Fundamentals of Mixed Signals and Sensors Unit

Module No. 3
LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR APPLICATION OF OP-AMPS

Objectives

 Recognizing the gain, figuring out how to set them up and run them, and investigating the
signal processing uses for operational amplifiers.
 Obtaining knowledge of the idea of virtual short circuits, examining frequency responses,
and developing hands-on skills in the construction and debugging of inverting amplifier
circuits.
 To properly use inverting amplifiers in electronic circuit design and integration, one must
grasp these principles.

Inverting Amplifier

A closed loop operation is produced in this circuit by connecting the operational amplifier
with feedback in an inverse amplifier. "No current flows into the input terminal" and "V1 always
equals V2" are two crucial principles to keep in mind when working with operational amplifiers.
Both guidelines are, nevertheless, somewhat violated in actual op-amp circuits.

Because the input and feedback signal (X) junction is at the same potential as the positive
(+) input, which is at zero volts or ground, the junction is referred to as a "Virtual Earth." Rin's
input resistor value equals the input resistance of the amplifier due to this virtual earth node, and
the ratio of the two external resistors can be used to control the closed loop gain of the inverting
amplifier.

Problem Solving

We indicated above that there are two extremely crucial things to know regarding Inverting
Amplifiers or any operational amplifier for that matter and these are:
 There Is No Current Entering the Input Terminals
 Given that V1 = V2 = 0 (Virtual Earth), the Differential Input Voltage is zero
The closed-loop gain of an inverting amplifier can then be determined using first principles by
applying these two rules.
As seen, current (i) passes via the resistor network.

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Next, the inverting amplifier's closed-loop voltage gain is expressed as:

and by changing this, Vout can be obtained as:

Due to its 180° out of phase, the equation's negative sign denotes an inversion of the
output signal with respect to the input. This is a result of the feedback's low perceived value.
The output voltage Vout equation, which is Vout = Vin x Gain, further demonstrates the
linear character of the circuit for a fixed amplifier gain. This characteristic can be very helpful in
generating a considerably higher voltage from a smaller sensor signal.

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Summary

Indeed! A typical circuit for an inverting operational amplifier (op-amp) connects the
input signal to the negative (-) side of the op-amp. An amplified and reversed version of the input
is provided by the output. Two resistors, one in the feedback loop (Rf) and the other connected to
the input (Rin), determine this. The output's basic equation is:

Practical applications for this circuit include signal amplification and flipping. It works
well in many different electronic applications.

References

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws

Exercises:
Exercise No. 1
Determine the inverting amplifier circuit's closed loop gain.

Using the previously discovered circuit gain formula:

After altering the resistor values in the circuit, we can now do the following:
The circuit's gain is calculated as follows: -Rƒ/Rin = 100k/10k = -10, where Rin = 10kΩ and Rƒ
= 100kΩ.
Consequently, the above inverting amplifier circuit's closed loop gain is stated as -10 or 20dB
(20log(10)).

Exercise No. 2
Determine the new resistor values needed to raise the original circuit's gain to 40 (32dB).
Rearranging the closed loop voltage gain formula will allow us to determine the new value
needed for the feedback resistor R̒, if the input resistor stays at 10KΩ.

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R˒/Rin = Gain

Consequently, R̒ = Gain x Rin

R˒ is equal to 40 x 10,000.

R˒ = 400KΩ or 400,00

In order for the circuit to achieve a gain of 40, the following new resistor values would be
needed:

R̒ = 400KΩ and Rin = 10KΩ

A different arrangement of the formula could yield a different value for Rin while
maintaining the same value for R˒.
A last observation on the Inverting Amplifier setup for an operational amplifier is that if
the two resistors have the same value, Rin = R̒, then the amplifier's gain will be -1, resulting in
an output voltage that is complementary to the input voltage, expressed as Vout = -Vin. This
kind of inverting amplifier arrangement is commonly referred to as an inverting buffer or a unity
gain inverter.
The complementary operational amplifier circuit to the inverting amplifier, known as the
non-inverting amplifier, which generates an output signal that is "in-phase" with the input, will
be examined in the upcoming operational amplifier tutorial.

Objectives

 Learn the fundamentals of electronics, especially how to increase the volume of signals
without affecting their nature.
 Finding use in industries like medical devices, audio engineering, and
telecommunications.
 Giving confidence and practical expertise when working with electronic circuitry.
Non-Inverting Amplifier

The output gain of the amplifier becomes "Positive" in non-inverting operational amplifier
configuration, as opposed to the "Inverting Amplifier" circuit we saw in the previous tutorial,
whose output gain is negative. This is because the input voltage signal, or VIN, is applied
directly to the non-inverting (+) input terminal. The output signal is "in-phase" with the input
signal as a result.
By delivering a tiny portion of the output voltage signal back to the inverting (-) input
terminal via a Rƒ – R2 voltage divider network, feedback control of the non-inverting
operational amplifier is accomplished, once more resulting in negative feedback. Because no
current flows into the positive input terminal (ideal conditions), this closed-loop architecture
results in a non-inverting amplifier circuit with very good stability, a low output impedance,
Rout, as seen below, and a very high input impedance, Rin approaching infinity.

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Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier Configuration:

We said in the last Inverting Amplifier lecture that "V1 always equals V2" and that "No
current flows into the input terminal" of the amplifier describe an ideal op-amp. This was caused
by the input and feedback signal's (V1) junction being at the same voltage.

Put otherwise, the intersection serves as a "virtual earth" summing point. The resistors Rƒ
and R2 create a basic potential divider network across the non-inverting amplifier as a result of
this virtual earth node, and the voltage gain of the circuit is based on the ratios of R2 and Rƒ, as
indicated below.

Equivalent Potential Divider Network:

Problem Solving

After that, we can compute the closed-loop voltage gain (AV) of the non-inverting
amplifier using the following formula, which is derived from the output voltage of a potential
divider network:
Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier Gain:

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Next, a non-inverting operational amplifier's closed loop voltage gain will be provided as
follows:

Summary

Gaining knowledge about non-inverting amplifiers is essential for comprehending signal

processing, amplifier design, and fundamental electronics. It entails boosting electrical signals
with operational amplifiers while maintaining their phase integrity. This information improves
one's ability to analyze circuits and troubleshoot them, develops problem-solving skills, and is
versatile enough to be applied in a variety of industries, such as audio engineering and
telecommunications. In addition, it provides solid groundwork for more advanced coursework
and invaluable practical experience with electronic circuits.

References

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws
https://www.electronicshub.org/
https://circuitdigest.com

Exercises:

Exercise No. 1:
Compute the following for the non-inverting amplifier depicted in the accompanying figure:

i) The amplifier's gain, ACL

ii) VO, or the output voltage

iii) The flow of current via the IL load resistor.

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iv) IO, or the output current.

NOTE: Node B is at the inverting terminal of the Op-Amp, which is also the voltage divider
point, while Node A is at the non-inverting terminal. The picture above does not display these
nodes.
Answer: Due to the virtual short, the potential at node B is VIN.

VIN = 0.8 V = VB = VA

Here is the current I1:

I1 = 0.8V / 10 K = VA / R1

I1 is 80 µA.

The resistor Rf must receive the same I1 because the op-amp input current is zero.

I The non-inverting amplifier's gain,

ACL is equal to 1 plus (Rf / R1), or 20 KΩ / 10 KΩ.

ACL is 3.

ii) The voltage at output,

ACL * VIN = 3 * 0.8V equals VO.

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V = VO

iii) The load resistor's current flow,

VO / RL = 2.4 / (2 * 103 Ω) is equal to IL.

1.2 mA is IL.

iv) The present output,

IO = I1 + IL is Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL).

A = 80 µA + 1.2 mA
IO is 1.28 milliamperes.

Exercise No. 2:
We'll create a non-inverting op-amp circuit that, when compared to the input voltage, will yield
an output voltage gain of three times.

We intend to supply the op-amp with a 2V input. The op-amp will be set up with a noninverting
configuration with 3x gain capabilities. After amplification, we will determine the value of the
Rf or R2 resistor and compute the output voltage. We have chosen the value of the R1 resistor to
be 1.2k.

Given that the resistors determine the gain and that the formula is Av = 1 + (Rf / R1)

In this instance, R1 has a value of 1.2k and the benefit is 3. Thus, Rf's value is,

3 is equal to 1 plus (Rf / 1.2k).

3 = 1 + Rf / 1.2k + 1.2k

3.6k = 1.2k + Rf

3.6k - 1.2k = Rf

Rf is 2.4k.

The output voltage following amplification will be

Vin / Vout = Av

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Vout / 2V = 3.
6V is the Vout.

The graphic above displays the example circuit. The feedback resistor, R2, will cause the
amplified output to be three times greater than the input.

Objectives

 Getting a basic understanding for anyone who have an interest in electrical or electronic
engineering.
 Knowing the fundamentals of amplifiers, impedance matching, signal integrity, and the
real-world uses for operational amplifiers.
 Acquiring the knowledge to comprehend and apply circuit designs' symbolic
representations of voltage followers.

Voltage Follower

One of the most basic applications of an operational amplifier is as a voltage follower, in

which the circuit's input voltage and output voltage are identical. Stated otherwise, a voltage
follower circuit has a gain of unity.

The input voltage is applied at the non-inverting input terminal, and the output of the op-amp
is immediately connected to the inverting input terminal. Similar to a non-inverting amplifier, the
voltage follower has a very high input impedance and a very low output impedance. The graphic
below displays a voltage follower's circuit diagram.

As can be seen, the non-inverting amplifier circuit and the above arrangement are identical,
save for the absence of resistors. A non-inverting amplifier's gain is expressed as

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ACL is equal to 1 plus (R2 / R1).

Resistor R1 is infinite, while resistor R2 is equal to zero in the voltage follower. Thus, the
voltage follower's gain will be equal to 1. Thus, a Unity Gain Buffer is another name for a
Voltage Follower.

In addition to being employed in impedance matching applications, the voltage follower or

unity gain buffer circuit is frequently used to isolate various circuits, that is, to divide one stage
of the circuit from another.

In real life, there will be a small variation between the input voltage applied and the voltage
follower's output voltage. The op-amp's high internal voltage gain is the cause of this
discrepancy.

Problem Solving

Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier Voltage Follower

The input impedance Rin has expanded to infinity and the feedback impedance R̒ has
decreased to zero in this non-inverting circuit design. The output has a fixed gain of 1, or unity,
since it is connected directly back to the negative inverting input, resulting in 100% feedback and
Vin being precisely equal to Vout. The voltage gain of the amplifier is thus expressed as follows
when the input voltage Vin is applied to the non-inverting input:

Zero current will pass through the feedback loop since there is no current flowing into the
non-inverting input terminal, resulting in an infinite input impedance (ideal conditions). Since
there is no current flowing through the feedback loop, there is no voltage drop across it, which
results in zero power loss, hence any value of resistance can be added to it without changing the
circuit's properties.

Since the input impedance is so high, a substantial power gain can be achieved by using a
voltage follower or unity gain buffer. This is because the additional power is not coming from
the input directly, but rather from the op-amp's supply rails and output to the load. However,
leakage currents and parasitic capacitances are present in the majority of real unity gain buffer
circuits. As a result, a low value (usually 1kΩ) resistor is needed in the feedback loop to help
reduce the effects of these leakage currents and provide stability, particularly if the operational
amplifier is a current feedback type.

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Summary

Understanding voltage followers is essential to understanding how to keep signals stable

in electrical circuits. It comprises using circuits, like operational amplifiers, to guarantee that a
signal's voltage doesn't fluctuate. Preventing signal distortion, lining up different parts of a
circuit, and putting these ideas to use in real-world situations like measurement tools or audio
systems are the main goals. It's a simple but important idea for anyone interested in electrical or
electronic engineering.

References

https://www.electronicshub.org/

www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

https://electronicsarea.com/

Exercises:

A 100-ohm load resistor requires 6 volts to be supplied by a 12-volt source (RL).

As a voltage divider, we utilize two 100K resistors connected in series (R1, R2). The voltage
between the resistors is precisely 6 volts (A) since their values are equal.

Because the lower 100K resistor is in parallel with the load, the voltage will change to 6
volts if we connect the 100-ohm load to point A. Parallel resistors have an equivalent resistance
of 100,000 x 100 / (100,000 + 100) = 99.9 ohms. It is safe to infer that the value is roughly 100
ohms.

The voltage at point A is equal to VA = 12 / (100K + 100) x 100 = 0.012 volts when the
voltage divider is used once more. Far from the anticipated 6 volts.

Op amp voltage follower is what we use to get around this issue. The output of the op
amp is connected to a 100-ohm resistor, which serves as the load, and its non-inverting input is
connected to A. There will be precisely 6 volts between the load's terminals.

Objectives

 Discover how to assemble a unique circuit that can blend several sounds with varying
intensities.
 A thorough understanding requires investigating feedback mechanisms, particularly
negative feedback.
 Enabling students to efficiently design, construct, and test inverted summing amplifier
circuits.

Inverting Summing Amplifier

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The most widely used summing amplifier is an expanded form of the inverting amplifier,
where the non-inverting input terminal of the oscillator is connected to ground and several inputs
are applied to the inverting input terminal of the oscillator. This arrangement causes the voltage
adder circuit's output to be 180 degrees out of phase with the input.

The circuit below illustrates the Summing Amplifier's general layout. There is only one
voltage or input at the inverting input terminal of a typical inverse amplifier circuit. The output
that results from connecting additional input voltages to the inverting input terminal as indicated
will be the total of all applied input voltages but inverted.

Prior to dissecting the circuit above, let's talk about a crucial component of this arrangement:
the idea of virtual ground. The Op Amp's inverting input terminal is at virtual ground since the
non-inverting input of the circuit above is linked to ground. The inverting input node thus turns
into the perfect node for adding up the input currents.

A summing amplifier's circuit diagram is depicted in the above figure. Every input source has
its own input drive resistor, therefore there is no need to use a single input resistor. This kind of
circuit amplifies every input signal. The ratio of the input resistance in each branch to the
feedback resistor Rf determines the gain for each input.

Problem Solving

Let V1 be the first channel's input voltage and R1 its input impedance. R2 - V2 corresponds
to the second channel, R3 - V3 to the third, and so on until Rn - Vn for the nth channel.

As was previously said, an inverting amplifier having many voltages at the inverting input
terminal is essentially what a summing amplifier is. Each channel's output voltage can be
determined separately, and the total of all the individual outputs will be the final output voltage.

We must ground all other channels in order to get the output voltage of a specific channel.
Then, we must use the standard inverting amplifier output voltage formula for each channel.

In the event where every channel is grounded except the first, the output of the first channel
can be found as follows:

(Rf / R1) V1 = VOUT1

where the voltage gain for the first channel (AV1) is represented by – (Rf / R1).

Likewise, in the event when every channel is grounded except the second one, the second
channel's output can be determined as follows:

(Rf / R2) V2 = VOUT2

where the voltage gain for the second channel (AV2) is expressed as − (Rf / R2).

Similarly, this yields the output for the nth channel:

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= (Rf / Rn) Vn = VOUTn

Additionally, the voltage gain for the nth channel (AVn) equals - (Rf / Rn).

The output signal is the total of all the inputs multiplied by their individual gains, or the
algebraic sum of each individual output.

* VOUT1 + VOUT2 + = VOUT. ....+ VOUTn

(Rf / R1) V1 + (Rf / R2) V2 +] = VOUT. ....+ (Rf / Rn) Vn]

Summary

Understanding the fundamentals of operational amplifiers and building a circuit that

combines several sounds with varied strengths—much like adjusting music volumes—are
required to learn about the inverting summing amplifier. Particularly helpful in applications such
as audio mixers is this. The application of mathematical principles guarantees a harmonic
combination, enabling the adjustment of the loudness of every component in the mix. There are
other methods taught for reducing unwanted noise, which improves the overall quality of the
sound. The procedure is similar to becoming a conductor for electronic circuits in that it involves
problem-solving and troubleshooting. Gaining proficiency in these skills requires practical
experience in the lab.

References

https://www.electronicshub.org/

https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves

Exercises:

Exercise No. 1:

Calculate the circuit's output voltage and input impedance.

Ri establishes the input impedance.

. Ri = 5kΩ
Zin=5kΩ, thus.

VinAv = Vout

Av = -RfRi

Av is −20k5k.

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Av = -4

Vout is equal to 100mV×(-4).

Vout is equal to -400 mV (inverted).

Exercise No. 2:

The circuit serves as an electronic music keyboard's pre-amplifier stage. Similar to other
pre-amplifiers used by artists, this one has adjustable gain. This is accomplished by using a
potent to follow the amplifier. What are the values for the maximum and minimum gain?

Keep in mind that the voltage divider ratio the pot creates, and the op amp gain are what
multiply the pre-amp's gain. Use the pot in its highest position for the greatest profit. The top
position has no divider action because the pot divides voltage; that is, its gain is unity. You can
disregard the 20 pF for midband frequencies.

Av-max=-RfRi

Av −max = -200k15k

Av−max = - 13.33

A′v−max=22.5dB

The pot is set to ground for the lowest possible gain. Since the divider action is infinite at this
moment, there is no minimum gain, which results in silence.

Zin, the system is roughly 15 k Ω.

.. Regarding the additional parts, the high frequency gain is reduced by the 20 pF capacitor. The
pair of 0.1 μ

It is crucial to have F bypass capacitors across the power supply lines. Bypass capacitors
are used in nearly all op amp circuits. Op amps have a high gain, thus having strong AC grounds
at the power supply ports is crucial. The power supply wiring's inductance might result in a
significant impedance at higher frequencies. A positive feedback loop that wouldn't otherwise
occur could be produced by this impedance. The circuit may oscillate or produce erroneous
output signals in the absence of the bypass capacitors. Typically, the capacitors' exact values—
between 0.1 and 1 μ—do not matter. F as an example.

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Objectives

 Knowing how to create a single output by combining several input signals with various
weights.
 Learning about op-amp configurations and obtaining practical experience in circuit
design.
 Accomplishing signal summing and offering regulated amplification while producing
weighted signal addition.

Non - Inverting Summing Amplifier

The Op Amp's Non-Inverting Amplifier configuration can also be used to create a Non-
Inverting Summing Amplifier. Here, the input voltages are delivered to the Op Amp's non-
inverting input terminal, and via voltage-divider-bias feedback, a portion of the output is fed
back to the inverting input terminal.

The following diagram illustrates a non-inverting summing amplifier's circuit. The following
circuit has only three inputs for ease, but additional inputs can be added.

Problem Solving

We must separate the circuit into two halves in order to comprehend how a non-inverting
summing amplifier operates:

 Source Section / Input Resistor

 Section on Non-Inverting Amplifiers

The non-inverting terminal of the Op Amp receives VIN if it is the total of all the input
signals. With VIN as the input and Rf and Ri serving as the feedback divider resistors, we can
compute the output voltage of the non-inverting amplifier using the circuit above as follows:

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VIN (1 + (Rf / Ri)) = VOUT

Now that the output voltage has been calculated, the value of VIN needs to be
ascertained. When other corresponding channels are grounded, VIN1, VIN2, and VIN3 are the
inputs of their respective channels if V1, V2, and V3 are the three major input sources and R1,
R2, and R3 are their input resistances. Thus,

= VIN (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3)

Since the idea of virtual ground does not apply in this situation, every channel will impact
every other channel. Let's compute the VIN1 component of the VIN. From there, we can quickly
get the other two numbers, or VIN2 and VIN3, using basic mathematics.

When it comes to VIN1, the corresponding resistors of V2 and V3 cannot be disregarded

since they create a voltage divider network. Thus,

[(R2 || R3) / (R1 + (R2 || R3))] = VIN1 = V1

In a similar manner, we can get VIN2 and VIN3, the last two values, as

[(R1 || R3) / (R2 + (R1 || R3))] = VIN2 = V2

(R1 || R2) / (R3 + (R1 || R2)) = VIN3 = V3

Thus,

= VIN (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3)

V2 [(R1 || R3) / (R2 + (R1 || R3))] + V3 [(R1 || R2) / (R3 + (R1 || R2))] equals VIN.

Ultimately, the output voltage VOUT can be determined as

VIN (1 + (Rf / Ri)) = VOUT

(Rf / Ri)) {V1 [(R2 || R3) / (R1 + (R2 || R3))] + V2 [(R1 || R3) / (R2 + (R1 || R3))] + V3 [(R1 ||
R2) / (R3 + (R1 || R2))]} is the total value of VOUT.

If every resistor has the same value under the particular equal weighted condition, the output
voltage is:

(V1 + V2 + V3) / 3) = (1 + (Rf / Ri))

The non-inverting amplifier is designed to have the necessary voltage gain before moving
on to the non-inverting summing circuit design. Next, to accommodate the type of op-amp being
utilized, the input resistors are chosen as large as feasible.

Summary

Learning about non-inverting summing amplifiers involves understanding how to

combine multiple input signals with varying weights to create a unified output. The main
objectives include achieving signal summation, providing controlled amplification with weighted
signal addition, ensuring precision in signal processing, gaining familiarity with op-amp
configurations, acquiring hands-on circuit design skills, and enhancing problem-solving abilities.
These skills are valuable in applications like audio mixing and sensor signal processing,
contributing to a broader understanding of analog electronics.

References

https://www.electronicshub.org/

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https://eng.libretexts.org/

Exercises:

Exercise No. 1:

Which values correspond to the circuit below's input impedance and gain?
Zin is ideally limitless to begin with. The benefit now is as follows:

Av = 1 + RfRi

Av is equal to 1 plus 10k1k.

Av = 11.

The reverse procedure for designing amplifiers is also simple.

Exercise No. 2:

Create an amplifier with a 47 k Ω input impedance and a gain of 26 dB. First, convert 26 dB into
regular form for the gain. This represents about 20 voltage gain.

Av = 1 + RfRi

RfRi=Av−1

RfRi equals 19.

Select a resistor value at this point and solve for the other resistance. For instance, all the
following would be appropriate:

Rf=19kΩ, Ri=1kΩ

Rf=38kΩ, Ri=2kΩ

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Rf=9.5kΩ, Ri=500Ω

Objectives

 Having a solid understanding of differential amplifiers helps people build successful

electronic systems and solve problems.
 Learning the craft of strengthening signals in electronics.
 Developing high-precision equipment for precise measurement.

Subtractor (Differential Amplifier)

The differential amplifier circuit functions as a voltage subtractor, generating an output

voltage that is proportional to the voltage difference between two input signals applied to the
operational amplifier's inverting and non-inverting terminal inputs.

So far, we've simply connected one of the operational amplifier's inputs—either the
"inverting" or "non-inverting" input terminal—to the amplifier in order to magnify a single input
signal, with the other input being grounded.

However, since a typical operational amplifier circuit includes two inputs—an inverting and
a no-inverting input—we can also connect signals to both of these inputs simultaneously to
create a Differential Amplifier, a different popular kind of operational amplifier circuit.

As we learned in the first operational amplifier tutorial, all op-amps are essentially
"Differential Amplifiers" because of the way their inputs are configured. However, the resulting
output voltage will be proportionate to the "Difference" between the two input voltage signals of
V1 and V2, provided that one voltage signal is connected to one input terminal, and another is
connected to the other input terminal.

Differential amplifiers, on the other hand, amplify the difference between two voltages,
which is what distinguishes this kind of operational amplifier circuit from a summing amplifier,
which adds or sums the input voltages. A differential amplifier configuration is the term used to
describe this kind of operational amplifier circuit, which is displayed below:

Problem Solving

We may solve for the output voltage Vout using superposition by connecting each input in turn
to 0 volt ground. Next, the differential amplifier circuit's transfer function is provided as follows:

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The differential amplifier's above transfer function can be reduced to the following expression
when resistors R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 are used:

Differential Amplifier Equation:

The circuit will become a unity gain differential amplifier and the voltage gain will be
precisely one or unity if all of the resistors have the same ohmic value, that is, R1 = R2 = R3 =
R4. In such case, Vout = V2 - V1 would be the only output expression.

Additionally take note of the fact that the output voltage total will be positive if input V2 is
higher than input V1 and negative otherwise.

Summary

Acquiring knowledge of differential amplifiers in electronics is akin to mastering signal

enhancement. These amplifiers are essential for accuracy in a variety of applications because
they are excellent at removing unnecessary noise and concentrating on signal details. They are a
component of operational amplifiers and offer many methods of signal amplification, signal

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purification, and signal clarity, especially in continuous signal processing for communication or
music systems. Being knowledgeable with differential amplifiers helps people solve problems
and design electronic systems. These amplifiers are widely used in communication devices,
measurement equipment, music systems, and other electronic applications.

References

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

https://eng.libretexts.org/

Exercises:

Exercise No. 1:

Create a basic difference amplifier with a 10 k Ω input impedance.

per leg, with a 26 dB voltage increase.

To begin with, 20 dB is obtained by translating 26 dB into standard form. Due to Ri

sets Zin
, place Ri
= 10 k Ω
based on the requirements.

Av = RfRi

Rf = AvRi

Rf = 20 × 10k

Rf is 200k.

Considering similar inputs,

R′i + R′f = Ri

R′i + R′f = 10k

Considering that Av
= 20

R′f = 20×R′i

Consequently,

21×R′i = 10k

R′i is 476.

R′f=20×R′i

R′f is 9.52 k.

The finished product is displayed above. The differential amplifier is a key component of another
practical circuit.

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Objectives

 Empowering people to examine and troubleshoot integration circuits.

 Find use in a variety of engineering domains, offering a flexible skill set suitable to
instrumentation, control engineering, and electrical engineering.
 Supplying a foundation for comprehending more intricate systems.

Integrator Amplifier

An inverting amplifier whose output voltage is proportional to the negative integral of the input
voltage, mimicking mathematical integration, is the perfect op-amp integrator.

Operational amplifiers can be utilized in adder or subtractor type circuits with just pure
resistances in the input and feedback loops, or they can be incorporated into positive or negative
feedback amplifiers.

However, what would happen to the op-amp's voltage gain transfer function over its
frequency range if we were to replace the purely resistive (R̒) feedback element of an inverting
amplifier with a frequency-dependent complex element that has a reactance, (X), like a capacitor,
C?
An RC Network linked across the operational amplifier's feedback line creates a different
kind of operational amplifier circuit known as an Op-amp Integrator circuit, as illustrated below,
by swapping out this feedback resistance for a capacitor.

The Op-amp Integrator, as its name suggests, is an operational amplifier circuit that
carries out the mathematical operation of integration. This means that, because the output voltage
produced by the op-amp integrator is proportional to the integral of the input voltage, we can
cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time.

Problem Solving

From fundamental principles, we know that the voltage across a capacitor's plates is equal
to the capacitance divided by the charge on the capacitor, or Q/C. Consequently, -Vout = Q/C
since the voltage across the capacitor is output Vout. The rate of charge of voltage across the
capacitor, if it is charging and discharging, is as follows:

However, since X = 0 indicates that the integrating op-amp's node voltage at its inverting input
terminal is zero, the input current I(in) passing through the input resistor, Rin, is provided as

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follows:

The following represents the current passing via feedback capacitor C:

No current enters the op-amp terminal if the op-amp's input impedance is infinite (the ideal op-
amp). As a result, the following is the nodal equation at the inverting input terminal:

from which the optimal voltage output for the Op-amp Integrator is obtained as follows:

This can alternatively be rewritten as follows to further simplify the math:

In this case, the input voltage VIN's integral with respect to time is multiplied by 1/RC to
determine the output voltage Vout, and ω = 2π̒.

As a result, the circuit has an inverting integrator's transfer function with a -1/RC gain constant.
Because the input signal is linked directly to the operational amplifier's inverting input wire, the
minus sign (–) denotes a 180o phase shift.

Summary
Integrator amplifiers are vital components of electronics that help with regulating systems
and signal processing, thus it's important to understand them. Consider them as essential
elements that support the operation of electrical devices. Though some arithmetic is required, it's
the kind that makes sense in real-world electrical applications. Because of its versatility,
integrators are used in applications outside of electronics, such as measuring and assuring the
smooth operation of communication systems. Effective troubleshooting and problem-solving in
electronic circuits are made possible by an understanding of integrators. This is useful
information for many different engineering fields, and if you want to get deeper into electronics,
a good grasp of integrators is a great starting point. Additionally, it gives you useful abilities for
creating electronic circuits.

References

www.electronics-tutorials.ws https://eng.libretexts.org/
https://wiraelectrical.com/

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Exercises:

Exercise No. 1:

In the op amp circuit shown below, find vo if v1 = 10 cos 2 t mV and v2 = 0.5 t mV.
Assume that there is originally no voltage across the capacitor.

Answer:
A summing integrator is what this is, and

Exercise No. 2:

Identify the Vout Equation as well as the circuit's lower frequency limit of integration.

Here is the output equation in its general form.

Vout(t) = -1/RiC ∫Vin(t)dt Vout(t) = -110 k×10 nF ∫Vin(t)dt Vout(t) = -104 ∫Vin(t)dt

Flow determines the integration's lower bound.

12πRfCflow = 12π100 k×10 nFflow = 159 Hz

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This is our accuracy point at 50%. The input frequency needs to be at least ten times higher than
the flow for 99% accuracy. 1.59 kHz, to be exact. The accuracy of integration will increase to
ever-higher frequencies.

Objectives

 Gaining knowledge about differentiator amplifiers can help you create circuits that will
be used in the real world.
 Learn how to create circuits that highlight specific frequency components and how
systems react to variations in signal frequency.
 Imparts useful knowledge for creating circuits that are employed in actual applications.

Differentiator Amplifier

The resistor, R̒, serves as the regular negative feedback element across the operational
amplifier in the differentiator amplifier circuit, but the capacitor and resistor have been
rearranged so that the reactance, XC, is now connected to the input terminal of the inverting
amplifier.

By executing the mathematical operation of differentiation, or "producing a voltage output

which is directly proportional to the input voltage's rate-of-change with respect to time," this
operational amplifier circuit does the job. To put it another way, the output voltage will respond
by changing more quickly and dramatically, taking on the shape of a "spike," the greater the
input current and the faster the input voltage signal changes.

Similar to the integrator circuit, the operational amplifier is connected to a resistor and
capacitor in an RC network, and the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor greatly influences the
functioning of an Op-amp Differentiator.

The capacitor receives the input signal intended for the differentiator. The output voltage is
zero because the capacitor prevents any DC content from flowing to the amplifier's summing
point, or X. Only AC type input voltage changes—whose frequency depends on the input
signal's rate of change—are permitted to flow through the capacitor.

Low frequencies cause the capacitor's reactance to be "High," which lowers the op-amp's
output voltage and gain (R̒/Xc). Higher frequencies cause the capacitor's reactance to decrease
significantly, which raises the differentiator amplifier's gain and output voltage.

On the other hand, an op-amp differentiator circuit becomes unstable and begins to oscillate
at high frequencies. This is mostly caused by the first-order effect, which controls the op-amp
circuit's frequency response and produces a second-order response that, at high frequencies,
produces an output voltage that is far greater than intended. In order to prevent this, the circuit's
high frequency gain must be decreased by adding a second small value capacitor across the
feedback resistor R̒.

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Problem Solving

Alright, a little arithmetic to clarify the situation. Given that the operational amplifier's
node voltage at its inverting input terminal is zero, the current that is passing through the
capacitor can be expressed as follows:

Capacitance times the voltage across the capacitor equals the charge on the capacitor.

Consequently, this charge's rate of change is:

however, as the capacitor current is dQ/dt, i

It gives us the following as the optimal voltage output for the op-amp differentiator:

As a result, the output voltage Vout is equal to the derivative of the input voltage Vin
with respect to time times a constant –R^*C. Because the input signal is linked to the operational
amplifier's inverting input wire, the minus sign (–) denotes a 180o phase shift.

As a last thing, the Op-amp Differentiator circuit, when compared to the prior operational
amplifier integrator circuit, has two primary drawbacks in its basic form. Its two main
characteristics are as follows: first, as previously indicated, it is unstable at high frequencies;
second, because of its capacitive input, it is highly vulnerable to random noise signals,
amplifying any noise or harmonics in the source circuit in addition to the input signal itself. This
is because, in order to maintain closed-loop stability, some method of bandwidth limitation is
necessary, as the output is proportional to the slope of the input voltage.

Summary

People who work in electrical engineering and related fields should become
knowledgeable about differentiator amplifiers. These amplifiers increase the rate of change of an
input voltage with respect to time by using an operational amplifier, resistor, and capacitor.
Essential goals include mastering analog circuit design, frequency domain analysis, and signal
processing fundamentals. Knowledge of differentiator amplifiers is important for control system
applications and offers a strong basis for further research in areas such as signal processing and
telecommunications. Applications that are useful include real-world circuit design, which
provides students with transferable problem-solving abilities to other engineering and technology
fields.

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References

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

https://eng.libretexts.org/

Exercises:

Exercise No. 1:

Find the circuit's useful differentiation range in Figure below. If the input signal is a 2 V peak
sine wave at 3 kHz, additionally get the output voltage.

The lesser of the two RC values will establish the upper bound of the useful frequency range.
networks.

The function fhigh(fdbk) = 12πRfCffhigh(fdbk) = 12π×5k×100pFfhigh(fdbk) =

318.3kHzfhigh(in) = 12πRfCfhigh(in) = 12π×100×10nFfhigh(in) = 159.2kHz

159.2 kHz is the top limit as a result. Keep in mind that regular operation will usually be several
octaves below than this limit, and the precision at this limit is relatively low. Because the input
frequency is 3 kHz, excellent precision should be the outcome. Write Vin first.
in the temporal domain:

Vin(t)=2sin2π3000tVout(t)=−RfCdVin(t)dtVout(t)=−5k×10nFd2sin2π3000tdtVout(t)=−10−4dsi
n2π3000tdtVout(t)=−1.885cos2π3000t

This indicates that although the output waveform lags the input by 90 ∘, it is likewise sinusoidal.
Observe that while the amplitude has changed, the input frequency has not. The output amplitude
is directly proportionate to the input frequency because the differentiator operates with a 6 dB
per octave slope. The output amplitude of this example will double the current value if it is
repeated at a frequency of 6 kHz.

Exercise No. 2:

Draw the circuit's output waveform for Figure 10.3.9.

when a triangle wave with a peak voltage of 3 volts at 4 kHz is sent in.

First, as shown in Example 10.3.1's calculation, the input frequency is well within this circuit's
practical range.
.. (Note that there will be a slight mistake added, but the highest harmonics will still be out of
range.)

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A positive-going portion and a negative-going portion can be separated from the triangle wave.
In either scenario, there will be a 6-volt total voltage shift in a half-cycle. The waveform's period
is

T=250μs T=14kHz

As a result, 125 μ will show a 6 volt shift for the positive going section.
(-6 V in 125 μ)
s stands for the going-negative component. The incline is

Slope = 48000V/s Slope = 6V125μs

It is expressed in the time domain as

Vin(t) is equal to 48000t.

Using this equation as a replacement in equation produces

Vout(t) = -RfCdVin(t)dtVout(t) = - 5k×10nFd48000tdtVout(t) = -2.4

When t=0
up to t=125μ
When the second half of the wave is differentiated, the output is identical but positive at +2.4 V.
This results in a 4 kHz square wave with a peak voltage of 2.4 V. Below is the resultant
waveform.

Objectives

 Creating discrete digital values from continuous analog signals.

 Enable the microcontroller or CPU to make decisions based on sensor inputs by
converting sensor data into digital outputs.
 Recognizing and resolving circuit voltage comparison-related problems.

Comparator Amplifier

A predefined reference voltage, VREF, or two analog voltage levels are compared by the Op-
amp comparator, which then generates an output signal depending on the voltage comparison. To
put it another way, the op-amp voltage comparator decides which of the two voltage inputs is
larger by comparing their magnitudes.

Previous lessons have demonstrated how the operational amplifier may be used in

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conjunction with negative feedback to regulate the output signal's magnitude in the linear area,
enabling it to perform a wide range of functions. Additionally, we have seen that the open-loop
gain (AO) of a basic operational amplifier is what defines it, and that the statement VOUT =
AO(V+ – V-) gives us the output voltage of the amplifier, where V+ and V-stand for the voltages
at the non-inverting and inverting terminals, respectively.

In contrast, voltage comparators operate in the open-loop mode, when the amplifier's voltage
gain is equivalent to AVO, and they can transition between two saturated states via positive
feedback or no feedback at all. The output of the comparator then swings fully to its positive
supply rail, +Vcc, or totally to its negative supply rail, -Vcc, upon the application of a changing
input signal that passes a predetermined threshold value, as a result of this high open loop gain.

When the two analogue inputs, V+ and V-, change, the open-loop op-amp comparator
behaves like a digital bistable device, with two potential output states: +Vcc and -Vcc. This
analogue circuit runs in its non-linear domain. Given that the input signal is analogue but the
output acts like a digital signal, we can therefore state that the voltage comparator is basically a
1-bit analogue to digital converter.

Examine the following basic op-amp voltage comparator circuit.

Using the op-amp comparator circuit mentioned before, let us first assume that VIN is less
than VREF, the DC voltage level (VIN < VREF). The output of the comparator will be LOW
and at the negative supply voltage, -Vcc, because of the non-inverting (positive) input being less
than the inverting (negative) input. This will cause the output to become negatively saturated.

The output voltage quickly goes HIGH towards the positive supply voltage, +Vcc, resulting
in a positive saturation of the output, if we now increase the input voltage, VIN, such that its
value is greater than the reference voltage VREF on the inverting input. Reducing the input
voltage VIN until it is marginally lower than the reference voltage causes the output of the op-
amp to revert to its negative saturation value, which functions as a threshold detector.

As a result, it is evident that the op-amp voltage comparator is a device whose output is
dependent upon the input voltage, VIN, with respect to a particular DC voltage level.
Specifically, the output is HIGH when the non-inverting input voltage is higher than the
inverting input voltage and LOW when it is lower. Whether the input signal is linked to the
comparator's non-inverting or inverting input, this condition remains true.

It is also evident that the power supply voltage of the op-amps has a direct impact on the
output voltage value. The output voltage of the op-amp has the potential to be infinite in both
directions, (±∞), owing to its enormous open-loop gain. Practically speaking, though, it is
constrained by the supply rails of the op-amps, which result in VOUT = +Vcc or VOUT = -Vcc.

Problem Solving

With a better understanding of what an operational amplifier is and some common parameters,
let's look at an example. The average op amp's extremely high gain is the first thing that most
people notice. The standard LF411 displayed Avol.
somewhere around 200,000. It is evident that even very modest input signals can force the output
into saturation (clipping) at gains this high. Check out Figure below. Here, an operational

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amplifier is provided by ±
15 V, which powers a 10 k Ω
load. As demonstrated in Figure 2.2.5, our model, Vout
must match the differential input voltage multiplied by the gain of the op amp, or Avol.

Avol(Vin+−Vin−) = Vout

200,000×(0.1 V−0 V) is Vout.

Vout is 20,000 V.

There isn't a maximum output swing of +/- on the data sheet, indicating that the op amp can't
produce 20,000 V.
13.5 V in the case of ±
15 V power sources. Even if we add a signal to the inverting input, like in the example above, the
output will still be clipped at 13.5 V and will be truncated at 13.5 V if the input signal is
decreased to only 1 mV.

Avol(Vin+−Vin−) = Vout

200,000×(0.5 V−0.3 V) is Vout.

Vout is 40,000 V.

Vout is 13.5 V because of clipping.

Summary

Comprehending comparator amplifiers is essential for those working with digital

systems, signal processing, and electronic circuits. Understanding how comparators make
decisions based on voltage levels, appreciating their importance in digital systems, and
investigating their uses in sensor interfaces, switching, and control systems are the key
objectives. Additionally, learning about comparators is helpful for developing a more
comprehensive understanding of operational amplifiers, makes debugging electronic systems
easier, and is necessary for skilled circuit design. To sum up, a thorough comprehension of
comparator amplifier principles is essential for everyone working in the electronics industry.
This will enable them to develop reliable circuits and make well-informed decisions for a wide
range of applications.

References
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https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

https://eng.libretexts.org/

Exercises:

Exercise No. 1:

The figure below depicts a light leakage detector that might be utilized in a darkroom
used by photographers. A Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) cell is employed in this circuit as a light-
sensitive resistor. The reference input, which has a 1 V DC level, is the op amp's inverting input.
The sensing input in this case is the noninverting input. When there is no light, the CdS cell
functions as a very high resistance, possibly 1 M Ω. In these circumstances, a voltage divider is
configured using the 10 k Ω resistor, resulting in a noninverting input voltage of roughly 150
mV. Keep in mind that because the LF411 uses a JFET input, there is no loading of the divider.
The comparator's output is negative saturation, or roughly -13.5 V, because the
noninverting input is smaller than the inverting input. As the level of ambient light increases, the
resistance of the CdS cell decreases, increasing the signal applied to the noninverting input. The
comparator's output will eventually go to positive saturation, or around +13.5 V, if the light level
is high enough, and the noninverting input signal will surpass the 1 V reference. At that point,
the signal may be utilized to sound an alarm. An changeable reference would be more flexible
than a set 1 V reference in a real-world circuit. By switching the 10 k Ω and the CdS cell resistor,
an inverse circuit, and modifying the reference.

These kinds of circuits can be used to measure pressure and temperature, among other
over- and below-level circumstances. The right sensing device is all that is required. AC input
signals can also be utilized with comparators.

Exercise No. 2:

An AC signal may occasionally need to be squared up in order to be processed further.

That is, we need to convert it into a pulse waveform that is comparable. A frequency counter
could be one instance of this. The number of high-to-low or low-to-high transitions in the input
signal during a predetermined period of time is counted by a frequency counter. We need good
edge transitions in order to count accurately. Some error may seep into the data because a simple
sine wave changes more slowly than a square wave of identical frequency. By passing the input
through the comparator in the figure below, we may convert it into an output that resembles a
pulse.
It should be noted that the reference signal can be adjusted between -15 and +15 V. By
default, it is set to 0 V. If the input exceeds the reference, the output will be positive saturation.
Negative saturation will result from the output when the input is smaller than the reference. We
can compensate for DC offsets on the input signal and manage the output duty cycle by adjusting
the reference. Figure below shows a common set of input/output signals.

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