Color Psychology Running Head: COLOR PSYCHOLOGY

Color Psychology: The Psychological and Physiological Affects of Color Amy Schultz Antelope Valley College

Color Psychology

Abstract

This paper reviews recent research in the field of color psychology. The research includes the basics of color, how the eye interacts with color, color association and perception, the physiological effects of color, and the usage of color in the environment, including case studies. Some diagrams will be included to aid understanding. Finally, the author will conclude with some of her opinions on the research and its pertinence in the fields of graphic communications and interior design.

Color Psychology

Color Psychology: The Psychological and Physiological Affects of Color We encounter color in every aspect of our lives. We respond to the colors in everything we do, whether we realize it or not. You respond to a traffic light changing to green or from yellow to red. You respond to red and blue flashing lights on a fire engine or sheriffs car. You also respond to the color of your environment such as a classroom, office building, or your own home. Responses to room colors are found below consciousness. The question is how do we respond to these colors and why?

The Basics of Color The primary colors are the only pure colors that cannot be made by mixing other colors. Those colors are red, yellow, and blue (Appendix A). Various hues and shades of these colors may be produced, but the pure colors red, yellow, and blue cannot be. Secondary colors result from mixing two primary colors. Mixing red and yellow produces orange, yellow and blue produces green, and blue and red produces purple (Appendix B). You can further divide them into tertiary colors by mixing a primary with its closest secondary, but this is extra and not as important as understanding the primaries and secondaries. Complementary colors are defined as colors opposing each other on the color wheel. The basic complementary colors are also simply primaries and secondaries. The basic complementary colors are as follows: red is the complement of green, orange is the complement of blue, and yellow is the complement of purple (Appendix C). When combined they will produce a neutral

Color Psychology color. When one color is placed on a background of its complementary color, the colors will appear to vibrate, an illusion or trick played on the eye (Appendix D). The tints of a color express the colors intensity from zero percent to one hundred percent. When placed on a color wheel, the one hundred percent intensity will be placed on the

outside and as the color moves toward the center the intensity will decrease until it reaches white in the center (Appendix E). Shades express the colors darkness by adding black from zero percent to one hundred percent to the already present one hundred percent color. On the color wheel, the one hundred percent color is placed on the outside. As it moves toward the center, the darkness increases from adding black until it reaches the center where it is one hundred percent black, and subsequently one hundred percent color (Appendix F).

Color Associations Michael Hemphill (1995) from the Department of Sociology at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, stated that Birren and Sharp (1974, 1978, cited in Boyatzis & Varghese, 1994) showed that colors do appear to elicit certain emotional responses (p. 275). To show this, he developed an experiment to determine how people associate color with emotion and how certain colors make the subjects feel. Forty undergraduate students (mainly Caucasian and middle class) from the University of New South Wales and the University of Sydney were divided into equal groups (twenty women and twenty men). Ten colored cardboard rectangles were made to represent the major different colors (white, pink, red, yellow, blue, purple, green, brown, black and gray). Participants filled

Color Psychology out questionnaires regarding their favorite color, the major color they were wearing and their gender. Participants were then asked to place the card that most resembled their favorite color

on top of the deck of cards. They were then asked what emotional response they associated with the color, how the color made them feel, and why it made them feel that way. The same was performed for each color in the deck until the entire questionnaire was completed. The deck was shuffled for at least one minute prior to the next participant to ensure random ordering of colors. Hemphills study showed that 49% of the participants expressed positive responses to colors, 36% expressed negative responses, and 15% expressed no emotion (p. 276). Over half of each group (women and men) cited blue as their favorite color. Black, brown, green and red were other favorites for men while orange, yellow, purple, green and red were other favorites for women. In regards to emotional response, 61% stated that brighter colors elicited more positive responses than darker colors where only 21% of positive responses were received (p. 277). In comparison 25% of the responses to bright colors were negative, whereas 63% of the responses were negative for dark colors (p.277). Bright colors included white, pink, red, yellow, blue, purple and green. Dark colors included brown, black and gray. The positive responses were happy, excited, relaxed, and positive. Negative responses included anxious, boring, sad and negative, as well as the no emotion category. In general, women responded more positively to bright colors and more negatively to dark colors. On the other hand, men stated more often that they had no emotion toward bright colors and tended to feel more positively to dark colors than women, who rarely responded with no emotion. This shows that women, in general, are more emotionally oriented.

Color Psychology Blue elicited the highest number of positive responses, closely followed by green and

red. Blue also elicited the lowest number of negative and no-emotion responses (p. 278). Gray was seen as more negative than black and received the lowest positive response. Both men and women were more negative toward pink than brown. From this experiment Hemphill learned the associations with some of the more prominent popular colors. Blue, being the favorite of both sexes, was associated with the ocean and sky. Both were seen to be limitless, calm, or serene (p. 278). Green was associated with the outside environment, including forests, trees, and nature in general. Yellow was considered a positive color because it is bright, like the sun. Red was seen as positive because it was a strong positive color and a warm color (p. 280). Being the most negative color, gray was associated with rainy days and elicited sad or bored emotional responses (p. 280). So it is clearly evident that there are emotional associations with colors, and this is evidence from only one experiment. M. M. Terwogt and J. B. Hoeksmas experiment (1994) involving the association of colors and emotions was carried out in a slightly different manner. Their experiment focused on the preferences of colors and emotions rather than the direct association. They hypothesized that a list of preferred emotions would tie to the list of preferred emotions. Red may be preferred over green, and green may be preferred over black. In the same way, happiness may be preferred over anger and anger over fear (p. 6). In this example in accordance to their hypothesis, red may be related to happiness, green to anger, and black to fear. Participants in their experiment were asked to list, in order, preferred colors, and then list in the same way preferred emotions. Then they were asked to link colors and emotions. Through a series of very detailed mathematical calculations, Terwogt and Hoeksma determined that across all ages (~ 7

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years old to adults) preferences for colors and emotions did not link to the colors associated with emotions: It appears that adults seldom combined the emotion happiness with the color blue even though both were preferred within their domains. In addition, adults combined happy and yellow with each other, even though happiness was preferred and yellow was not (p. 13-14). The experiment results went on to show the preferences of colors and emotions, but further disproved their hypothesis that the preferences were linked. As a result of many studies done by various psychologists through the years, general lists have been composed of emotions, ideas and objects associated with various colors. The following list is a compilation of lists made by K. Nielson and D. Taylor (p. 74), J. Pile (p. 142151), and F. Mahnke (p. 60-66): Red: arousing, passion, love, blood, life, warmth, intensity; danger, enemy, war, stop; prostitution Orange: bright exciting, light cheery, lively, energetic; fire, sunsets; caution; brown (darker shade of orange) earth, coffee, chocolate Yellow: cheerful, happiest, optimistic; mental and spiritual enlightenment; lifegiving sun, sunshine, spring; expresses activity; intense hue egocentric, overbearing Green: light retiring, pure hue relaxing, tranquil, natural, life, growth, fertility, hope; go; envy, tiresome, guilty, poison, illness; toward blue colder; toward yellow lighter, stimulating, fresh, youthful Blue: relaxing, calmness, comfort, security, yearning; spirituality, wisdom,

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nobility, dignity, honesty; cold, drunk, melancholy, depressing; wet, clean, sea, sky Purple: combines elements of red and blue (physiologically opposing colors) which are present depending upon surroundings; regal, defined; wealth, pompous; mysticism, magic, dramatic, imaginative; lonely, mournful; under certain shades morbid and unsettling; toward red seductive, sensual, secretive, sweet and intimate White: spiritual, hope, chastity, purity, innocence, good; yes; white flag surrender/submission; white lies are not as harmful; clean, clinical, unemotional, empty, blank Black: darkness, ominous, fear, evil; negative, no; hatred, defiance; gloomy emptiness, heavy, death; status, elegance, richness, dignity; erotic, mysterious; makes colors appear more luminous Gray: conservative, quiet, calm; dreary, tedious, passive, lifeless, no clarity, neutral, lacks energy; concrete man-made structures It is important to realize that this list is generally true for all society over time, with certain emotions being signified by different colors. However, these lists may be altered by cultural standpoint where red, for example, may be associated with holiness and spirituality. For our intents and purposes, we can follow the above list.

Color Psychology Color Perception When we deal with our environment, we are in constant interaction with our perception

of color. Perception is the awareness of objects or other data through the medium of the senses (Webster, 1968). When we touch something we aware of its texture or even temperature. When we hear something we are aware of its loudness or softness or the pitch of the noise. However, the eyes, with some help from the brain, can determine color, size, visible texture, and even assume the temperature or weight of the objects. This is where color plays a massive role in the perception of the senses. Various colors create different perceptions and when used incorrectly, your senses can be thrown off. Volume, for example, is influenced by light and dark colors. Light colors make a space seem more open and larger. The light color causes the walls to visually recede. Cool colors and small patterns do the same for the space. On the other hand, dark colors are more intrusive and dramatically decrease the apparent room size. Warm colors and large protrusive patterns also diminish room size. If given two boxes that are about the same size, one painted white and the other black, you will most likely choose to lift the white box, assuming it is not as heavy as the black box. Lighter colors and hues seem less dense. If the colors are the same hues, then the cooler of the colors will seem less heavy. Conversely, darker colors or highly saturated colors will appear heavy. J. Itten performed experiments to show that color has the power to suggest warmth or coolness (Mahnke, 1996, p. 73). Itten painted two workrooms, one blue-green and the other red-orange, and maintained the temperature at 59 degrees Fahrenheit. Occupants of the blue-

Color Psychology green room felt that 59 degrees Fahrenheit was cold, whereas the temperature had to fall to 52 degree in the red-orange room before the subjects felt cold (Mahnke, 1996, p. 73). Other studies showed that after a longer amount of time was spent in either room, occupants of both

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rooms began to feel warm. Scientists attributed this to adaptation and the bodys reaction to the cold by increasing metabolism to create warmth. Noise can be represented by various colors depending on volume or pitch. Reds are generally tied to a loud noise where blue is tied to a soft sound. Yellows and certain greens may have a shrill, ear-piercing sound where purple may hold a very deep tone. Darker colors tend to reflect the minor key (solemn mood) of the music and brighter colors reflect the major key (happier mood) (Mahnke, 1996, p. 75). Smells and tastes are enhanced by pleasantly associated colors. Pleasant associations for smell include pink, lavender, pale yellow, and green. Pleasant associations with taste included coral, peach, soft yellow, light green, flamingo, and pumpkin (all very descriptive of the color they represent). Reds, pinks and purples tend to smell and taste sweet. Yellows and greens tend to be sour. Pure blue is considered odorless. Perhaps this is why fresh air Lysol comes in a blue can (Mahnke, 1996, p. 75-76). Lastly, colors give an impression of texture. Red appears very solid and as it lightens, becomes less solid and more soft. Oranges and browns appear dry like the desert, but can seem muddy if the correct shade. Yellows are crumbly like cornbread and sandy like the desert. Green seems smooth and even damp; it becomes more watery as it moves toward blue-green. Blue is perceived as being smooth, but as it becomes a lighter hue, it may seem atmospheric,

Color Psychology 11 untouchable. Dark blues, purples and reds (crimson) appear velvety and plush (Mahnke, 1996, p. 76).

The Physiological Effects Since we have examined the associations and perceptions of colors, it will be easier to understand the physiological effects of these colors. Amazingly, color affects all aspects of your body in some way whether directly or through a chain of events. The eyes are directly affected which in turn sends signals to the brain and then causes the chain reaction through the rest of your body. These reactions to color are very important to scientists and psychologists because they give us the information we need to make the best of environments. Vision in the eye is partially controlled by the rods and cones in the retina. Rods are responsible for black and white vision while cones are responsible for color vision. There are two types of vision theories supported in science: the trichromatic theory and the opponentprocess theory. The trichromatic theory holds that there are three types of cones, each most sensitive to either red, green, or blue. Other colors are assumed to result from combinations of these three (Coon, 2001, p. 174). The very basic problem with this is how do we get the color yellow when we believe it is a primary color and no other colors mixed together can produce a primary? In comparison, the opponent-process theory states that vision analyzes colors into either-or messages. It is assumed that the visual system can produce messages for either red or green, yellow or blue, black or white. Coding one color in a pair seems to block the opposite message, so a reddish green is impossible, but a yellowish red (orange) can occur (Coon, 2001, p. 174). While both theories are correct and supported, I believe there is more evidence for the

Color Psychology opponent-process theory. Evidence includes the production of afterimages. Under this theory, the cones get fatigued from looking at a certain color for so long that the opposing color in the

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pair takes over allowing the cones to recover. For example, when the red cones are fatigued, you will see a green afterimage. In the same way, if the white rods are fatigued, you will see a black afterimage. This evidence will be used later in environmental design. Various studies have been done on the inner physiological effects of color and surroundings. L. Cheskin compared four rooms decorated entirely in one color (furniture and typewriters included): red, blue, yellow or green (Mahnke, 1996, p. 40). And increase in pulse and blood pressure and difficulty working due to overstimulation was noted in the red room. In the blue room the exact opposite was observed blood pressure and pulse declined and participants worked slower. There were no effects on blood pressure or pulse in the yellow room, but eyestrain made it nearly impossible to work. The green room had no effects except that participants claimed it was monotonous. F. Birren (1978) also performed studies on the effects of colored light (p. ii-iii). Participants were asked to stand in front of a large screen that was illuminated with a certain colors. His results showed that red light did increase blood pressure, pulse and respiration. Skin responses were higher and more brain activity was noted. Participants were often distracted by the outside environment. Green and blue lights tended to have the same effects. The rate of body functions were lower than seen in the red light and participants were able to direct their attention toward the light rather than being distracted by their surroundings. In a more recent study in 1990, H. Frieling also tested physiological responses to colored light (Mahnke, 1996, p. 39). Participants were required to stand in front of the light with their

Color Psychology arms outstretched toward the light. As earlier noted and further supported, the red light caused

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an increase in blood pressure and pulse, and a tightness of the throat. The glare also caused some headaches. Participants had a tendency to step backward and move their arms outward. Yellow light appeared vibrating and tense and caused a nervous twitch. Subjects tended to start pushing toward the light. Violet-blue light was pleasant and very restful. Subjects found it easier to concentrate and there were no arousing components noticed. Green light was similar in calming effect. In general, all studies have found overstimulation with bright colors and patterns to be distracting and fatiguing thus slowing down the work process. It causes inconstant blood pressure and tension, which can lead to serious illnesses. On the other hand, understimulation can cause similar problems. The senses are not stimulated and the worker gets bored and easily distracted. In the case of sensory deprivation the same physiological results are possible. It is stressing and can cause the production of stimulus that is not real. Therefore, careful thought must be given to color usage and placement.

The Use of Color in Our Environment The use of color is noticeable every single time we turn around. We all have opinions on the colors used in designing a building or decorating an interior space, but careful attention must be paid to how and where the color is used. Interior designers are paid great amounts of money to produce interiors that will be pleasing and not cause physiological problems. For example, Tom Schultz (personal communication, circa 1999), lamented about the constant repainting of a certain cafeteria on Site 3 at Plant 42 in Palmdale, California. Apparently the cafeteria had been

Color Psychology 14 repainted since the previous colors were dreary. When the job was completed, managers and other higher-ups on site complained about the colors being too bright or even too feminine. So the cafeteria was repainted again with a different set of colors. A prime example that colors must be chosen carefully for the environment. Mitch Duncan (personal communication, June 7, 2003), a member of the California State University, Sacramento Air Force ROTC, stated that in his visit to Nellis Air Force Base in Las Vegas, Nevada, he found the cockpits of the Russian Mig-29 fighter jets to be a pale green. It was confirmed that the cockpits were painted in such a way that it would be relaxing to the pilot in comparison to the common glossy gray used on all machinery. As explained earlier, certain colors create certain perceptions, two of those being weight and volume. In the painting of structures, it is generally accepted that the base is painted a darker color than the rest of the structure. The darker base or foundation creates a sense of stability. Consider most tables found in restaurants and cafeterias, or tables in general. Most have black legs or a black post with black feet while the tabletop itself is another color. A table with white legs and a black top would seem a little rickety. In the same way, machinery is painted with dark green or black bases and lighter shades of the color as you move up the machine. The fast food industry definitely utilizes the effects of color on the mind and body. Psychological studies have shown that warm reds, oranges, warm yellows, light yellow and clear greens are appetite inducing. Colors that do not support hunger include purples, orange-yellows, yellow-green, mustard yellow, and gray tones (Mahnke, 1996, p. 189). Consider all of the fast food restaurants that make plenty of business. You can count on at least 90%, if not 100%, of

Color Psychology 15 them using at least one of the colors that is an appetite enhancer. However, it is strange that one would go to McDonalds, a restaurant that utilizes the very core of hunger colors, and yet order the gray-toned, unappetizing, chicken nuggets. F. Mahnke (1996) and a fellow psychologist undertook the job in 1978 of remodeling the interior of a mental health facility, which was subject to destructive behavior of emotionally disturbed children. A color scheme was created for each ward to better suit young children and teenagers. The childrens wards used yellows and oranges contrasted with cooler colors of blues and green. The adolescent wards were painted in tans and pale greens with oranges. All rooms were alternately painted in warm and cool tones so nurses could place patients in certain rooms based on personalities. Paintings placed on walls were more in tune with childrens interests, while paintings in the adolescent wards were from Impressionism and Post-impressionism. Once the entire facility was completed, the rate of vandalism had dropped significantly and almost vanished, and anger in the patients was not as apparent. Critics stated that such changes were due to an environment change and that any change would have produced the results. If this were the case, why hadnt previous remodeling and refurbishing changed the demeanor of the patients? Remembering that certain colors create a warm or cool feeling, we must consider the temperatures in which we live or the temperatures we would like to create. For example, you may not create a warm, tropical feel with only blues and greens. Likewise, a snowy environment wont be represented by red and oranges. However, these colors do help in interior and exterior design. These are color compensations. If you opened a ski resort in Aspen, Colorado, you could paint it in blues and greens and white to enhance the cold feeling of the snow, but chances

Color Psychology 16 are you will spend a lot more money on coffee and hot drinks. Instead, reds, oranges and yellows, with some green and blue accents may help keep your heating costs down as it creates a warmer environment. In the same way, it would behoove the office designers in Arizona to paint their offices in cooler colors to reduce the cost of cooling in such a very warm state. Lastly, in every city we encounter certain color use codes. Buses are required to be that bright warm yellow that reminds us of a twinkie. Caution signs are required to be the same yellow, however some cities are moving toward the neon yellow-green sign to attract attention. The same is happening with fire engines: most fire engines remain red as a symbol of tradition and the beauty of fire engine red, but some stations are also moving toward the neon yellowgreen color to catch the eye. It makes sense considering we are so accustomed to red and not chartreuse. Heavy machinery such as tractors, cranes, and tankers are painted orange or yellow to catch the eye and signal a level of caution.

Conclusion The research is very interesting and is very useful in the field of Graphic Communications. While you are not designing interiors, you are designing logos and advertisements that will catch the eye and compliment what they are advertising. For example, I would probably not want to advertise for a day spa using red and yellow since the whole idea of a day spa is to relax. Using blues and greens may be more conducive to that idea. Just like designing an interior, a graphic designer must understand the usage and effects of the colors. The psychological and physiological effects of color are apparent in everyday life. It is extremely important to understand how these colors affect us, and the careful attention that must

Color Psychology be paid when designing an interior. Colors cannot be used flippantly in any space otherwise psychological and physiological clashes may occur. However, it is also important to note that

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certain colors should not be overused simply for their calming or exciting effects, which was the case in the production of institutional green. These colors benefit our mental and physical welfare.

Color Psychology Appendix A Primary Colors

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Red

Yellow

Blue

Color Psychology Appendix B

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Primaries

Secondaries

Color Psychology Appendix C Complementary Colors

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Color Psychology Appendix D Vibrating Complementaries

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Color Psychology Appendix E Tint Color Wheel (10% increments)

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Color Psychology Appendix F Shade Color Wheel (10% increments)

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Color Psychology References Birren, F. (1978). Color & Human Response. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Coon, D. (2001). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior (9th ed.). California: Wadsworth.

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Hemphill, M. (1995). A Note on Adults Color-Emotion Associations. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 157(3), 275-280. Mahnke, F. (1996). Color, Environment, and Human Response. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Pile, J. (1997). Color in Interior Design. New York: McGraw-Hill. Terwogt, M. M., & Hoeksma, J. B. (1994). Colors and Emotions: Preferences and Combinations. The Journal of General Psychology, 122(1), 5-17. Webster. (1968). Websters New World Dictionary of the American Language (College ed.). New York: The World Publishing Company.