subnetting improve network security?

Answer:
Subnetting divides a network into smaller subnets, isolating groups of devices.

Security Benefits:

1. Limits broadcast traffic to a specific subnet, reducing exposure to attacks.

2. Allows applying access control lists (ACLs) to specific subnets.
3. Isolates sensitive devices (e.g., servers) from general users.

Example:
A company can create separate subnets for HR (192.168.1.0/24) and IT
(192.168.2.0/24), ensuring HR systems are inaccessible to unauthorized users.

28. Describe the process of subnet mask calculation with an example.

Answer:
Subnet masks determine which part of an IP address represents the network and which part
represents the host.

Steps to Calculate:

1. Determine the number of subnets needed.

2. Convert the subnet requirement into binary bits.
3. Adjust the subnet mask accordingly.

Example:

● For a Class C network 192.168.1.0/24, creating 4 subnets requires borrowing 2 bits.

● New subnet mask: /26 (255.255.255.192).
 ● Subnets:
○ 192.168.1.0 - 192.168.1.63
○ 192.168.1.64 - 192.168.1.127

29. What is IPv6’s role in overcoming IPv4 limitations?

Answer:
IPv6 was introduced to resolve IPv4's limitations, especially the limited address space.

Advantages of IPv6:

1. Expanded Address Space: 128-bit addresses support billions of devices.

2. Simplified Configuration: Stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC) eliminates
manual setup.
3. Enhanced Security: Built-in IPSec provides encryption and authentication.
4. Efficient Routing: Hierarchical address allocation reduces routing table size.

Example: The address 2001:db8::1 is an IPv6 representation for better efficiency.

30. How does DHCP dynamically assign IP addresses?

Answer:
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) automates IP address assignment.

Process:

1. Discover: A device broadcasts a request for an IP address.

2. Offer: DHCP server responds with an available IP.
3. Request: Device requests to lease the offered IP.
4. Acknowledge: Server confirms and assigns the IP.

Example: A laptop connecting to Wi-Fi gets an IP address (192.168.1.10) without manual

configuration.

31. Compare ARP and BOOTP in terms of functionality and application.

Answer:

Feature ARP BOOTP

 Functionality Resolves IP to MAC Assigns IP address to a host
address

Application LAN communication Initial device configuration

Broadcast Limited to local network Requires server-client

Scope communication

Example:

● ARP: Used when device A (192.168.1.5) needs device B’s MAC address.
● BOOTP: Used to assign an IP to diskless devices during boot.

32. What are the key challenges of implementing IPv6?

Answer:

1. Transition from IPv4: Devices and networks must support dual-stack configurations.
2. Hardware Limitations: Older devices may not support IPv6.
3. Training Requirements: Network administrators need expertise in IPv6.
4. Compatibility Issues: Applications relying on IPv4 need updates.

Example: Organizations implementing IPv6 may face compatibility issues with legacy systems.

33. What are the primary types of routing techniques in networks?

Answer:

1. Static Routing: Predefined routes set manually by the network administrator.

○ Example: A static route to the 192.168.1.0/24 network via a specific gateway.
2. Dynamic Routing: Routes are calculated automatically using protocols like RIP or
OSPF.
○ Example: OSPF adjusts routes dynamically if a network link fails.
3. Default Routing: A single route for unknown destinations.
○ Example: Forwarding all non-local traffic to the ISP's gateway.

34. Explain the concept of distance-vector routing with an example.

Answer:
Distance-vector routing calculates the best path based on hop counts. Routers share routing
tables periodically.

Example:

● If Router A (hop count = 0) sends data to Router B (hop count = 1) and then to Router C
(hop count = 2), the table reflects this hierarchy.
● Protocol: RIP is an example of distance-vector routing.

35. Describe OSPF’s role in link-state routing.

Answer:
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a link-state protocol that uses a cost metric to find the
shortest path.

Key Features:

1. Divides networks into areas for better scalability.

2. Maintains a topology map for precise routing.
3. Responds quickly to network changes.

Example: OSPF dynamically recalculates paths if a router goes offline, ensuring minimal
disruption.

36. What are the disadvantages of Circuit Switching? Explain with

examples.

Answer:
Circuit switching, despite being reliable, has several disadvantages:

1. Inefficient Resource Usage:

○ Resources are reserved for a single connection, even when idle.
○ Example: During a phone call, the line remains reserved even if there are pauses
in conversation.
2. High Setup Time:
○ Establishing a dedicated path takes significant time.
○ Example: Long-distance calls often require several seconds to establish the
circuit.
3. Costly Infrastructure:
○ Requires dedicated infrastructure, increasing costs.
 4. Inflexibility:
○ Cannot handle data traffic efficiently compared to modern packet-switching
methods.

37. How does IPv4 addressing differ from IPv6 addressing?

Answer:

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address Length 32 bits 128 bits

Number of ~4.3 billion ~340 undecillion

Addresses

Representation Dotted Decimal Hexadecimal

(192.168.1.1) (2001:db8::1)

Broadcast Support Yes No (uses multicast)

Header Size 20 bytes 40 bytes

Example: IPv4 is commonly used for home networks, while IPv6 is essential for IoT devices.

38. What is the role of DHCP in IPv6 networks?

Answer:
DHCP in IPv6 (DHCPv6) assigns IP addresses and other configuration parameters to devices.

Roles in IPv6:

1. Stateful Mode: Assigns IP addresses and manages leases like IPv4 DHCP.
2. Stateless Mode: Provides additional parameters (e.g., DNS server) without assigning IP
addresses.

Example:
A device joining an IPv6-enabled Wi-Fi network can use DHCPv6 to get a DNS server address
while autoconfiguring its IP using SLAAC.

39. What are the key fields in an IPv4 header? Explain their purpose.
Answer:
An IPv4 header contains:

1. Version (4 bits): Specifies the protocol version (always 4 for IPv4).

2. Header Length (4 bits): Defines the length of the header.
3. Total Length (16 bits): Includes the header and data payload size.
4. Time to Live (TTL, 8 bits): Limits the packet's lifespan to avoid loops.
5. Protocol (8 bits): Indicates the encapsulated protocol (e.g., TCP/UDP).
6. Source and Destination IP (32 bits each): Identifies sender and receiver.

Example: A packet with 192.168.1.1 as source and 8.8.8.8 as destination contains these
fields in its IPv4 header.

40. Explain the importance of ARP in network communication.

Answer:
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) resolves IP addresses into MAC addresses, enabling
devices to communicate within a LAN.

Process:

1. Device A broadcasts an ARP request for Device B's MAC address.

2. Device B responds with its MAC address.
3. Device A maps the IP to the MAC in its ARP cache.

Example:
When a computer at 192.168.1.5 pings 192.168.1.10, ARP ensures the IP address is
resolved to the corresponding MAC for packet delivery.

41. Describe the concept of CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) with an

example.

Answer:
CIDR allows flexible IP address allocation by using a subnet mask to specify network size.

Example:
The address 192.168.1.0/24 has 256 IPs, but using CIDR, it can be divided into smaller
subnets:

● 192.168.1.0/26 (64 IPs)

● 192.168.1.64/26 (64 IPs)
CIDR reduces waste and allows efficient IP management.

42. What are the key features of Interdomain Routing Protocols?

Answer:
Interdomain routing protocols manage traffic between different autonomous systems (AS).

Features:

1. Scalability: Handles large networks with multiple ASes.

2. Policy-Based Routing: Allows AS-specific policies for route selection.
3. Examples: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is the most common interdomain protocol.

Example:
Google's AS uses BGP to exchange routing information with ISPs.

43. How does RIP calculate routes, and what are its limitations?

Answer:
Route Calculation:
RIP (Routing Information Protocol) calculates routes based on hop count, selecting the path
with the least number of hops.

Limitations:

1. Hop Limit: Cannot handle paths with more than 15 hops.

2. Slow Convergence: Updates every 30 seconds, causing delays.
3. Loop Issues: Susceptible to routing loops.

Example:
RIP works well in small networks but struggles in large-scale enterprise environments.

44. Explain the differences between Intra-domain and Inter-domain routing.

Answer:

Feature Intra-domain Routing Inter-domain Routing

 Scope Within an autonomous Between autonomous
system systems

Protocol OSPF, RIP, EIGRP BGP

Examples

Policy Control Minimal High

Example:

● Intra-domain: OSPF is used within an ISP's network.

● Inter-domain: BGP manages routing between ISPs.

45. How does a router handle packets during link failure in OSPF?

Answer:
When a link fails, OSPF:

1. Detects the failure using hello packets.

2. Updates the link-state database.
3. Recalculates the shortest path using Dijkstra's algorithm.

Example: If the primary link from Router A to Router B fails, OSPF reroutes traffic via an
alternate path without manual intervention.