838 FIBERS/Types

was in a house or in a car, who was the occupier or Roux C, Langdon S, Waight D and Robertson J (1998) The
owner? transfer and persistence of automotive carpet fibers on
. with a sexual assault, did it occur on a bed, on the shoe soles. Science and Justice 39:239±251.
floor? Is it possible to reconstruct the sequence Salter MT, Cook R and Jackson AR (1984) Differential
shedding from blended fabrics. Forensic Science Inter-
of events? Were bed covers present and were they
national 33:155±164.
moved?
Siegel JA (1997) Evidential value of textile fibre ± transfer
. when did the incident take place and was there any and persistence of fibers. Forensic Science Review 9:81±
delay before the scene was examined? 96.
. did any person involved have legitimate access to
the scene or legitimate contact with the other per-
son or persons before the incident?
. are reliable descriptions available of what was
being worn by the offender?
. were items of clothing removed during the inci-
dent?
This type of information is necessary if the scientist is Types
to conduct meaningful experiments aimed at recon-
C Roux, Department of Chemistry, Materials and
structing the events of an alleged incident. There will
Forensic Science University of Technology, Sydney,
rarely, if ever, be simple and easy answers to the Australia
interpretation of fiber evidence. J Robertson, Forensic Services, Australian Federal
Police, Canberra, ACT, Australia
See also: Fibers: Types; Recovery; Identification and
Comparison; Significance. Hair: Hair Transfer, Persis- Copyright # 2000 Academic Press
tence and Recovery. doi:10.1006/rwfs.2000.0513

Further Reading Introduction

Kidd CBM and Robertson J (1982) The transfer of textile Fibers are often investigated in forensic science as
fibers during simulated contacts. Journal of Forensic they are a form of evidence that obeys Locard's
Science Society 22:301±308.
Exchange principle, that is, every contact leaves a
Pounds CA and Smalldon KW (1975) The transfer of fibers
trace. When dealing with fibers coming from an un-
between clothing materials during simulated contacts
and their persistence during wear ± part 1: fibre trans- known source (for example, fibers found on a body),
ference. Journal of Forensic Science Society 15:17±27. it is the examiner's task to first identify these fibers,
Pounds CA and Smalldon KW (1975) The transfer of fibers and then to compare them with a sample of known
between clothing materials during simulated contacts provinance (for example, fibers from the suspect's
and their persistence during wear ± part 2: fiber per- garment). Textile fibers occur as a multitude of
sistence. Journal of Forensic Science Society 15:29±37. different types. The forensic examination of fibers
Pounds CA and Smalldon KW (1975) The transfer of fibers requires the scientist to have a thorough knowledge of
between clothing materials during simulated contacts and experience in the area of fiber technology and
and their persistence during wear ± part 3: a preliminary classification. The aim of this article is to present and
investigation of mechanisms involved. Journal of
discuss the most common types of fibers likely to be
Forensic Science Society 15:197±207.
encountered in forensic examinations.
Robertson J (ed) (1992) The Forensic Examination of
Fibers. New York, London: Ellis Horwood.
Robertson J and Grieve MC (eds) (1999) The Forensic
Examination of Fibers. London: Taylor and Francis. Classification of Fibers
Robertson J, Kidd CBM and Parkinson HMP (1982) The A commonly accepted classification begins by divid-
persistence of textile fibers transferred during simulated ing fibers into two groups: natural and manmade
contacts. Journal of Forensic Science Society 22:353±
(artifical) fibers.
360.
The natural fibers may then be subdivided into
Roux C (1997) La Valeur Indiciale des Fibers Textiles
DeÂcouvertes sur un SieÁge de Voiture: ProbleÁmes et three classes: animal (protein), vegetable (cellulose)
Solutions. PhD thesis, University of Lausanne. and mineral (asbestos). Animal fibers are further
Roux C, Chable J and Margot P (1996) Fibre transfer subdivided into three groups, depending on the
experiments on to car seats. Science and Justice 36: protein composition and/or utilization: silk (fibroin),
143±152. wool (keratin) and hair fibers (also keratin). The
 FIBERS/Types 839

vegetable fibers are also subdivided into three groups, Silk Silk is obtained from a class of insects called
depending on which part of the plant is the source of Lepidoptera. Silk fiber is produced in filament form
the fiber: seed fibers, bast (stem) fibers and leaf fibers. (4 1 km) by the larvae of caterpillars when the
The naturally occurring mineral fibers are asbestos. cocoons are formed. The principal species cultivated
Artificial fibers are subdivided into three groups: for commercial production of silk is Bombyx mori,
synthetic-polymer fibers, natural-polymer fibers and the mulberry silkworm. Tussah silk is produced by
other fibers. The general classification is shown in Antherea pernyi, the wild silkworm.
Fig. 1. In the raw state silk filaments consist of two fibers
of fibroin embedded in sericin (silk gum). After com-
Natural Fibers mercial de-gumming Bombyx silk fibers are transpar-
ent, uniform in width (9±12 mm) with smooth and
structureless surfaces (they look like synthetic fibers).
Animal fibers
Tussah silk fibers are darker in color, coarser and less
All animal fibers are protein based. The difference uniform in width (average 28 mm), with pronounced
between proteins arises from different functional longitudinal striations.
groups pendant to the main chain. For example, silk As a fiber for textile use the outstanding properties
is composed of the protein fibroin whereas wool and of silk are its strength, toughness, high regain, excel-
other animal hairs are composed of keratin. lent soft handle, resistance to creasing, good draping

Figure 1 Classification of fibers (courtesy David SK and Pailthorpe MT, 1999).

840 FIBERS/Types

properties and luxurious appearance. Its high cost has the cuticle. The scale pattern is a useful identification
restricted its use mainly to top quality apparel goods criterion. Scale pattern can vary within different basic
such as ladies' frocks, blouses, underwear, stockings, hair types (coarse versus fine) within hairs from a
handkerchiefs and men shirts and ties. single species. Scale pattern can vary in a repeatable
An example of silk fiber is shown in Fig. 2. and systematic way along the length of individual
hairs.
Hair fibers All animal fibers except silk can be con- The medulla is usually a centrally located structure,
sidered as hair fibers (in its wider definition). They or canal, which can be continuous, discontinuous or
come from many sources including: ovine (sheep, fragmented. The structure of the medulla and the
goat, etc.), camel family (camel, alpaca, vicuna, ratio between the medulla diameter and the hair dia-
etc.), or rodent (rat). However, the term `wool' is meter (MI = medullar index) are valuable features for
generally applied to sheep hair, whereas the simple the identification of the generic class. It should be
term `hair' fibers, or sometimes `specialty' hair fibers, noted that, in wool fibers, the medulla is generally
refers to other animal hairs. present only in coarse fibers (average diameter
Wool and hair fibers are composed of keratin, 430 mm).
which is a protein containing a high concentration The most common hair fibers are as follows:
of sulfur. These fibers are linear polymers with a high . Wool: hair from the sheep. Wool fibers show a great
ratio of disulfide bonds which help to stabilize the variation in both their physical and chemical prop-
fiber structure. Hair fibers are resistant to acids erties, due to the multitude of variations possible in
and solvents, but are altered by basic and oxidizing diet, breed, health, climate, etc. For example, the
solutions. length can vary from 3 to 30 cm, and the diameter
Hairs are composed of three types of cells: cuticle from 17 to 42 mm (both features are dependent on
cells, cortical cells and medulla cells. As shown in each other). Merino wool is sought after for its
Fig. 3, the cuticle cells form an outer sheath which fineness, softness, strength, elasticity and crimp.
encases the inner cortical cells. The cuticle scales Merino wool has superior spinning properties and
overlap each other with the exposed edges pointing is used for spinning the finest woollen and worsted
toward the tip of the fiber contributing to the tactile yarns. Medium wools, produced by breeds such as
properties of the fiber. The number of scale layers Leicester, Cheviot, Corriedale and Polwarth are
and the degree of overlap determines the width of used in the manufacture of woollens, knitting
yarns, hosiery, blankets, etc. An example of wool
fiber is shown in Fig. 4.
. Mohair: hair from the angora goat. Mohair fibers
have a length of 20±30 cm and a diameter of 10±
70 mm. Generally these fibers have no medulla.
Mohair has similar physical and chemical proper-
ties to wool.
. Cashmere: originally hair from the Asiatic goat
Capra hircus laniger. Hair produced from selec-
tively bred wild goats of Australia, New Zealand

Figure 2 Silk fiber (magnification 906).

Figure 3 Schematic of a wool/hair fiber. Figure 4 Merino wool fiber (magnification 906).
 FIBERS/Types 841

and Scotland is also called cashmere. These fibers lignins, pectins, water solubles and fats and waxes.
are 5±10 cm in length with diameters of 14±16 mm. They have, however, distinguishable lengths, bundles
Cashmere is chemically identical to wool, but be- and cell wall shapes. In addition, the composition, the
cause of its fineness and better wetting properties, general appearance and the surface quality can be
is more susceptible to chemical damage, especially modified through the manufacturing process (e.g.
with respect to alkalis. Cashmere is higly regarded mercerized cotton). These fibers have generally a
for producing garments which are comfortable and high tensile strength but they are easy to crease.
have soft handle. The main uses are in high class
ladies dress goods and knitwear. Cotton Cotton is a fiber attached to the seed of
. Camel: hair from the camel or dromedary. The finer several species of the genus Gossypium. Originally
inner camel hair has found use in men's high grade from India, cotton is now grown in many subtropical
overcoating, whereas the longer outer hair is used countries. The principal species include G. barba-
mainly in beltings and inner linings. dense (South America and Egypt), G. hirsutum
. Alpaca: hair from the fleece of the alpaca (Lama Central America, USA, 80% of the world production)
pacos) which inhabits South America. Alpaca and G. arboreum and G. herbaceum (Indian and
fibers have a diameter of 24±26 mm, with a distinc- Arabic countries).
tive scale structure and medullation. They have Cotton is composed of approximately 92% cellu-
similar uses to mohair. lose. After maturation, as drying proceeds, the walls
. Vicuna: undercoat hair from the vicuna, the rarest of the fiber shrink and collapse, the central hollow
and smallest of the llama family. The diameter is lumen becomes smaller and flatter, and the fiber
13±14 mm. These fibers are as valuable as cashmere develops convolution (twists). There are from 110
and have similar uses. (fine) to 60 (coarse Asian cotton) convolutions per
. Angora: hair from the pelts of the angora rabbit. centimeter in cotton fibers. These convolutions im-
The hair is shorn from the pelts and separated by prove the flexibility of the fiber and hence the spin-
blowing. The fine hair is used to make felts for the ning properties of the cotton. The convolutions are an
hat trade, and the long guard hair is spun into yarn. important morphological feature used in microscopic
The best hair is 6±8 cm long and about 13 mm in identification of cotton.
diameter. Rabbit hair is often blended with wool or The morphological appearance and the crystalline
nylon. structure can be modified by a special procedure
. Others: hairs from domestic pets and farm animals using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and mechanical
(cat, dog, cow, horse, etc.) and hairs from humans elongation. This process, invented by the English
(head hairs, pubic hairs, etc.) may be encountered chemist John Mercer, in 1844, produces mercerized
in forensic examinations. cotton. Mercerized cotton has greatly reduced con-
volutions.
Vegetable fibers
Cotton fibers can be dyed with a wide range of
The vegetable fibers are divided into three groups dyestuffs including direct, azoic, vat, sulfur, reactive
depending on the section of the plant from which they and metal complex dyes. Cotton fibers are resistant to
are harvested. solvents. However, they are damaged by strong acids,
oxidizing agents and strong bases.
. seed fibers: cotton, kapok and coir;
The mechanical properties of cotton fibers are in
. bast (stem) fibers: flax, ramie, hemp, kenaf and
the middle range. The use of cotton is, therefore, very
jute;
wide. As a result, cotton represents more than half
. leaf fibers: sisal, henequin, abaca and New Zealand
of the world's annual quantity of textile fibers. An
hemp.
example of cotton fiber is shown in Fig. 5.
The use of the term fiber has different meanings for a
botanist and a textile scientist. With vegetable fibers Kapok These seed fibers are obtained from the pods
the botanical origin may be a true botanical fiber of the kapok tree, Ceiba petrandra (baobab family).
(bast and leaf fibers) or a seed hair (cotton). Textile Kapok fibers have an average length of 18 mm and a
vegetable fibers usually contain groups or bundles of diameter of 20±30 mm. The fiber is oval in cross-
single fibers called ultimates. The degree of coarse- section with a wide lumen and a very thin wall.
ness of the textile fiber depends on whether or not Kapok fibers are composed of about 65% cellulose
these groups are separated by physical and/or chemi- with the balance being mainly lignins and hemicellu-
cal disruption. lose. Kapok fibers have a low density and are unsui-
All vegetable fibers contain the same chemical table for spinning into yarn. As a result they are
constituents including cellulose and hemicellulose, principally used as a filling in such products as life-
842 FIBERS/Types

Figure 5 Cotton fiber (magnification 906). Figure 6 Flax fiber (magnification 906).

buoys, belts, mattresses and pillows. Kapok fibers and 2% lignins. The quality and spinning properties
were popular before World War II (over 40 million of flax are very dependent on the 1±1.5% wax pres-
kg per annum). However, production has since ent. This gives the fibers their high luster as well as
dropped dramatically owing to destruction of planta- imparting suppleness.
tions and the development of alternative fiber fillings Flax fibers are stronger than other natural fibers,
(e.g. polyester Dacron). and are much less pliable and elastic than other com-
mon natural fibers. Flax has about the same moisture
regain as cotton but absorbs moisture much more
Coir These fibers are contained between the outer
rapidly, making it very suitable for towels and drying
husk of the coconut and the shell of the inner kernel.
cloths. The smooth fiber surface makes it very easy to
Coir fibers are coarse, with a length of 15±36 cm, and
launder, hence historically flax found great use in the
diameters of 0.1±1.5 mm. The virgin coir fibers com-
manufacture of table cloths and bandages. Fine fabric
prise about 40% cellulose, 40% lignin, 2% pectin
woven from flax is termed linen.
and 18% hemicellulose. The process of retting
Flax is more difficult to dye than cotton. However,
removes much of the pectins and hemicellulose so
flax bleaches to a full white which is enhanced by its
that the commercial fibers consist essentially of cel-
natural luster. This characteristic is much prized in
lulose and lignin. Coir has a high tensile strength
household linens, so only a small portion is dyed.
which is retained after prolonged immersion in
water. As a result, coir is used in the manufacture of
Ramie The commercial source of ramie fiber is
brushes, brooms and door mats. Coir also has a good
Boehermeria nivea, which is grown as a perennial.
resistance to microbiological attack.
The extraction of ramie is much more difficult than
that of flax, jute and hemp fibers, and this difficulty
Flax Flax fibers are bast fibers from the stalk of the has restricted its use. The ultimate ramie fibers vary in
plant Linum usitatissimum. In the flax plant, the length from 2.5 to 30 cm with diameters ranging from
fibers are arranged in bundles of 12±40 fibers. These 40 to 75 mm. The cells, which are elongated in cross-
bundles are up to 100 cm in length and 15±20 mm in section, have thick walls, with a well-defined lumen.
diameter. Flax fibers are mainly polygonal in cross- The fiber surface is characterized by small node-like
section, caused by the way that they are packed to- ridges and striations. The orientation of the molecules
gether in bundles. Each ultimate fiber is pointed at in ramie is very regular, and it is the most crystalline
both ends, and there is a small lumen running length- of the natural cellulosic fibers.
wise but disappearing near the ends. The fibers have a Natural ramie consists essentially of about 75%
smooth surface except at intervals where they are cellulose, 16% hemicellulose, 2% pectins, 1% lig-
ringed with transverse nodes. These nodes, which nins, and 6% water solubles and waxes. After dec-
are useful in identifying the fiber, help to bind the ortification, the cellulose content rises to about 85%,
fibers together, and their regular and frequent occur- and the fully de-gummed fiber contains 96±98%
rence is important for the formation of fine strong cellulose on a dry basis.
yarns. An example of flax fiber is shown in Fig. 6. Ramie fibers are very white with a silk-like luster
Flax fibers have a much higher content of noncel- and hence make attractive fabrics. Ramie is unaffect-
lulosic material than cotton. Flax contains about ed by exposure to sunlight and has a very high resist-
75% cellulose, 15% hemicellulose, 2.5% pectins ance to bacteria, fungi and mildew. Ramie fabrics and
 FIBERS/Types 843

yarns, like linen, are highly absorbent and dry quick- sisal have a length of 1±2 m and are white to yellowish
ly. Fabrics are easily laundered and show only minor in color. The fiber bundles consist of ultimates which
strength loss after repeated washings. Durable and are 3±7 mm in length and have an average diameter of
attractive sheets, table cloths and towels can be made 24 mm. The fibers have a broad lumen and the fiber
from ramie. ends are broad and blunt and sometimes forked. The
fibers are polygonal in cross-section, sometimes with
Hemp Hemp is the bast fiber produced from the rounded edges. The main use of sisal is for the manu-
stalk of the plant Cannabis sativa. Fiber strands vary facture of ropes, cordages, twines, etc.
from 1.0 to 2.0 m in length with the ultimate cells in
the range of 0.5-5.0 cm in length and 15±50 mm in Henequin
diameter. These ultimate cells are similar in appear- Henequin is another important agave leaf fiber from
ance to flax, except that the fiber surface has longi- the plant Agave forcroydes. Henequin is native of the
tudinal fractures (no nodes) and the cell ends are Mexican state of Yucatan. The physical and chemical
blunt and irregularly shaped. properties of henequin are almost identical to sisal.
The composition of dry hemp fibers is about 75%
cellulose, 17% hemicellulose, 1% pectins, 3.6% lig-
Abaca (Manila hemp) Abaca is produced from the
nins, 2.7% water solubles and 0.8% fats and waxes.
leaf of the plant Musa textilis, a member of the banana
Hemp fibers are gray±green to brown in color with the
family indigenous to the Philippines. The fiber strands
better quality fibers having a luster. Their strength,
have a length of 1±3 m and diameter of 0.05±
elongation, etc. are very similar to flax, and, in some
0.30 mm. The ultimate fibers are 3±12 mm in length
instances, good quality hemp can be used as a substi-
and 16±32 mm in diameter. The cross-section is ir-
tute for flax. The main commercial uses of hemp are in
regularly round or oval in shape, and the lumen is very
the manufacture of ropes, cords, string and twine.
large and generally empty. The fiber cells have thin
smooth walls and sharp or pointed ends. Abaca is
Jute Jute is the bast fiber obtained from Corchorus
used for the manufacture of better quality ropes and
capsularis and C. elitorius plants. The jute fiber
cordages.
strands comprise bundles of spindle-shaped single
cells or ultimates. These ultimates vary in length
from 1 to 6 mm, with an average of 3.1 mm, being New Zealand hemp (Phormium tenax) Phormium
much shorter than cotton fibers. The diameter is in tenax, or New Zealand hemp, is a perennial plant
the range 15±25 mm. They have a polygonal cross- indigenous to New Zealand. The ultimate fibers have
section with a large lumen and thick cell walls. The a length of 2.5±15 mm and diameter of 10±20 mm.
surface of the cells is mainly smooth with only occa- The cells are nearly circular in cross-section with a
sional markings. circular lumen. The composition of leaf fibers of
The main components of raw dry jute fibers are Phormium tenax differ from other leaf fibers in hav-
71% cellulose, 13% lignin, 13% hemicellulose, 0.2% ing much lower cellulose content but higher hemicel-
pectin, 2.3% water solubles and 0.5% fats and lulose and lignin contents.
waxes. The presence of hemicellulose makes jute
Mineral fibers (asbestos)
more sensitive to alkalis and acids than pure cellulose.
Unbleached jute is extremely light sensitive and turns The term asbestos applies to a variety of mineral
yellow or brown on prolonged exposure with a loss in fibers that have a high elasticity and a high resistance
tensile strength. The sensitivity to light appears to be to heat, corrosion, wear and tear, humidity, etc.
connected with the high lignin content. These fibers are noncombustible and have a weak
Jute is fairly lustrous with moderate strength. electricity conductivity. Asbestos is easily mixed with
However, it is inextensible and brittle. Jute finds building materials (glue, plaster, concrete, etc.). As a
application in packaging for foods, cotton, etc. as result, until relatively recently substantial quantities
backing for linoleum and carpets, and in the manu- of asbestos were mined. However, health considera-
facture of ropes and cordages. tions have since greatly reduced the industry. Asbes-
tos has been replaced wherever possible by other
Kenaf The fiber kenaf is obtained from the plant fibers such as glass or Nomex.
Hibiscus cannabinus and is similar to jute in many of The different forms of asbestos vary in composi-
its properties, hence kenaf is a substitute for jute. tion, dimension and crystalline structure (Table 1)
However, all forms are silicates. The fibers are very
Sisal Sisal fibers are obtained from the leaves of the fine (approx. 0.02 mm ± 2000 times finer than a
tropical plant Agave sisalana. Individual strands of human hair) and relatively long (several millimeters).
844 FIBERS/Types

Table 1 Common forms of asbestos synthetic fibers to improve on the natural properties
of cotton as a textile fiber.
Group Chemical formula
The basis of artificial fiber formation is the same
Serpentine group for both regenerated and synthetic fibers. The poly-
Chrysotile (white) Mg6Si4O10(OH)8 mer in a concentrated, viscous form, either in solution
Amphibole group or in a molten state, is forced through the tiny holes of
Crocidolite (blue, the most Na2Fe32+Fe23+Si8O22(OH,F)2 a spinneret, and the emerging filaments are immedi-
hazardous)
ately precipitated or cooled to form the solid-state
Cummingtonite-grunerite (Mg,Fe2+)7Si8O22(OH)2
(amosite, brown) fiber. This process is termed spinning or extrusion
Tremolite-actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)5Si8O22(OH)2 and may be accomplished in different ways. The fiber
Anthophyllite (Mg,Fe2+)7Si8O22(OH,F)2 filaments thus formed are usually stretched or drawn
mechanically. This operation causes the polymer
chains to become more aligned (or oriented) in the
The different forms can be identified using polarizing direction of the longitudinal axis.
microscopy and transmission electron microscopy The longitudinal and cross-sectional appearance of
(TEM). artificial fibers is largely affected by the manu-
The most important form of asbestos is chrysotile facturing process. For example, the shape of spinneret
which accounted for about 90% of total asbestos pro- holes will determine the cross-section; the orientation
duction. Chrysotile belongs to the serpentine group of of the polymer chains will influence the longitudinal
minerals and occurs only in serpentine rocks. These appearance under polarized light, etc.
are metamorphic rocks, and the development of A guide to most common synthetic fibers is shown
chrysotile seems to depend on a hydrothermal recrys- in Table 2.
tallization, which is probably initiated at cracks in the
Artificial fibers from natural polymers
rock. The fibers grow at the expense of the adjacent
rock. This form is important in a forensic context, Fibers can be regenerated from two natural sources:
because it is used as an ingredient in safe manufacture.
. a biological source:
When recovered on a suspect's garment, it can there-
fore constitute a very specific trace evidence. . cellulose: viscose, modal rayon, cuprammonium
rayon, cellulose esters;
. protein: casein;
Artificial Fibers . seaweed: alginate fibers;
Artificial fibers may be derived from natural poly- . a mineral source:
mers (regenerated fibers such as viscose, rayon, cel- . glass
lulose acetate and triacetate, etc.) or synthesized from . metallized yarn.
simple starting material (synthetic fibers such as
polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, etc.). Fibers regenerated from a mineral source are rather
Whether made from a natural or synthetic starting classified as `other artificial fibers' because their
material the aim in making an artificial fiber is to source is not a real polymer.
replicate natural fibers but in the process either im- The most common regenerated fibers are cellulosic.
prove on some limitations of natural fibers or pro- Depending on the subclass, these fibers have variable
duce an inexpensive alternative. The `improvements' properties (mechanical properties, degree of polymer-
in artificial fibers often relate to the ability of textile ization, etc.). However, their longitudinal appearance
manufacturers to produce fabrics or products with is very similar (uniform diameter with longitudinal
chosen characteristics and the ability to color fibers. striations and irregular cross-section) except cupro
The processes used to manufacture artificial fibers are (where the surface is smooth and the cross-section is
controlled to attempt to produce fibers with defined almost round).
properties especially with regard to crystallinity and
orientation. These contribute to the physical proper- Viscose Viscose is the most important regenerated
ties of the fibers and the fabric produced from them. cellulose fiber with respect to its production level. The
The wide range of fibers and fabrics give much great- manufacturing process involves first the aging of cel-
er flexibility and scope to the textile manufacturer lulose pulp in alkali solution (NaOH). The cellulose
than in the era before artificial fibers. However, the pulp is then solubilized by forming the carbon dis-
fact that cotton still represents more than 50% of ulfide derivative of cellulose known as cellulose xan-
textiles and products demonstrates the inability of thate (cellulose-O-CSSNa). This solution is allowed to
 FIBERS/Types 845

Table 2 Quick guide to artificial fibers (Courtesy American Fiber Manufacturers Association, Washington, DC)

Major generic man-made fibers Characteristics Major domestic and industrial uses

Acetate Luxurious feel and appearance Apparel: blouses, dresses, and foundation
Celanese, Celebrate, Wide range of colors and lusters garments, lingerie, linings, shirts, slacks,
Chromspun, Estron, Excellent drapability and softness sportswear
Microsafe Relatively fast-drying Fabrics: brocade, crepe, double knits, faille,
Shrink-, moth-, and mildew-resistant knitted jerseys, lace, satin, taffeta, tricot
Home furnishings: draperies, upholstery
Other: cigarette filters, fiberfil for pillows, quited
products
Acrylic Soft and warm Apparel: dresses, infant wear, knitted garments,
Acrilan, Acrilan Plus, Bounce- Wool-like ski wear, socks, sportswear, sweaters
Back, Creslan, Cystar, Retains shape Fabrics: fleece and pile fabrics, face fabrics in
Cyster AF, Duraspun Resilient bonded fabrics, simulated furs, jerseys
Quick-drying Home furnishings: blankets, carpets, draperies,
Resistant to moths, sunlight, oil and upholstery
chemicals Other: auto tops, awnings, hand-knitting and
craft yarns, industrial and geotextile fabrics
Aramid Does not melt Hot-gas filtration fabrics, protective clothing,
Kevlar, Nomex, Fi-lana, Pil-Trol, Highly flame-resistant military helmets, protective vests, structural
Sayelle, So-Lara, Smart High strength composites for boats, sailcloth, tires, ropes
Yarns, Ware-Dated, Wintuk High resistance to stretch and cables, mechanical rubber goods,
Maintains its shape and form at high marine and sporting goods
temperatures
Lyocell Soft, strong, absorbent Dresses, slacks and coats
Lenzing Lyocell, Tencel Good dyeability
Filrillates during wet processing
produce special textures
Modacrylic Soft Apparel: deep pile coats, trims, linings,
SEF Plus Resilient simulated fur, wigs and hairpieces
Abrasion- and flame-resistant Fabrics: fleece fabrics, industrial fabrics, knit-
Quick-drying pile fabric backings, non-woven fabrics
Resists acids and alkalis Home furnishings: awnings, blankets, carpets,
Retains shape flame-resistant draperies and curtains,
scatter rugs
Other: filters, paint rollers, stuffed toys
Nylon Exceptionally strong Apparel: blouses, dresses, foundation
A.C.E., Anso, Antron, Supple garments, hosiery, lingerie and underwear,
Assurance, Avantige, Abrasion-resistant raincoats, ski and snow apparel, suits,
Cantrece, Capima, Caplana, Lustrous windbreakers
Caprolan,Captiva, Cordura, Easy to wash Home furnishings: bedspreads, carpets,
CreÁme de Captiva, Resists damage from oil and many draperies, curtains, upholstery
Crepeset, Durasoft, chemicals Other: air hoses, conveyor and seat belts,
DyeNAMIX, Eclipse, Resilient low in moisture absorbency parachutes, racket strings, ropes and nets,
Hardline, Hydrofil, Hytel, sleeping bags, tarpaulins, tents, thread, tire
Matinesse, Microsupplex, cord, geotextiles
No Shock, PowerSilk,
Resistat, Shimmereen, Silky
Touch, Solution, Sportouch,
Stainmaster, Stay Gard,
Supplex, Tactel, Tru-
Ballistic, Ultra Image, Ultra
Touch, Ultron, Wear-Dated,
Wellon, Wellstrand,
WorryFree, Zefsport, Zeftron

ripen to an appropriately viscous consistency, and is cellulose. The filaments thus formed are drawn from
then extruded through a spinneret. The emerging the bath at a controlled rate with some degree of
filaments are immediately coagulated in an aqueous applied stretch.
bath containing sulfuric acid and salts of sodium and Cellulose is a cellulosic polymer identical to cotton,
zinc sulfate. The coagulation bath completely regen- but with a much lower degree of polymerization. This
erates the xanthate derivative back into the form of results in a number of significant differences in the
846 FIBERS/Types

Table 2 (continued) Quick guide to artificial fibers

Major generic man-made fibers Characteristics Major domestic and industrial uses

Olefin Unique wicking properties that make very Apparel: pantyhose, underwear, knitted sports
Alpha, Essera, Impressa, comfortable shirts, men's half hose, men's knitted
Innova, Marvess, Patlon III, Abrasion-resistant sportswear, sweaters
Polystrand, Spectra, Synera, Quick-drying Home furnishings: carpet and carpet backing,
Trace Resistant to deterioration from chemicals, slipcovers, upholstery
mildew, perspiration, rot, and weather Other: dye nets, filter fabrics, laundry and sand-
Sensitive to heat bags, geotextiles, automotive interiors,
Soil resistant cordage, doll hair, industrial sewing thread
Strong; very lightweight
Excellent colorfastness
Polyester Strong Apparel: blouses, shirts, career apparel,
A.C.E., Ceylon, Comfort Fiber, Resistant to stretching and shrinking children's wear, dresses, half hose, insulated
Compet, Coolmax, Resistant to most chemicals garments, ties, lingerie and underwear,
Corebond, Dacronfi, ES.P, Quick-drying permanent press garments, slacks, suits
Fortel, Hollofi, Kodaire, Crisp and resilient when wet or dry Home furnishings: carpets, curtains, draperies,
Kodel, KodOfill, KodOsoff, Wrinkle- and abrasion-resistant sheets and pillow cases
Pentron, Premafill Plurnp, Retains heat-set pleats and creases Other: fiberfill for various products, fire hose,
Premafill Soft, KoSa, KoSa Easy to wash power belting, ropes and nets, tire cord, sail,
Finesse, KoSa Micronesse, V-belts
Universe
PBI Highly flame resistant Suitable for high-performance protective
PBI Logo Outstanding comfort factor combined with apparel such as firemen's turnout coats,
thermal and chemical stability astronaut space suits and applications where
properties fire resistance is important
Will not burn or melt
Low shrinkage when exposed to flame
Rayon Highly absorbent Apparel: blouses, coats, dresses, jackets,
Beau-Grip, Fibro, Galaxy Soft and comfortable lingerie, linings, millinery, rainwear, slacks,
Easy to dye sports shirts, sportswear, suits, suits, ties,
Versatile work clothes
Good drapability Home furnishings: bedspreads, blankets,
carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets,
slipcovers, tablecloths, upholstery
Other: industrial products, medical, surgical
products, nonwoven products, tire cord
Spandex Can be stretched 500% without breaking Articles (where stretch is desired): athletic
Lycra Can be stretched repeatedly and returns to apparel, bathing suits, delicate laces,
original length foundation garments, golfjackets, ski pants,
Light-weight slacks, support and surgical hose
Stronger and more durable than rubber
Resistant to body oils
Sulfar High-performance fibers with excellent Filter fabric for coal-fired boiler bag houses,
Ryton resistance to harsh chemicals and high papermakers' felts, electrical insulation,
temperatures electrolysis membranes, filter fabrics for
Excellent strength retention in adverse liquid and gas filtration, high-performance
environments composites, gaskets and packing
Flame retardant
Nonconductive

physical and chemical properties between the two the moisture absorption is important. Commercial
polymers. Viscose (as generally with other regener- trade names include Rayonne, Cidena, Rhovalan,
ated cellulosic polymers) is a weaker fiber, with a Torayon, IF80, Tenasco (higher tenacity viscose).
lower abrasion resistance, lower heat resistance, Viloft (hollow viscose). Darelle (flame retardant
lower wet strength and poorer heat conductivity viscose).
than cotton. However, it is the cheapest artificial An example of viscose fiber is shown in Fig. 7.
fiber, and is therefore used for dress fabrics, under-
wear and furnishings, often blended with cotton, Modal (polynosic) rayon Modal rayon fibers are
nylon, polyester or wool. Non-woven products in- obtained by a modified viscose manufacturing pro-
clude bedding and personal hygiene products, where cess: a very slow regeneration in the presence of dilute
 FIBERS/Types 847

Cellulose Ester Fibers (Cellulose Acetate and Cellulose

Triacetate) Both acetate and triacetate are ester de-
rivatives of the natural cellulose polymer, in which
the hydroxyl groups have been acetylated to form the
ester of acetic acid using acetic acid, acetic anhydride
and sulfuric acid (as catalyst). The complete conver-
sion of all (6) OH groups in glucose monomer into
acetate groups (±OCOCH3) leads to triacetate (or
primary cellulose acetate). The partial hydrolysis of
the fully acetylated polymer, leaving 74±92% of the
hydroxyl groups acetylated, leads to acetate (or sec-
ondary cellulose acetate).
In comparison to viscose, cellulose esters are
Figure 7 Viscose rayon fiber (magnification 906). weaker fibers, which become even weaker when
wet. Acetate and triacetate materials distort or wrin-
acid and a high concentration of zinc sulfate, accom- kle easily. The moisture absorbencies of acetate and
panied by a very high degree of applied stretch. The triacetate fibers are lower than that of viscose. Both
highly oriented structure imparts a high degree of fibers are thermoplastic, that is they may be perma-
strength in both dry and wet states, lower extension nently set or pleated by the application of heat.
at break and lower moisture regain. Zantrel is an Acetate and triacetate fibers are used in most fabric
example of commercial trade name. and garment end uses for their silk-like appearance,
soft handle and easy dying. Their tenacities are ad-
Cuprammonium rayon Historically, cuprammo-
equate for dress wear, linings and furnishing fabrics,
nium rayon was the first commercially useful artifi-
and they are often blended with cotton and syn-
cial fiber. Cellulose pulp is solubilized in an ammonia
thetics. Trade names for acetate include Rhodia,
solution containing copper salt and caustic soda. The
Albene, Rhodalha and Seraceta. Trade names for
fiber has very similar physical and chemical proper-
triacetate include Rhonel and Tricel.
ties to those of viscose (one minor difference is that
Examples of cellulose acetate fiber are shown in
the pore size of cupro fibers is larger than that of
Figs 8 and 9.
viscose, so that cupro fibers stain and dye more read-
ily). However, the high cost of cupro production, Regenerated protein fibers Regenerated protein
involving the use of copper salts, resulted in cupro fibers are manufactured by extruding an alkaline
being superseded by viscose in the 1940s. In fact, solution of protein (casein, peanuts, soya, wool,
cupro fiber is now virtually obsolete. etc.) followed by coagulation in acid. Further treat-
Lyocell Lyocell is a relatively new type of fiber ment with formaldehyde improves resistance to alka-
which is defined as a cellulose fiber obtained by an lis. The surface of the fiber is smooth and the cross-
organic solvent spinning process without the forma- section is almost round. Regenerated protein fibers
tion of a derivative. In this process, raw cellulose is may be distinguished from silk by their insolubility
directly dissolved in an amine oxide solvent. The in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid in which silk
solution is then filtered, and extruded into an aqueous dissolves. Regenerated protein fibers are usually
bath of dilute amine oxide, and coagulated into fiber
form. Although it is given a separate generic name,
the Federal Trade Commission (US) classifies Lyocell
as a subcategory under `Rayon'.
Lyocell fibers are soft, strong, absorbent, wrinkle
resistant, biodegradable, and have excellent wet
strength. Lyocell produces versatile fabric dyable to
vibrant colors, with a variety of effects and textures
which simulates silk, suede or leather touch. It is used
for dresses, slacks, coats and jeans. Trade names
include Lenzing Lyocell and Tencel.
Lyocell can be distinguished from other cellulosic
fibers, including viscose and modal fibers, by a careful
examination of their morphology and by accurate
birefringence measurements. Figure 8 Cellulose acetate fiber (magnification 906).
848 FIBERS/Types

Polyamides (nylon, qiana and aramid) Polyamides

are organic polymer fibers which contain an amide
functionality (±CONH±) within the repeating unit.
The polymer may be aliphatic (nylon), alicyclic
(quiana) or aromatic (aramid).

Nylon Aliphatic polyamides are defined according

to the number of carbon atoms in the repeating unit.
Nylon 6.6 and nylon 6 are the most widely manu-
factured polyamides (Fig. 13).

Figure 9 Cellulose triacetate fiber (magnification 906).

incorporated into blends with other fibers such as

cotton and wool.

Alginate fibers Alginate fibers are prepared by

spinning an aqueous solution of sodium alginate
(polymers of mannuronic acid and guluronic acid)
extracted from seaweed. The solution is coagulated
in a bath of calcium chloride as calcium alginate
(precipitate). The fiber is nonflammable owing to its
high metal content, and it is soluble in alkaline solu-
Figure 10 Nylon fiber (magnification 906).
tion. Alginate fibers may be used in similar end uses as
water-soluble polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (see below).
The principal application is, however, in surgical
end uses, where the water-soluble form of sodium
alginate is readily absorbed in the bloodstream. The
appearance of alginate fibers is similar to those of
viscose (longitudinal striations, irregular cross-sec-
tion). Alginate fibers are characterized by their high
ash content, and their solubility in carbonate solution.
Synthetic fibers

All synthetic fibers are organic polymeric fibers man-

ufactured by chemical synthesis. The polymer forma-
tion is obtained by condensation (loss of water) or
addition (no loss), the final product being respectively Figure 11 Polyester fiber (magnification 906).
referred to as condensation and addition polymers.
Examples of condensation polymers include polya-
mide and aramids, polyesters and polyurethanes, and
examples of addition polymers include polyolefins
and polyvinyl derivatives (cf. below).
The first synthetic fiber, nylon, was developed by
Carothers in 1927, but it was only after World War II
that mass production started. Nowadays, synthetic
fibers are necessary to our daily activity, used alone or
blended with natural fibers. They represent an im-
portant part of the world production of textile mate-
rials, and are a priori frequently encountered in
criminal investigation. Most common synthetic fibers
are described below and a few examples are shown in
Figs 10±12. Figure 12 Acrylic (Orlon) fiber (magnification 96).
 FIBERS/Types 849

Aramids: There are aromatic polyamides defined as

having at least 85% of their amide linkage attached
directly to two aromatic rings. Nomex and Kevlar are
the most commonly encountered aramids (Figs 14 and
15).
Aramids fibers have exceptional mechanical,
chemical and heat resistance. Nomex is inherently
Figure 13 Two examples of Nylon fibers. flame retardant and kevlar is five times stronger than
steel and more than 10 times stronger than aluminum.
. Nylon 6.6 is the condensation product of hexam- However, their expense limits application to high-
ethylene diamine and adipic acid. Due to the high performance products, for example sporting goods,
degree of crystallinity, nylon 6.6 is the most abra- high performance tires and the aerospace industry.
sion resistant of all common textile fibers (four to
five times better than wool), with a good tensile
Polyesters Polyesters are polymers containing at
strength (even wet) and an excellent elastic recov-
least 85% (mass) of the ester obtained by the con-
ery. Nylon 6.6 is relatively flammable, chemically
densation of a diol and a dicarboxylic acid. The most
stable, but unstable to sunlight. The melting point
common types of polyesters are polyethylene
is in the range of 250±2608C. Nylon 6.6 is com-
terephthalate (PET, trade names: Terilene, Dacron,
monly used for ropes and cordages, carpets, fishing
Trevira, Tergal) (Fig. 16) and poly-1,4-cyclohexylene-
nets, brushes (e.g. toothbrushes) and common gar-
dimethylene terephthalate (PCDT, trade name:
ments (under- and outer garments, often blended
Kodel), (Fig. 17).
with cotton). Trade names of nylon 6.6 include
PET fibers have a good tensile strength, and are
Blue C, ICI-nylon, Perlon T, Ultron, Nylfrance,
resistant to chemicals, biological agents and abrasion.
Obtel, Oranyl, Amilan.
They are more flammable than nylon, but more re-
. Nylon 6 is the condensation product of 6-amino-
sistant to sunlight. The melting point is around
hexanoic acid. Nylon 6 is easier to dye than nylon
2508C. PCDT fibers have a good elasticity and are
6.6, and is therefore cheaper. The low melting
point (approx. 2158C) constitutes a drawback be-
cause the garments are difficult to iron. The other
properties of nylon 6 are similar to those of nylon
6.6. Nylon 6 is used as tire reinforcement, in
carpets, and other similar applications to those of
nylon 6.6. Trade names of nylon 6 include Perlon,
Celon, Montefiber, Enkalon, Dederon, Grilon,
Lilion, Forlion, Perlofil, Dayan.
Other aliphatic polyamides that have been commer-
cialized include nylon 4.6, nylon 6.10, nylon 7 and
nylon 11 (Rilsan). Some of these fibers have been
developed for their exceptional resistance to abra-
sion and thermal degradation in engineering applica-
tions. Figure 14 Nomex: benzene rings are meta-substituted.
New nylon 6-based block copolymer fibers have
been developed recently. These fibers have the
strength, durability and thermoplasticity of nylon
but with a moisture absorption which is similar to
that of cotton. Infrared spectrometry is required to
distinguish nylon 6-based block copolymers from
normal nylon 6.

Quiana Qiana (or PACM-12): is a polyamide con-

taining an alicyclic group and a long 12-membered
carbon chain: [±HN±C6H8±CH2±C6H8±NHCO±
(CH2)10±CO]. This is a fashion fabric known for its
silk-like handle and high moisture regain. Figure 15 Kevlar: benzene rings are para-substituted.
850 FIBERS/Types

Figure 16 PET fibers.

Figure 18 Formation of polyurethanes.

Polyethylene Free radical polymerization under

conditions of high temperature and pressure, leads
to the formation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
unsuitable as fibrous material. The use of a special
catalyst system allows the formation of a highly crys-
talline polymer network known as high-density poly-
ethylene (HDPE) (Fig. 19). Polyethylene fibers have
Figure 17 PCDT fibers.
good chemical and biological stability. The melting
point is low (around 1208C). They are relatively
more heat resistant than PET fibers (melting point
cheap, light and their flammability is in the medium
around 2908C). Their flammability is negligible.
range (they burn slowly). They have a zero moisture
Otherwise, their properties are similar to those of
regain. They are sensitive to sunlight degradation. As
PET. Polyesters are used in numerous applications,
a result, they have few textile applications. They are
for example garments (often blended with wool or
used for chemical filtration, car upholstery, medical
cotton), linen, ropes, tire reinforcement.
products and next-to-skin active wear. Trade names
Polyurethanes Polyurethane elastomeric fibers include Courlene, Drylene, Polythene and Marlex.
(`elastane') are defined as containing at least 85%
Polypropylene The manufacture of polypropylene
by mass of recurrent aliphatic groups joined by
fibers (Fig. 20) is much simpler and cheaper than other
urethane linkages [±O±CO±NH±]. Polyurethanes
synthetic fibers such as nylon or polyester. Polypro-
are very complex polymers combining a flexible seg-
pylene fibers are resistant to solvents and other che-
ment, which provides the high degree of stretch and
micals, to bacteriological growth and to abrasion. The
rapid recovery of an elastomer, with a rigid segment
melting point is relatively low (but higher than that of
that confers the necessary strength of a fiber (Fig. 18).
polyethylene, around 1658C). These fibers are rela-
Polyurethanes fibers have distinctive highly exten-
tively light and have a good tensile strength. They
sible `snap-back' properties (500±600% elongation).
As a result they are often incorporated into fabrics for
the purpose of comfort and fit (swimwear, active
wear, undergarments, etc.). Trade names include
Lycra, Vyrene, Dorlan, Dorlastan, Lastex S, Rhodas- Figure 19 Polyethylene fibers.
tic, Sarlan, Spandelle.

Polyolefins Polyolefin fibers are defined as contain-

ing at least 85% by mass of ethylene, propylene or
other olefin units (amorphous olefins excepted). Poly-
ethylene and polypropylene are the two most impor-
tant types of polyolefins. Figure 20 Polypropylene fibers.
 FIBERS/Types 851

have a highly crystalline and hydrophobic nature.

They are therefore easily washed and dryed. They
constitute an excellent thermal insulation material.
The other properties of polypropylene fibers are simi-
lar to those of polyethylene. Polypropylene fibers are
used as alternatives to natural fibers such as sisal or
jute. They can be incorporated in the manufacture of
ropes, fishing nets, carpets, furniture fabrics, pro-
tective garments, synthetic paper, etc. Trade names
include Aberclare, Deltafil, Fibrite, Gymlene, Hercu-
lon, Meraklon, Neofil, Polycrest, Pylen, Reevon,
Spunstron and Tritor.

Polyacrylonitrile (acrylics and modacrylics) Poly-

acrylonitrile fibers are composed of repeating acrylo-
nitrile units [±CH2CHCN±]. There are two groups of
polyacrylonitrile fibers: acrylics and modacrylics.

Acrylics These fibers have at least 85% (mass) of

acrylonitrile units (Fig. 21). Examples of the most
common compositions for acrylic fibers are: acrylo-
nitrile/methyl acrylate, acrylonitrile/vinyl acetate, or
acrylonitrile/methyl methacrylate. The purpose of the
comonomers is to open the polymeric structure and/or
incorporate anionic and cationic groups in the poly-
mer system in order to facilitate the dying process.
Acrylic fibers have a low moisture regain, and a
moderate tensile strength compared to nylon and
polyester. The resistance to abrasion is moderate
(poorer than that of nylon). These fibers are insoluble
in most organic solvents. The resistance to poor
weather conditions and sunlight is excellent. How- Figure 22 Modacrylic fibers.
ever, acrylic fibers are very heat sensitive and readily
flammable on close approach to a flame. Acrylic
fibers are very versatile and have numerous applica- Chlorine-containing modacrylics (e.g. Dynel) do not
tions, such as outdoors furniture, tents, curtains, support combustion and are considered to be flame
carpets, knitted outerwear, usually blended with resistant, i.e. the flame is extinguished rather than
other fibers to impart flame retardancy. Trade being propagated. However, chlorine-containing
names include Acrilan, Courtelle, Creslan, Crylor, modacrylics have lower heat resistance and shrink
Dralon, Orlon, Sayelle and Zefran. markedly in boiling water. Modacrylics have similar
application to those of acrylics. They are also usually
Modacrylics These fibers are composed of at least blended with other fibers to impart flame retardancy
35%, but no more than 85%, of acrylonitrile units. in apparel and furnishings.
Common trade names include Crylor, Dynel,
Kanecaron, SEF modacrylic, Teklan, Verel (Fig. 22). Chlorofibers Chlorofibers are manufactured from
either polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyvinylidene
chloride (PVDC).

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) These fibers are com-

posed of at least 85% (mass) of vinyl chloride repeat-
ing units (Fig. 23). PVC fibers have medium tenacity,
high elongation, and high degree of shrinkage (up to
40%) at relatively low temperature (1008C). They
Figure 21 Acrylic fibers. have virtually zero moisture regain and excellent
852 FIBERS/Types

giving a fiber with outstanding resistance toward heat

(stable up to 2508C, nonflammable), chemicals, and
solvents. Other properties include a good resistance
to abrasion and zero moisture absorbency. PTFE
fibers are produced in small quantities for highly
Figure 23 Polyvinyl chloride fibers.
specialized end uses, for example filtration of liquids
and gases under high temperature and/or corrosive
resistance to corrosive chemicals. PVC fibers are also
conditions, protective garments. Fluorofibers are also
photostable and intrinsically nonflammable. Colora-
manufactured in Japan under the trade names of
tion is however a problem, and they are soluble in
Polyflon or Toyoflon.
chlorinated hydrocarbons and aromatic solvents, ren-
dering them unsuitable for dry cleaning. End use
Vinylals Vinylals are polyvinyl alcohol chains (PVA)
applications are therefore filter fabrics, woven fabrics
defined as fibers containing at least 50% (mass) of
such as drapery, blankets and underwear, ropes, fish-
vinyl alcohol and at least 85% (mass) of acetals and
ing nets, etc. Trade names include Clevyl T, Dynel,
vinyl alcohol units. They are produced by the poly-
Kurekalon, Fibravyl, Retractyl, Rhovyl, Thermovyl.
merization of the stable vinyl actetate monomer,
where subsequent hydrolysis of polyvinyl acetate
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) These fibers are yields the polyvinyl alcohol polymer (Fig. 26). PVA
composed of at least 80% (mass) of vinylidene chlo- fibers are normally water soluble. However, subse-
ride as repeating units (Fig. 24). PVDC fibers are quent acetylation of the OH groups or an after-treat-
relatively cheap and their resistance to chemicals is ment with formaldehyde renders PVA fibers resistant
better than that of nylon. They are nonflammable, to boiling water. PVA fibers have generally poor elas-
but shrink at 2208C. They are relatively heavy and tic recovery and wrinkle easily. They do not burn
extremely water resistant, and have good tenacity. easily and have a good chemical and biological sta-
PVDC fibers are used in furniture fabrics, car uphol- bility. PVA fibers exist in a wide range of tenacity. The
stery (as leather substitute), carpets, etc. The most melting point is around 2308C. PVA fibers are popu-
common trade name for PVDC fibers is Saran. lar in Japan (15% of the total production of fibers) for
many textile apparel uses (e.g. kimonos) and indus-
Fluorofibers Fluorofibers are composed of fluoro- trial applications. They are a good biological resistant
carbon as repeating units. The most common substitute for cellulose fibers in fishing nets, ropes,
fluorofiber is polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) known packaging materials, etc. Common trade names in-
under the trade name of Teflon (Fig. 25). The chain of clude Cremona, Kuralon, Mewlon and Vinylon.
PTFE forms a highly organized close-packed arrange- Other artificial fibers
ment. As a result, the fibers have the highest density
Carbon fibers Carbon fibers are prepared from
of any fiber of organic origin. The inertness of the
existing artificial fibers, most commonly polyacrylo-
fluorine atoms, combined with the packing symmetry
nitrile. Manufacture involves a three-stage heating
offers a very effective barrier to corrosive chemicals,
process during which the fiber is pyrolysed and car-
bonized leaving a pure carbon fiber. Carbon fibers are

Figure 24 Polyvinylidene chloride fibers.

Figure 25 Polytetrafluoroethylene fibers. Figure 26 Polyvinyl alcohol fibers.

 FIBERS/Types 853

black and lustrous, and are very resistant to heat, traditional fabrics. These fibers are expensive due to
although they tend to oxidize in air at 4508C. The the slow manufacture process. Typical applications of
outstanding performance of carbon fibers relates to microfibers are `breathing' sport garments which are
their stiffness/weight ratio. Carbon complements permeable for water vapour, but constitute an effi-
Kevlar in performance. These fibers are used in the cient barrier for liquid water. Trade names include
aerospace industry and sporting goods, where stiff- Mitrelle, Setila, Finesse. It should be noticed that their
ness and light weight are essential criteria (overriding fine diameter presents a real analytical problem for
the high cost of production). the forensic fiber examiner.

Glass fibers Glass fibers are manufactured in con- Bicomponent Fibers Bicomponent fibers are com-
tinuous form by mechanically drawing a molten posed of two different components, which can be two
stream of glass vertically downwards at high speed. different polymers (two different comonomers) or
Filament diameters are in the range 3±16 mm, and two similar polymers containing different propor-
multiple filaments (400±800) are brought together in tions of the same comonomer. The two different
a strand and processed into yarn, roving, woven, or components can be assembled in two ways, either
chopped strand mats. These fibers possess a very high side-by-side, or one polymer embedded in the other.
tensile strength, and a good temperature and chemi- Bicomponent fibers are generally acrylics. Trade
cal resistance. They are used for the reinforcement of names include Acrilan B57 and Acrilan B94, Cash-
plastics (boat building, pipes and tanks, etc.) and as milon, Creslan 68, Dralon K, Monsanto X-24, Orlon
filters. Trade names include Vetrotex, Fiberglas. 21 and Orlon 78, Velicren.

Ceramic fibers Ceramic fibers are a range of inor-

ganic fibers specifically developed for their high tem- Conclusions
perature resistance. They generally contain either Textile fibers occur as a multitude of different poss-
silica or alumina, or proportions of both. Other in- ible types. The most common types encountered in a
organic fibers also include silicon carbide and boron forensic context vary according to different climatic
fibers. These fibers may be spun at very high speed and socioeconomic environments, and also depend
from molten material and are as fine as glass fibers. on a multitude of factors related to fiber transfer and
Fabric applications include hot flue gas filtration, persistence. However, cotton, wool, regenerated cel-
high efficiency air filtration in hospitals, etc., steriliz- lulose, polyesters, polyacrylonitrile and polyamide
ing filters in the preparation of beverages, thermal fibers are those most likely to be found in routine
and acoustic insulation. Polybenzimidazole (PBI), cases.
phenolic (novoloid) and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) With current analytical techniques the forensic sci-
are other inherently flame-retardant fibers which are entist is able to identify the generic class and subclass
suitable for protective clothing. with a great degree of accuracy. This identification
step is crucial in a forensic comparison and requires a
Metallized fibers These fibers are composed of gold, great deal of experience and access to thorough ref-
silver, stainless steel, brass containing nickel, alumi- erence information (certified samples, relevant atlas,
num, etc. Polyester films may be coated with a thin manufacture data, etc.).
layer of vaporized metal (usually aluminum). The The challenge for the forensic scientist in a dynamic
opposite is also possible; the two sides of an alumi- environment is to keep the data on the different pro-
num foil may be coated with a thermoplastic ma- ducts, manufacture changes and on how best to dis-
terial. In both cases, the film is subsequently slit into criminate subclasses within a generic type up to date.
0.25±1.0 mm wide ribbons. These fibers have a very
smooth surface and are usually used for textile deco- See also: Fibers: Identification and Comparison; Signifi-
ration (e.g. Lurex). cance.

Microfibers Microfibers are extremely fine fibers

(5 7 mm) developed in Japan in the mid-1970s as Further Reading
substitutes for silk. However they only appeared on
Appleyard HM (1978) Guide to Identification of Animal
the occidental market in the end of the 1980s. Micro- Fibres. Leeds: Wool Industries Research Association.
fibers are most often polyesters, although polya- Brunner H and Coman B (1974) Identification of
mides, acrylics and viscose microfibers are also Mammalian Hair. Melbourne: Inkata Press.
manufactured. The textile fabrics containing micro- Carter ME (1971) Essential Fiber Chemistry. Fiber Science
fibers are silk-like, lighter and more resistant than Series. New York: Marcel Dekker.
854 FINGERPRINTS (DACTYLOSCOPY)/Automated Methods, including Criminal Record Administration

Catling DM and Grayson JE (1982) Identification of microscope±Lyocell fibres and Nylon 6 block co-poly-
Vegetable Fibres. London: Chapman and Hall. mers. Science and Justice 36:71±80.
David SK and Pailthorpe MT (1999) Classification of Grieve MC, Dunlop J and Kotowski TM (1988) Bicompo-
textile fibers: production, structure, and properties. In: nent acrylic fibers ± their characterization in the forensic
Robertson J and Grieve M (eds) Forensic Examination science laboratory. Journal of the Forensic Science
of Fibers, pp. 1±31. New York, London: Taylor and Society 28:25±33.
Francis. Hongu T and Phillips GO (1990) New Fibers. Ellis
Debrot S, Fivaz G, Mermod C and Weber JM (1982) Atlas Horwood Series in Polymer Science and Technology.
des Poils de MammifeÁres d'Europe. Institute of Zool- Chichester: Ellis Horwood.
ogy, University of NeuchaÃtel. Kroschwitz JI (1990) Polymers ± Fibers and Textiles, a
Fairfield CA and Alvey J (1975) Textile Terms and Compendium. Encyclopedia Reprint Series. New York:
Definitions. Manchester: Textile Institute. Wiley-Interscience.
Gordon Cook J (1968) Handbook of Textile Fibres. vol. Lewin M and Preston J (1985) High Technology Fibers:
1: Natural Fibres, 4th edn. Watford: Merrow Publish- Handbook of Fiber Science and Technology. New York:
ing. Marcel Dekker.
Gordon Cook J (1968) Handbook of Textile Fibres, vol McCrone WC and Delly JG (1973) The Particle Atlas. Ann
2: Man-Made Fibres, 4th edn. Watford: Merrow Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers.
Publishing. Textile Institute (1975) Identification of Textile Materials,
Grayson M (1984) Encyclopedia of Textiles, Fibres and 7th edn. Manchester: The Textile Institute.
Non Woven Fabrics. New York: Wiley-Interscience. Warner SB (1995) Fiber Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Grieve MC (1996) New man-made fibres under the Prentice Hall.

FINGERPRINTS (DACTYLOSCOPY)

Contents
Automated Methods, including Criminal Record Administration
Chemistry of Print Residue
Identification and Classification
Sequential Treatment and Enhancement
Standards of Proof
Visualization

reality ± that no human being is exactly the same as

Automated Methods, including any other human being. Nature does not duplicate.
Criminal Record Administration Current science reveals that people (and in a broader
sense, all organic entities) differ significantly in al-
B Dalrymple and J MacKillican, Brian Dalrymple and
Associates, Orillia, Ontario, Canada most every way. The ability to reveal and use these
differences depends on the discerning capacity of the
Copyright # 2000 Academic Press
technology.
doi:10.1006/rwfs.2000.0522

First Notice
Introduction
Scientists and observant students of nature have
The Automated Fingerprint Identification System marveled at the nature and diversity of the skin
(AFIS) is one successful expression of a scientific patterns on their hands since prehistory. Attention