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CIRCUIT THEOREMS

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NETWORK THEOREMS

Superposition Theorem

Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network having more than
one source, the response across any element is the sum of the responses obtained from each
source considered separately and all other sources are replaced by their internal resistance. The
superposition theorem is used to solve the network where two or more sources are present and
connected.

In other words, it can be stated as if a number of voltage or current sources are acting in a linear
network, the resulting current in any branch is the algebraic sum of all the currents that would
be produced in it when each source acts alone while all the other independent sources are
replaced by their internal resistances. It is only applicable to the circuit which is valid for
the ohm’s law (i.e., for the linear circuit).

Explanation of Superposition Theorem

Let us understand the superposition

theorem with the help of an example.
The circuit diagram is shown below
consists of two voltage sources V1 and
V2. First, take the source V1 alone and
short circuit the V2 Source as below:

Here, the value of current flowing in

each branch, i.e. i1’, i2’ and i3’ is
calculated by the following equations.

V1
i1' = .............1
 r2 r3 
 
 r2 + r3 

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r3 r2 The difference between the above two

i2' = i1' similarly, i3' = i1' or
r2 + r3 r2 + r3 equations gives the value of the current

i3' , i3' = i1' − i2'

Now, activating the voltage source

V2 and deactivating the voltage
source V1 by short-circuiting it, find
the various currents, i.e. i1’’, i2’’, i3’’
flowing in the circuit diagram shown
left.

Here,

V2 r
i2" = and i1" = i2" 3
 r1r3  r1 + r3
  + r2
 r1 + r3 

And the value of the current i3’’ will be calculated by the equation shown below:
i3" = i2" − i1" . As per the superposition theorem, the value of current i1, i2, i3 is now calculated as:

i1 = i '1 − i"1 i2 =i '2 −i"2 i3 =i '3 + i"3

The direction of the current should be taken care of while finding the current in the various
branches.

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Steps for Solving network by Superposition Theorem

Considering the circuit diagram,

A, let us see the various steps to
solve the superposition theorem

Step 1 – Take only one independent source of voltage or current and deactivate the other
sources.

Step 2 – In the circuit diagram B shown above, consider the source E1 and replace the other
source E2 by its internal resistance. If its internal resistance is not given, then it is taken as zero
and the source is short-circuited.

Step 3 – If there is a voltage source than short circuit it and if there is a current source then just
open circuit it.

Step 4 – Thus, by activating one source and deactivating the other source find the current in
each branch of the network. Taking the above example find the current I1’, I2’and I3’.

Step 5 – Now consider the other source E2 and replace the source E1 by its internal resistance
r1 as shown in the circuit diagram C.

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Step 6 – Determine the current in various sections, I1’’, I2’’ and I3’’.

Step 7 – Now to determine the net branch current utilizing the superposition theorem, add the
currents obtained from each individual source for each branch.

Step 8 – If the current obtained by each branch is in the same direction then add them and if it
is in the opposite direction, subtract them to obtain the net current in each branch.

The actual flow of current in the circuit C will be given by the equations shown below:

Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem states that any complicated network across its load terminals can be
substituted by a voltage source with one resistance in series. This theorem helps in the study of
the variation of current in a particular branch when the resistance of the branch is varied while
the remaining network remains the same.

A more general statement of Thevenin’s Theorem is that any linear active network consisting
of independent or dependent voltage and current source and the network elements can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit having a voltage source in series with a resistance.

Where the voltage source being the open-circuited voltage across the open-circuited load
terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source.

In other words, the current flowing through a resistor connected across any two terminals of a
network by an equivalent circuit having a voltage source Eth in series with a resistor Rth. Where
Eth is the open-circuit voltage between the required two terminals called the Thevenin voltage
and the Rth is the equivalent resistance of the network as seen from the two-terminal with all
other sources replaced by their internal resistances called Thevenin resistance.

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The Thevenin’s statement is explained with the help of a circuit shown below:

Let us consider a simple DC circuit as

shown in the figure above, where we have
to find the load current IL by the
Thevenin’s theorem. In order to find the
equivalent voltage source, rL is removed
from the circuit as shown in the figure

and Voc or VTH is calculated. below

So,Now, to find the internal resistance of

the network (Thevenin’s resistance or

equivalent resistance) in series with the open-circuit voltage VOC , also known as Thevenin’s
voltage VTH, the voltage source is removed or we can say it is deactivated by a short circuit (as
the source does not have any internal resistance) as shown in the figure below:

Equivalent Circuit of Thevenin’s Theorem

So, As per Thevenin’s Statement, the load current is determined by the circuit shown above
and the equivalent Thevenin’s circuit is obtained.
VTH
The load current IL is given as: I L =
RTH + rL

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Where,

VTH is the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage. It is an open circuit voltage across the terminal AB
known as load terminal. RTH is the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, as seen from the load
terminals where all the sources are replaced by their internal impedance. rL is the load
resistance

Steps for Solving Thevenin’s Theorem

Step 1 – First of all remove the load resistance rL of the given circuit.

Step 2 – Replace all the sources by their internal resistance.

Step 3 – If sources are ideal then short circuit the voltage source and open circuit the current
source.

Step 4 – Now find the equivalent resistance at the load terminals, known as Thevenin’s
Resistance (RTH).

Step 5 – Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting the load resistance and after
that determine the desired response.

This theorem is possibly the most extensively used networks theorem. It is applicable where it
is desired to determine the current through or voltage across any one element in a network.
Thevenin’s Theorem is an easy way to solve a complicated network.

Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Theorem states that – A linear active network consisting of the independent or
dependent voltage source and current sources and the various circuit elements can be
substituted by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance.
The current source being the short-circuited current across the load terminal and the resistance
being the internal resistance of the source network.

The Norton’s theorems reduce the networks equivalent to the circuit having one current source,
parallel resistance and load. Norton’s theorem is the converse of Thevenin’s Theorem. It

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consists of the equivalent current source instead of an equivalent voltage source as in

Thevenin’s theorem.

The determination of internal resistance of the source network is identical in both the theorems.

In the final stage that is in the equivalent circuit, the current is placed in parallel to the internal
resistance in Norton’s Theorem whereas in Thevenin’s Theorem the equivalent voltage source
is placed in series with the internal resistance.

Explanation of Norton’s Theorem

To understand Norton’s Theorem in detail, let In order to find the current through the load
us consider a circuit diagram given below resistance IL as shown in the circuit diagram
above, the load resistance has to be short-
circuited as shown in the diagram below:

Now, the value of current I flowing in the

circuit is found out by the equation

VS
I=
 rr 
r1 +  2 3 
 r2 + r3 

And the short-circuit current ISC is given by the equation shown below:
r3
I SC = I
r3 + r2

Now the short circuit is removed, and the independent source is deactivated as shown in the
circuit diagram below and

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circuit diagram on the left and

the value of the internal resistance is
calculated by:

r1r3
So, Rint = r2 +
r1 + r3

As per Norton’s Theorem, the equivalent source circuit would contain a current source in
parallel to the internal resistance, the current source being the short-circuited current across the
shorted terminals of the load resistor. The Norton’s Equivalent circuit is represented as

Finally, the load current IL calculated by

the equation shown below

Rint
I L = I SC
Rint + RL

Where,

• IL is the load current

• Isc is the short circuit current

• Rint is the internal resistance of the circuit

• RL is the load resistance of the circuit

Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Norton’s Theorem

Step 1 – Remove the load resistance of the circuit.

Step 2 – Find the internal resistance Rint of the source network by deactivating the constant
sources.

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Step 3 – Now short the load terminals and find the short circuit current ISC flowing through the
shorted load terminals using conventional network analysis methods.

Step 4 – Norton’s equivalent circuit is drawn by keeping the internal resistance Rint in parallel
with the short circuit current ISC.

Step 5 – Reconnect the load resistance RL of the circuit across the load terminals and find the
current through it known as load current IL.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that – A resistive load, being connected to a DC
network, receives maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance
known as (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) of the source network as seen from the load
terminals. The Maximum Power Transfer theorem is used to find the load resistance for which
there would be the maximum amount of power transfer from the source to the load.

Explanation of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

A variable resistance RL is connected to a DC source network as shown in the circuit diagram

in figure A below and the figure B represents the Thevenin’s voltage VTH and Thevenin’s
resistance RTH of the source network.

The aim of the Maximum Power Transfer theorem is to determine the value of load resistance
RL, such that it receives maximum power from the DC source.

Considering figure B the value of

current will be calculated by the
equation shown below

VTH
I= ......................(1)
RTH + RL

While the power delivered to the resistive load is given by the equation

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PL = I 2 RL ......................(2)

Putting the value of I from the equation (1) in the equation (2) we will get
2
 VTH 
PL =    RL
 RTH + RL 

PL can be maximized by varying RL and hence, maximum power can be delivered when

 dPL 
 =0
 dRL 

However,

 dP 
But as we know,  L =0
 dRL 

Therefore,

VTH2 ( RTH − RL )
=0
( RTH + RL ) 2

Which gives

Hence, it is proved that power transfer from a DC source network to a resistive network is
maximum when the internal resistance of the DC source network is equal to the load resistance.

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Again, with RTH = RL, the system is perfectly matched to the load and the source, thus, the
power transfer becomes maximum, and this amount of power Pmax can be obtained by the
equation shown below:

VTH2 RTH VTH2

Pmax = = ............................(3)
( RTH + RTH ) 2 4 RTH

Equation (3) gives the power which is consumed by the load. The power transfer by the source
will also be the same as the power consumed by the load, i.e. equation (3), as the load power
and the source power being the same.

Thus, the total power supplied is given by the equation

VTH2 V2
P =2 = TH
4 RTH 2 RTH

Pmax
During Maximum power Transfer the efficiency becomes:  = x100 = 50%
P

The concept of Maximum Power Transfer theorem is that by making the source resistance
equal to the load resistance, which has wide application in communication circuits where the
magnitude of power transfer is sufficiently small. To achieve maximum power transfer, the
source and the load resistance are matched and with this, efficiency becomes 50% with the
flow of maximum power from the source to the load.

In the Electrical Power Transmission system, the load resistance being sufficiently greater than
the source resistance, it is difficult to achieve the condition of maximum power transfer.

In power system emphasis is given to keep the voltage drops and the line losses to a minimum
value and hence the operation of the power system, operating with bulk power transmission
capability, becomes uneconomical if it is operating with only 50% efficiency just for achieving
maximum power transfer. Hence, in the electrical power transmission system, the criterion of
maximum power transfer is very rarely used.

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Steps for Solving Network Using Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Following steps are used to solve the problem by Maximum Power Transfer theorem

Step 1 – Remove the load resistance of the circuit.

Step 2 – Find the Thevenin’s resistance (RTH) of the source network looking through the open-
circuited load terminals.

Step 3 – As per the maximum power transfer theorem, this RTH is the load resistance of the
network, i.e., RL = RTH that allows maximum power transfer.

Step 4 – Maximum Power Transfer is calculated by the equation shown below

VTH2
Pmax =
4 RTH
This is all about Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

Reciprocity Theorem

Reciprocity Theorem states that – In any branch of a network or circuit, the current due to a
single source of voltage (V) in the network is equal to the current through that branch in which
the source was originally placed when the source is again put in the branch in which the current
was originally obtained. This theorem is used in the bilateral linear network which consists of
bilateral components.

The Reciprocity Theorem is explained with the help of the circuit diagram shown below

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The various resistances R1, R2, R3 is connected in the circuit diagram above with a voltage
source (V) and a current source (I). It is clear from the figure above that the voltage source and
current sources are interchanged for solving the network with the help of Reciprocity Theorem.

The limitation of this theorem is that it is applicable only to single-source networks and not in
the multi-source network. The network where reciprocity theorem is applied should be linear
and consist of resistors, inductors, capacitors and coupled circuits. The circuit should not
have any time-varying elements.

Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem

Step 1 – Firstly, select the branches between which reciprocity has to be established.

Step 2 – The current in the branch is obtained using any conventional network analysis method.

Step 3 – The voltage source is interchanged between the branch which is selected.

Step 4 – The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.

Step 5 – Now, it is seen that the current obtained in the previous connection, i.e., in step 2 and
the current which is calculated when the source is interchanged, i.e., in step 4 are identical to
each other.

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