ENGINEERING

COMMUNICATION
ABE 413
INTRODUCTION TO AND PRINCIPLES OF
TECHNICAL WRITING
Prof O. U. Dairo

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 Introduction To Technical Writing
❖ Technical Writing
a form of writing that subject matter experts use to clarify, simplify, and
communicate their ideas, often to a tecical or non-technical audience.
A technical report’s purpose is for an engineer to communicate
information gained through a process of technical or experimental work
In the engineering workplace, readers of technical reports include
supervisors assessing progress on specific projects or corporate officers
evaluating professional recommendations and proposals to invest in new
technologies
These non-technical readers might be executives, sales representatives,
end-users, consultants, or virtually anyone else whose skills differ
substantially from the technical writer’s own.
It is divided into sections which allow different readers to access different levels of
information
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 Characteristics of Technical Writing
• Audience Analysis:
Understanding what your audience knows and does not know to help focus your
thoughts and produce documents that add value for others.
Know what questions your targeted audience has about the subject and answer them in
your writing.
Your immediate audience is the professor evaluating your understanding of
theoretical concepts. Other real or imagined audiences include fellow
students, engineering colleagues, or customers seeking engineering services
or products.

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 Characteristics
Simplicity:
No matter how complex the topic is, it’s important to communicate it with
both precision and concision, that is, saying what’s needed but no more.
Avoiding technical jargon is a good practice
The most important information in technical reports is the steps you
followed or the events that occurred
should convey information in an objective, fact-based manner–a style
that ensures technical information and processes that can be relayed
from you to readers in a clear, efficient fashion.
your opinions should not make their way into the text.
The third person, passive voice is required since it allows you to write
with more objectivity and keeps the emphasis of the writing on the
processes you followed and the products you built, rather than on
your experiences or role as a technician.
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 Characteristics
• Modularity:
• When developing material for a knowledge base or other resources that will be used by
different people each topic should receive a single, simplified explanation that can be
reused to develop multiple documents.
• Technical report must follow a stated pattern easily followed by fellow or
un-related personnel
• Typical Report Components
1. Title Page 6. ,Experimental Setup, Experimental
2. Executive Summary/Abstract Procedure,
3. Introduction 7. Sample Calculations,
8. Results and Discussion
4. Theory
9. Conclusion,
5. Apparatus 10. Appendices 5
 Components of Technical Report
Title Page
❖ The title should be brief and meaningful and describe the contents
of the report.
❖ The title identifies the subject and indicates the purpose of the study.
❖ includes the title, author’s name, course name and number, lab section
number, instructor’s name, and is not numbered..

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 Components of Technical Report
Executive Summary/Abstract
❖ Typically either an Executive Summary or an Abstract is required with technical
reports, but not both.
❖ The executive summary should give a concise and clear overview of the entire
laboratory experiment or topic to be discussed and should be the main
explanation of the entire.
❖ Readers should be able to gain all necessary information from the Executive
Summary and sometimes will read only this part. It should be written in the third
person, passive voice, and past tense because it explains work already done
A Good Executive Summary/Abstract will Include:
ii. The overall purpose of the experiment or principal objectives.
iii. The problem to be studied.
iv. Experimental methods and materials used.
v. Main results.
vi. Main conclusions
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 Components of Technical Report
Introduction
This section provides a context for the work discussed in the report.
Defines the scientific purpose or objective for the experiment.
Includes a description of the problem and reasons for the work being
done.
Be careful not to use specific technical jargon or abbreviations
Gives sufficient background information to the report.
Must answer the questions:
i. Why was this study performed?
ii. What is the specific purpose of the study?
iii. Justification.

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 Components of Technical Report
Introduction
This section provides a context for the work discussed in the report.
Defines the scientific purpose or objective for the experiment.
Includes a description of the problem and reasons for the work being
done.
Be careful not to use specific technical jargon or abbreviations
Gives sufficient background information to the report.
Must answer the questions:
i. Why was this study performed?
ii. What is the specific purpose of the study?
iii. Justification.

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 Components of Technical Report
Theory
❑ This section is mostly embedded in the introduction, especially if it is
simple and the paper is reporting a specific sub-task like a lab
experiment.
✔ explains the technical background of the work.
✔ includes the mathematical equations, models, and formulae, as well as
the scientific relations in its final forms, which governs the work,
referenced to its original sources

❑ Any equations or models should be formatted and numbered

according to the standards followed in technical writing.

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 Components of Technical Report
DESIGN / THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
❑ Give the details of your design procedure -with sentences plus
formulae
❑ Divide this section into subsections where appropriate
❑ If there is no design but strictly analysis, then provide the important
details of all the analysis performed
❑ Any equations or models should be formatted and numbered
according to the standards followed in technical writing.

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 Materials and Methods
Apparatus/Equipment
• lists all equipment and materials used in the experiment. Be sure to include
identification labels of all equipment.
Experimental Setup
• provides details of the setup needed to carry out the experiment or work. It
could be a circuit diagram, mechanical setup, field rig, equipment setup, etc
Experimental Procedure:
• describes and explains the steps and process of the experiment in
chronological order.
• Must have information in a paragraph structure that allows the reader to
duplicate/repeat the experiment exactly.
• Give the information in a step-by-step format.
• Write mainly in the passive voice.
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 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Sample Calculations
• Results are obtained based on equations and mathematical relations which
should have been mentioned earlier in the “Theory” section. If few
calculations are performed, they can be included in this section
Results
• The result should be analyzed, interpreted and stated clearly.

• use neatly organized and completely labeled tables and/or graphs

• incorporate labels referenced in the text and fully explain and interprete

Discussions
• results should be followed with a meaningful discussion. The discussion
explains what the results mean and points out trends
• Cite relevamt literature to ack up comformity or otherwise. Discuss errors.
They are acceptable 13
 CONCLUSION
❑ Is the final section of the body of the report, the author should briefly bring
everything together
i. Must answer any questions raised in the introduction regarding what was shown, discovered, verified, proved, or
disproved.
ii. Must explain why the experiment is significant.
iii. Must explain the implications for your particular field of study.
iv. Should not include discussion of new information not already mentioned in the report

❑ This section should briefly summarize the significant results of the

experiment
❑ should be a concise description of the report including its purpose and most
important results providing specific quantitative information
❑ The conclusion should not contain figures or make reference to them
❑ the reader should be able to read this section on its own which means that
there should be no specific technical jargon, abbreviations, or acronyms14 used
 REFERENCES AND APPENDICES
REFERENCES
• Details of published sources of material referred to or quoted in the report

• including any lecture notes, personal communications, and URL addresses of

any websites used.
❑ All references must follow any of the approved citation format and consistent
all through the report
❑ Three major citation methods
• APA (American Psychological Association) is used by Education, Psychology, and Sciences.
• MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities.
• Chicago A/ Chicago B/Turabian style is generally used by Business, History, Sciences and the Fine
Arts.
• IEEE Engineering
Link to citation types
• https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/citation-styles/
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 REFERENCES AND APPENDICES
APPENDICES
❑ This section may not always be present

❑ Useful information too lengthy to fit within the body placed in an appendix.

❑ Typically appendices are used for

✔ long mathematical formulas,
✔ lab sheets, parts list, diagrams,
✔ extensive calculations, error analyses,
✔ lengthy computer programs. and
✔ complete sets of data such as tables or figures.
❑ All appendices should be referenced within the text of the report; items in the
appendices should be arranged in the order in which they are mentioned in
the report

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 ABE 413
(TECHNICAL WRITING & PRESENTATION)

Prepared by:
Dr. A. Sobowale
Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering
Fed. University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The art of technical writing requires knowledge of some
important terminologies. These terms are paramount in the
dissemination or propagation of technical knowledge.
A. Information
This generally refers to a body of knowledge gained from experience, observation
and/or investigation. This knowledge is organized and presented in a form
understandable to anyone who comes in contact with it.
B Technical
A piece of information or subject matter is said to be technical if it is peculiar to
or characteristic of a particular art, science, trade or profession. For example,
the term “Factor of safety” is a technical term in engineering design peculiar to
the field of engineering.
C Reporting
This can be defined as providing an account for or describing what has been
learned by experience, observation and/or investigation. Examples are: police
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report, audit report, technical report, financial report etc.
When the above terminologies are grouped together, it provides a good
picture of the main thrust of this course, which is “the art of
reporting technical information”.

The reporting of technical information can be said to involve three

elements:

 The problem or subject matter that is not popular knowledge but rather is
specialized in that it belongs to art, science, medicine, engineering or the likes.

 It involves study, observation, analysis, experimentation and measurements to

obtain accurate and precise information about the subject matter.

 It also involves organizing and presenting the information thus gained so that it
may be clear and meaningful to the person or persons for whom it is intended

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 Characteristics of A Good Writer
a. The person must be reasonably methodical and painstaking
b. He or she must be very objective
c. The writer must record what he/she has done and learned
d. There must be clarity in writing.
e. A good writer must as a matter of importance learn how to write.

What Makes A Good Report

a. A good report must arrive by the day it is due
b. It must arrive in good physical condition and properly labeled and parked
c. It must make a good impression when it is picked up, handled and flipped
through
d. The report has necessary identifiers on the cover and title page so that the
librarian can lodge it in.
e. It must have the necessary preliminary or front matter to characterize the
report and disclose its purpose and scope
f. It must have a substantial body to describe and document what was carried out.
g. It should have a summary or sets of conclusion to reveal the result obtained.
h. Has been so designed so that source users can read it selectively: only4 the
abstract, only the summary, and the main sections.
What Makes A Good Report (cont’n)

i. Provide answers to reader’s questions as they come to mind

j. It must convey an overall impression of authority, thoroughness, soundness, and honest
work.
k. Must be free from typographical errors, grammatical slips, and misspelled words
l. The report must have a rational or readily discernable plan.
m. It is such that it can be read coherently and commutatively from the beginning to the end.

It is however important to note that the writing of papers,

proposals, experimental work, feasibility reports, and articles
requires a lot of library research.
Also no matter how well one can write or the style and
organization of writing, you may not sound convincing if the
work do not involve adequate data. 5
WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
The introduction serves as an orientation for readers of the report. It gives the readers the
perspective to understand, it also shed lights on the detailed information coming in the
later sections.
The introduction can be divided into five (5) parts, namely: -
Stage I: - The writer establishes a context or frame of references to help readers
understand how the research fits into a wider field of study. The first stage usually
contains general statements about a field of research with the setting for the
problem to be reported.

Stage II: - This contains more specific statements about the aspect of the problem already
studied by other researchers.

State III: - This stage contains statements that indicate the need for more investigation in
the field of research being reported on.

State IV: - Contains very specific statement giving the purpose or objective of the study.

State V: The section should give a value or justification for carrying out the study
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(Statement of value)
 Stage I (The setting)
The setting should begin with accepted statements or facts related to a general area. Within the
general area, identify one sub-area, which include your topic. Finally introduce your topic.

Linking ideas through old and New Information.

 In order to link ideas smoothly through the ideas in stage I, writer’s link sentences by making
use of old and new information. This is done by placing old information (i.e. information
already known by readers) at the beginning of sentences and placing new information at the
end.
Language convention
 Statements in the setting of an introduction tend to be general in nature. Instead of referring
to specific things, they often refer to entire classes of things. When your sentences contain
nouns referring to an entire class of things, you should use Generic Noun phrases to carry this
meaning.
 If you are having difficulty determining which of any article to use before a noun or phrase, ask
yourself the following questions: -
 - Is the noun meant in a general or specific sense? If it is specific, use “the” before the noun.
 - If it is general, ask yourself the following question:-
 Is the noun countable or uncountable?
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 - If countable use “A” or “AN” for singular noun. Add (-s) at the end of the noun if plural. If it
is uncountable, do not use any article.
Stage II (Review of literature)
 This Stage is essentially an organized collection of references for citations to other works, which
are listed in a separate section at the end of the report (references). The review of literature
serves three (3) important functions: -

(a) It continues the process started in stage I of giving readers the necessary background information
needed to be understood in your study.
(b) It assures your readers that you are familiar with important research that has been carried out in
your area of study.
(c) It establishes your study as one link in a chain of research that is developing and enlarging
knowledge in your field.

Citation Focus
 When you cite authors, you may choose to focus either on the information provided by that author or
the author himself or herself.
 The first focus is called information prominent. This is because the information is given primary
importance. The author’s name(s) and date of publication is attached at the end of the statement.
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 Most complete source of information is found in an alphabetical list of references at the end of the
paper.
The second type of citation is the Author Prominent, where, the
author’s name(s) serves as the subject matter, followed by the date
and then by the information.

Tense in information prominent citation.

When the focus of your citation is on information, you should write
with present tense. The present tense is used when information you
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are citing is a generally and scientifically accepted fact e.g.

“Nutrient resorption is a common phenomenon in forest trees (Sofela,
1979)”

Tense in weak author prominent citation.

The present perfect tense is used in citations when the focus is on the
research areas of several focuses. This kind of citation is called weak
author prominent e.g.
(1) “ Several researchers have studied the infiltration characteristics of alfisols (
Lal,(1990);Ogunyemi,(1996); Fao,(1999); Olufemi,(2002)) ”.
(2) “The yield of maize under different water treatments have been studied by
several authors (Olufayo (1988); Afolabi and Lewis (1989))”
The present perfect tense is also used in general statements to
describe the level of research activities. This statement is often
written without citation.
For example, “little research has been done to answer this research
question”.
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Tense in author prominent citation.
 In the writing of stage II, author prominent citation is used to report the findings
of individual studies closely related to the one being reported on. In this type of
citation, the simple past tense is used in the verb of report e.g.

Order of citation
(1) Citation group by approach:-
This is done by citing the references one after the other, E.g. “Dester (1980) proved
that dissolved oxygen concentration affect the growth rate of the cat fish, Emeka
(1985) also showed that dissolved oxygen concentration is affected by stream
temperatures”. 11
(2) Chronological citation: - This is when citation is made in an order showing the
year of publication from distant to close. E.g
“(Adams,(1980); Exon, (1983); Ade,(1989); Omale,(1993)”.

#: Note that it has to be in order of year of publication.

Attitude and Tense in Reported Findings

In author prominent citation, your attitude about the findings of the researchers
affects the compliment verbs in your literature review sentences.
 Three different types of attitudes are observed: -
(1) The findings of a particular study are generally accepted as facts.
(2) The findings of a particular study are limited to that study and are not to be
accepted as true in all cases.
(3) The authors of the study you are citing may themselves feel tentative about their
findings or they may not be reporting finding at all but only make suggestions.
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 Depending on which attitude you take towards the findings of the researcher
you cite, you may use the present or past tense or various modal auxiliaries. It
is however very essential to note the following: -
(A) When you believe that the findings you are citing are facts, use the present tense in
the compliment verb i.e. the verb in the part of the sentence giving the information
accepted as fact. e.g. “Olusoga (1999) showed that the stress applied to a material is
always proportional to the strain produced.
(B) When you believe that the findings are restricted to the specific study you are
citing, use the past tense in the compliment verb i.e. Results limited to one study. E.g.
“Atanda (1972) reported that pregnant female students have low academic performance”.
(c) If the findings you are citing were seen by the original author as tentative or were
only suggestions or proposals rather than findings, use tentative verbs for the verb of
report and in modal auxiliaries with the compliment verb. e.g.

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Stage III (missing information)
 The purpose of this Stage is to signal to the reader that the literature review is
finished.
 It sums up the review by pointing out a gap i.e. an important research area,
which is not yet investigated by other authors.
 Usually, Stage III is accomplished in only one or two sentences. There are three
alternatives you can choose from in writing stage III statements.
(1) You will indicate that the previous literatures described in stage II is inadequate
because an important aspect of the research area has been ignored by other
authors.
(2) You will indicate that there is an unresolved conflict among authors of previous
reports concerning the research topic. This may be a theoretical or
methodological disagreement.
(3) You may indicate that an examination of the previous literatures suggests an
extension of a topic or raises a new research question not previously considered
by other workers in your field

In indicating some kind of gap left by earlier studies, stage III prepares the
reader for your own studies. 14
Examples:
(1) However, few studies have been reported on ……the effect of female genital
mutilation.
(2) “But, little information is available on the performance evaluation of cocoa
bean extractor.

Stage IV (Statement of purpose)

 This stage serves to state as concisely as possible the specific objectives of your
research report, it follow directly from stage III because it answers the need
expressed in stage III for additional research in your area of study.
 This stage give an orientation to the report, followed by the research question.

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 Stage V (Statement of Value)
 This is the stage where justification is given to the research work.
Justification is made on the basis of some possible value or benefits. This
stage is not included in every introduction, only when you write a thesis,
dissertations or thesis proposal.
 Sometimes when funding for the research is sourced from a body or
government, it is necessary to include statement of value. In reports written
up as journal articles, stage V is often omitted.
Examples: -
(1) This work may provide an alternative to the use of firewood for cooking.
(2) The results of this study could be useful in irrigation scheduling.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 This section of the report deals with describing all the Logical and Scientific steps
taken to achieve the objectives of the research work. It may include the
following: -
(a) Experimental design
(b) Sampling techniques and Instrumentation
(c) Data collection and handling
(d) Data Analysis and tools employed.
In the case of engineering design, all the component parts of the structure or
machine are designed for with relevant calculations and drawings included in this
section. It is very essential to give a brief description of the rudiments of the above
since it is important for report writers to understand them.
Experimental design
This entails the identification of the elements of your study, demarcating them into
various treatments in order to bring about the comparison of the various treatments
e.g. “performance of maize under different water regimes”, another example is the
“tensile strength of mild steel with different carbon content”, This section
18 gives a
picture of the variables considered in the study.
Sampling Techniques
 This section tells the readers the method adopted in the selection of your
variables e.g. Random-sampling; quota sampling; systematic-sampling; stratified-
sampling etc.
 It is also essential that you tell your readers the types of instruments used to
collect your data. For example
1. “The speedy moisture tester was used to determine in-situ moisture
content” (Sobowale, et. al., 2003)
2. “Brinnell’s hardness tester was used to determine the hardness of the
material”.
Data collection and handling
 In studies that require interviews to get information, questionnaires are often
used. Questionnaires refer to a list of questions given to respondents to fill in
order to get their opinion about the questions being asked. This is more useful
in social and economic studies.
 Some studies require the collection of relevant data from agencies for analysis.
 Some of these data must be processed, sorted and documented on a database.
 Some data are collected by direct measurements of the variables over a period
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of time; such data may have errors due to vicissitudes of sampling.

 All observational data often need to be subjected to quality control before being used for
analysis; raw data are usually screened to check if consistency and homogeneity is maintained.
 Some of the data quality control methods include: the run test, regression methods, mass and
double mass curve analysis. This is applicable to time series data only.

Data Analysis and Tools Employed

 The writer is also expected to present the tools used in the analysis of the data
collected. Sometimes it may be desired to model the data series in order to make
predictions; statistical tools are often used to analyze the data collected.
 For engineering applications, it may be necessary to use a computer program to
sort and process the data. A lot of mathematical models have been developed over
the years.
 The use of Computer is now common as a number of software has been developed
to handle data analysis especially spread sheets e.g. Excel, Quattro Pro, SPSS, Lotus
1-2-3, etc.

Tools For Data Analysis

 Different kinds of tools for data analysis are presented in this section. A brief
description of each one is given in order to help the reader to understand
where they are applicable. 20
(a) Advanced Regression
This tool performs multiple linear regression analysis. It shows residuals and
F statistics so that you can evaluate the significance of the relationship
between variables as well as calculate typical regression statistics, which
describe the extent of that relationship.
(b) Analysis Of Variance
This tool helps to determine whether two or more samples are statistically
different. Also known as ANOVA, it can either be one-way or Two-way ANOVA.
(c) Correlation
This tool shows the relationship between two or more data sets. The resulting
coefficient can range from – 1.0 to +1.0, where O indicates no correlation
between the data sets. A correlation of 1.0 or -1.0 means that you can always
predict one data set from the values of the other set.
(d) Covariance
This tool generate covariance matrix showing how much a change in one data
set is related to changes in one or more other data sets. Covariance
calculation is part of regression and correlation calculation.
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(e) Descriptive Statistics
This tool calculates a variety of statistics for one or more data sets, including
means; median, mode, standard error, standard deviation, variance, etc
(f) Exponential Smoothing
This tool finds the curve that best fits a data series. For example, you may use the
moving average tool for forecasting, and then use the exponential smoothing tool to
show a trend and adjust for errors.
(g) T–Test
This tool tests the means of two small samples to determine whether differences
between them are significant. You may choose among several types of t – test,
depending on sample characteristics.

Language Convention
 Most of the time, the writing of the materials and methods section of a report
involve the use of active or passive voice to describe the procedure used in
the project or study.
 Examples of these voices can be found in experimental research reports. The
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formation of active and passive words requires the verb auxiliary plus past
participle of a verb.
Example of Active Voice: –
“We applied stress to the rubber segments in gradually increasing manner”.
Example of Passive Voice: -
“Stress was applied to the rubber segments..”
 Your decision to use the active or passive voice in procedural statements should be
made with the following consideration: -
(A) The passive voice is conventionally used to describe procedures in order to
depersonalize the information. The passive voice construction allows you to omit the
agents, usually “I” or “we”, placing the emphasis on the procedure and how it was
done.
For example: -
“The data were collected and were analyzed”
Sometimes Shortened Compound sentences are used.
For example: -
(I) The data were collected and correlations were calculated (Active)
(II) The data were collected and correlation calculated (passive)
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(III) The data, which were obtained, were subjected to an analysis of variance (Active)
(IV) The data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (Passive)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
 This section of the report is meant to present the findings of your study and to
discuss them.
 The writer is expected to present the important findings of the study in both
figures and written texts.
 The figures (graphs and diagrams) and tables present the complete findings in
numerical terms while the accompanying text helps the readers to focus on the
most important aspects of the result and to interprete them.
 For the purpose of thesis or dissertation, the result and discussions are usually
extensive.
 But for the purpose of paper for publication in journals etc., the section is
usually brief presenting only the important findings. This is due to the
limitation of space available in the journals.
 There seems to Resultsbe no written precedence on how to arrange the results
and the ensuing discussion, but, experience has shown that in most research
reports and thesis, there appears to be the recognition of a logical flow of
work.
 Results of analysis relating to the same objectives should be tied together.
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There must be a trend established in the report.

Language convention
The texts in result and discussion should contain three important elements
(i) Statements that locates figures and tables where the results can be found.
(ii) Statements on most important findings.
(iii) Statements that comment on the results.

 In some cases, elements (i) and (ii) can be combined. The present tense is often
used to locate figures e.g.
–“Results of the pumping tests are presented in Table 1.0”
- “Table 4.2 summarizes the results of the analysis of variance of the data on
Dry density of the samples”
- “Figures 3.2 show the relationship between traffic density and travel time of
buses along Abuja – Lokoja highway.
 When reporting the findings of your study, it is important to note that “past
tense” should be used in the reporting. For example,
-“The coefficient of correlation was found to be significant at the 0.00l25level”.
 When commenting on the findings, which compare your results with other
studies, the writer should use the present tense.
For example -
-“This result is consistent with earlier findings suggesting that there is an
inverse relationship between the two variables”
 When making comments, which generalize from the result, the writer should
use the word “May” e.g.
-“Irrigating sorghum at reproductive stage may reduce yield”
 In giving element (iii) comments, the writer can also use tentative verbs in the
present tense instead of modal auxiliary to generalize your results e.g.

-“The result suggests that exposure to X – rays causes drowsiness in

pregnant women”
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 Presenting research findings
 Basically there are three types of findings that a writer may wish to present
depending on the kind of study carried out. Specific words and expressions
are often used in writing about each of them.
(1) In some studies, the findings involves a comparison among groups of one
or more experimental group with a control group. In these cases, element (a)
statements are often written using comparative or superlative expressions
e.g.
- “A higher rate of separation was obtained at a moisture content of 42%
when compared with other moisture contents.”
-“ The bucket elevator was found to be more efficient than the pneumatic
conveyor”.
(2) In other studies, the findings may show the tendency of the variable to
fluctuate over time. Reporting this kind of result required the use of
expressions of variation or special verbs of variation in the element (b)
statements e.g.

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(3) Finally, the findings may show the relationship of one variable with another or
among variables. When reporting this kind of result, it is common to use verbs.
E.g. Correlation and association.

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 Part for
TECHNICAL Adeosun
REPORT WRITING

• What is Communication
• Importance of Engineering
Communications
• Technical Writing and Reporting
• Types of Technical Reports
 Module One

• Introduction
• An overview of the Course Outline to demonstrate what is expected
of the students to know in this course is undertaken. This will
include def in itions of relevant terminologies and introductory
aspects of the core areas like presentation of reports in writing,
orally as in seminars or symposia. An engineer should be able to tell
people of different callings or cadres what he or she is doing in
forms of reports. At least f iv e different types of reports shall be
discussed in view of the different assignments in which the
engineer is involved.
 What is Communication?

• Communication has been defined severally by the Merriam-Webster

English Dictionary as a process by which information is exchanged
between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs or
behaviors; a technique for expressing ideas effectively (as in
speech); the technology of the transmission of information (as by
print or telecommunication).
• Longman English Dictionary def ines Communication as the act of
speaking or writing to someone and being understood by the person
; and as railways, radio, telephones, and all other ways of moving or
sending information between places.
 What is Engineering Communication?

• This can be def ined as a way of exchanging information including

f in dings from a research work, experiment, survey, design and
construction etc. between an engineer (team of engineers) and his
or her employer, client and the public. There are special formats for
doing this. For example, as an engineer in a manufacturing company
, you are requested by the Board of Directors to present a proposal
on the production of a new product, say a maize sheller. Many things
are involved including justif ication for the product, calculations,
construction materials as well as their selection, capacity, prototype,
cost of production (cost – benef it ratio), market, quantity to produce
, drawings and many more.
 Importance of Engineering Communications 
• The engineer needs to communicate:

– Engineers are problem solvers, but they are not normally

the implementers of their solutions.
– To be effective problem solver, an engineer's solution
must be communicated to policy and decision makers.
– Also to those who must implement the solution.
– E ngi ne e rs o ft e n f in d t he mse l v e s wi t hi n a l arge
organizational structure, such as a design f ir m with
several layers of decision-making management.
– As one moves up through the layers, the managers have
less and less understanding of the technical details and
less and less time for reading reports.
– Thus, i t i s v i t a l l y i m po r t a nt fo r e ngi ne e r s t o
communicate effectively.
– Engineers spend on average 2/5 of their time in
communication, i.e., they spend 2 days out of 5
communicating to peers, superiors, laymen, the public,
etc.
– "An engineer who cannot communicate is in trouble"
– "If you cannot tell them what you are doing, they will
hire someone else who can."
– The primary means of communication in large
organizations are technical reports, which have
several vital organizational functions:
– communication of technical information to others
within the organization who need the information to
carry out their jobs;
– communication of the activities of a company to
outside observers;
– communication of the activities of one division to
another division within the same company; (Other
divisions are often considered relative outsiders); and
– communication to colleagues and superiors about
what and why an activity is being done.
 Communication Skills Development 
• Engineers are involved in writing reports, public speaking, listening
and le ade rship role s. The y t he re fore hav e t o be v e rse d in
communication skills in these areas. They should be able to convey
technical information and f indings, provide details about processes
and objectives, and describe design choices and products. As
managers, they should have the ability to clearly present objectives,
data, conclusions, and recommendations. That is, they should be
able to share their f in dings, plans, and projects with peers who
understand technical language as well as with potential clients in
business meetings. Engineers must develop the skill to listen to
other people. This helps in understanding where problems lie and
hear their solutions; to clients, to understand their needs and
guidelines; and to supervisors, to understand their expectations.
 Enhancing Communication Capabilities
• Engineers need to be able to express themselves in simple English
language. This can be enhanced by taking the following actions:
 Enrolling in classes or training programmes on proposal writing,
progress reports, presentation of technical and non-technical reports.
 Reading books on communication strategies.
 Membership of a professional organization focused on public
speaking to gain conf idence. Joining engineering peer organizations.
Peer organizations may provide training to develop communication
skills and offer valuable networking opportunities.
• What is a report?
• A spoken or written account of an event heard, seen, done, studied,
etc.
• To make known by publishing or broadcasting, or by announcement
as done by journalists.
• A formal complaint or accusation about an offence or the person
who committed the offence.
• A document that gives information about an investigation or a piece
of research, often put together by a group of people working together.
• A widely-known account of something that may be true but has not
been confirmed.
• A detailed periodic account of a company’s activities, f inancial condition,
and prospects that is made available to shareholders and investors.
 Technical Writing
❖ Technical Writing
a form of writing that subject matter experts use to clarify, simplify, and
communicate their ideas, often to a technical or non-technical audience.
A technical report’s purpose is for an engineer to communicate information
gained through a process of technical or experimental work
In the engineering workplace, readers of technical reports include supervisors
assessing progress on specific projects or corporate officers evaluating
professional recommendations and proposals to invest in new technologies
These non-technical readers might be executives, sales representatives, end-
users, consultants, or virtually anyone else whose skills differ substantially
from the technical writer’s own.
It is divided into sections which allow different readers to access different levels of
information
2
 Characteristics of Technical Writing
• Audience Analysis:
Understanding what your audience knows and does not know to help focus your
thoughts and produce documents that add value to others.
Know what questions your targeted audience has about the subject and answer them in
your writing.
Your immediate audience is the professor evaluating your understanding of
theoretical concepts. Other real or imagined audiences include fellow students,
engineering colleagues, or customers seeking engineering services or products.
Simplicity:
No matter how complex the topic is, it’s important to communicate it with both precision
and concision, that is, saying what’s needed but no more.
Avoiding technical jargon is a good practice
The most important information in technical reports is the steps you followed or
the events that occurred
should convey information in an objective, fact-based manner–a style that
ensures technical information and processes that can be relayed from you to
readers in a clear, efficient fashion.
your opinions should not make their way into the text.
The third person, passive voice is required since it allows you to write with more
objectivity and keeps the emphasis of the writing on the processes you followed
and the products you built, rather than on your experiences or role as a technician.
• Modularity:

•When developing material for a knowledge base or other

resources that will be used by different people each topic should
receive a single, simplified explanation that can be reused to
develop multiple documents.
• Technical report must follow a stated pattern easily followed
by fellow or un-related personnel
• Components/Structure of a Typical Technical Report
 Letter of Transmittal
 Title Page
 Abstract / Summary [Executive]
 Dedication
 Declaration / Certification
 Table of Contents
The Main Body
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Symbols
List of Plates
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• Literature Review or Theory
• Materials and Methods
• Design Calculations
• Choice / Selection of Materials
• Drawings
• Results and Discussions

• Conclusions and Recommendations

• References
 
Types of reports

• F rom th e for egoi n g, th er e ar e man y

different types of reports. The choice
depends on what the report is, who needs
the report and for what purpose the report
is being made.
 What is a technical report?
• In the industry, a technical report is that which is
used to communicate technical information for
– decision making: for example, in the purchase of
equipment, or finding solutions to technical problems;
– briefing managers or superior officers;
– providing technical background information for lay
people associated with a project;
– making recommendations to technical supervisors;
etc.
There are different types of technical reports all having
the same goal of communicating information.
 Types of Technical Reports
a) Reporting Research Findings:
• This report describes the work done to gather
information in the laboratory or field;
• it may indicate the problem or issue examined;
• the method or equipment used;
• the data collected;
• the analysis of the data; and
• the implications or interpretation of analysis.
b) Simple Technical Information Report 

• This document explains a technical subject.

• Guides readers to understand the topic clearly. e.g. a

report on investing in a future market would probably
explain how the market evolved, how it works, the
specialist terms used and so on.

• Just a simple technical report for information only.

• No view on the merits of investing in the market nor

any recommendation made.
c) Technical Specifications 

• Simply descriptions of the features,

materials, uses and workings of a new
product.

• Good specif ic ations concentrate on

graphics, data and illustrations rather
than written descriptions.
d) Technical Evaluation Report
• Also called feasibility report;
• Presents technical information in a practical and
logical way to show whether an event is possible.
• For example, a technical evaluation report into setting
up an intranet site for a corporation would examine if
this would be possible, set out the steps needed and
point out any problems.
• It does not recommend if the corporation should set
up its own intranet site.
e) Technical Recommendation Reports
.

• A follow-up from the evaluation report.

• Leads to specific recommendations to help the

decision-maker adopt the best solution.

• Some reports often have both the evaluation

and recommendation reports rolled into one.

• SECTIONAL DISCUSSION
MODULE 3: COMPONENTS / STRUCTURE OF
A TECHNICAL REPORT

• A technical report is a formal report designed to convey

technical information in a clear and easily accessible
format.
• It is divided into sections which allow different readers
to access different levels of information.
• The maj o r se c t i o ns are : abst rac t , i nt ro d uc t i o n,
e x pe r i m e n t a l , r e su l t s, d i sc u ssi o n , c o n c l u si o n ,
acknowledgement, references and appendix.
• Sub-headings are a distinct aid to the reader and they
should be used to assist the flow of the report.
• There are however, some optional headings that could
form part of the structure.
• Letter of Transmittal:
– This is an optional part of a report.
– It is like a covering letter for a report that is being
submitted for an official purpose.
– The letter is addressed to the person to whom the
report is being submitted.
– It should normally include the name of the author,
aff il iation, title of the report and purpose for its
submittal.
– If included, the letter is on a separate sheet of paper
[letterhead] not bounded to the report.
• Title Page or Cover:
– This normally follows a standard format prescribed
for easy reference and filing.
– It is usually placed about ten spaces above the
author’s name.
– It should also contain the author’s address and
aff iliation, and date of submission all in the centre of
the page.
– The title should be carefully chosen such that it
conveys immediately, accurately and as completely
as possible, the subject matter of the report.
• Abstract / Executive Summary:
– It is the summary which includes important findings
or features, results and conclusions.
– A short statement of the purpose of the work, the
pertinent conditions, and the results in brief.
– Usually the last part to be written.
– Designed for the reader's quick appraisal of the nature
of the report.
– Most times, may be the only part of the report read.
– Must tell concisely what was done, how, for what
purpose and results obtained.
– Not more than one paragraph and 500 words long.
The Abstract
Should stand alone!
Consider it the advertisement of your article.
Should tell the prospective reader what you did
and highlight the key findings.
Avoid using jargon and uncommon abbreviations.
You must be accurate and specific!
Use words which reflect the precise meaning
A clear abstract will strongly influence whether or not your
work is further considered.
Follow word limitations (50‐300 words)!!!
Keywords
These are the labels of your manuscript and
critical to correct indexing and searching.
Shouldn’t be too broad or too narrow (think Google …)
Use only those abbreviations that are
firmly established in the field.
e.g. DNA
Check the Guide for Authors!
Number, label, definition, thesaurus, range, and other
special requests
• Dedication:
This is optional.
Report could be dedicated to a friend, a family
member, a loved one or a key figure having to do
with the project.

• Declaration / Certification:
This is also optional.
It shows that the material in the report is the
author’s own work.
• Table of Contents:
– It is the list of what is in the report.
– Major sections of the report must be listed with page
numbers.
– Second and third level headings may also be listed in
the table of contents.
– It is done when everything about the report is in place
and then paginated accordingly.
• Lists of Figures, Tables and Plates:
– The list of figures contains the listing of all the figures
[drawings and graphs] in the report.
– They are listed in consecutive order that they appear
in the report with caption and page number.
– Lists of tables and plates are similar to the list of
figures, but for all the tables and plates that appear in
the report.
– In the text, the caption of a table is placed on top,
while those of figures and plates are placed below
• List of Symbols:
– This is used for a report that contains a lot of
formulae and symbols.
– The list is however optional although it makes
for better reading and understanding when a
list explaining the symbols is included.
• Acknowledgements:
– It is the usual practice to give credit to those
who in one way or the other contributed to the
success of the work being reported.
– S uc h c o nt ri b ut i o n c o ul d b e i n f o rm o f
provision of funds or material for the work,
loan of equipment, discussions about the
work, computations and even typing of the
report.

SECTIONAL DISCUSSION
MODULE 4: COMPONENTS/STRUCTURE OF A
TECHNICAL REPORT [Continued]
• Introduction:
– It provides insights into the problems the work is being designed
to solve or answer and how to go about it.
– The statement of objectives an important function of this
section is also made.
– This section also provides the justification for the investigation /
experimentation.
– A brief and relevant historical review of the problem is made.
– Some reports have separate section for Technical Background.
– The necessary concepts for the work are explained.
– The technical level and ability of the would-be readers of the
report is taken into consideration.
• Experimental Details
The work itself is reported here usually under the
following subheadings:
– Materials and Methods.
– Design Calculations.
– Choice / Selection of Materials.
– Drawings.

 When done this way, that is, containing enough

details, it is possible for someone else to duplicate
the experiment.
All engineering and scientific experiments must be
REPEATABLE AND VERIFIABLE.
• Results and Discussions:
– Sometimes some repor ts hav e this sec tion in
separate headings as
 Results, and
 Discussions
– The results should be reported in table and or graph
format.
– Only the final results are reported.
– Raw data and intermediate results not central to the
topic are placed in the Appendix if needed.
– The result and discussion section should be the most
substantial part of the report.
– Results of the experiment or research are reported
and discussed.
Results and Discussions [Continued]
– Any significance in the work reported here must be
made clear by detailed discussions.
– This section is the “MEAT” of the report while the
other sections constitute the rest of the
“INGREDIENTS”.
– The results are analyzed and the quantitative
comparisons of the data in view of what is known
from literature are made.
– This is where to build a case for the conclusions to be
made.
– The merit of the whole experiment as a means of
obtaining the information being sought after is fully
discussed.
– The validity of the data is tested quantitatively.
• Conclusions and Recommendations:
The conclusion is a statement of fact which is
inferred from the results of the experiment.
 It is the answer to the questions raised in the
“OBJECTIVES” and it arises from the
discussions made.
The usefulness of the methodology and
re sul t s a re e x p l a i ne d w i t h l i m i t a t i o ns
pertaining to their use.
Both conclusions and recommendations
could be in the form of descriptive paragraphs
or running lists.
 Usually, conclusions can be presented in three ways:
i. It may stand alone indicated as just conclusions;
ii. At times, as indicated above, the two sections
a r e m e r ge d i nt o o ne a s c o nc l usi o ns a nd
recommendations, and
iii. Placing the conclusions in tabular form at the
front of the report after the abstract.
This which is becoming very common in government
and company repor ts presumably gives the
reader the main thing he is looking for from the
onset of his reading.
 Whichever format is chosen should be applied
c o n s i s t e n t l y f o r bo t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a n d
recommendations.
 Recommendations should indicate any further work
that needs to be done or the alternative idea that
best solves or improves the problem.
• References:
 This provides the list of reference materials consulted
during the research and appropriately quoted in the text.
 It is important to note that proper credit must be given to
the originator of an idea.
 Failure to reference prior works could mean claiming
ownership of the work.
 This will then amount to plagiarism which is a serious
offence in the engineering and scientific professions.
 References must be attached to specif ic formulae,
pages or passages in the report.
 However, any formulae or discussion that is a common
knowledge for engineers need not be referenced.
 Format of referencing vary for books, essays, journal and
conference proceedings.
Examples of Reference Types:
1. Aiyelari, E. A. (2002). Farm Technology, pp. 212 – 236. In
Agricultural Production Methods and Technology: Edited by Faniyi,
G. F. Andrian Publication Series, DEMBOG Printers Enterprises,
Ibadan, Nigeria. [ISBN 978-35918-5-1].
2. Aiyelari, E.A. and Agboola, A.A. (1998). Evaluation of three bush
clearing methods in primary forests of the humid tropics.
Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America
(AMA). Vol. 29 (4), 67 – 72.
3. Aiyelari, E. A. (1986): The mechanisation of planting of white yam,
Dioscorea rotundata, Poir seeds/setts. Proceedings of the Annual
Conference of the Nigerian Society of Agricultural Engineers
(NSAE), Vol.10, 37 – 49.
4. Aiyelari, E. A. (2007). Technical Report Writing. Prepared for the
2007 Graduate Engineers Trainees. Organised by NEXUS / NNPC,
Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna. 23 pages.
• Bibliography:
 This includes other published sources of materials,
including websites, consulted but not referred to in
the text but useful for background or further reading.
 A list of books and articles consulted, appearing at
the end of a book or other text.
 A list of books and articles on a particular subject.
 A list of the books and articles written by a particular
author or issued by a particular publisher.
 The history of books and other publications, and the
work of classifying and describing them.
  Appendices:
– I n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t t o t h e r e po r t , bu t o f a
supplementary nature is presented. This might
include such things as:
• Sample calculations.
• Detailed and involved diagrams of equipment,
supplemental testing procedures.
• Long tables of data.
• Supplemental discussion such as a vaguely related
application of the results.

• SECTIONAL DISCUSSION.
 MODULE 5: WHAT NEEDS ARE NECESSARY
FOR A TECHNICAL REPORT?
a) Understanding the Subject Matter:
– The author must understand the subject matter very
clearly and without any doubting mind.
– He must ask and attempt to provide answers to
certain questions such as ‘why am I writing?’ and
‘what am I trying to achieve?’
– Ability to be able to provide answers to these
questions and many others leads to the
understanding of the project to be undertaken.
– The AIM of the work has to be def ined and this will
lead to def in ing the procedures to adopt for the
implementation.
– Evaluation of all information, arguments and
recommendations against that aim will then have
to be made.
– Thus setting down the aim must be the f irst step
in any piece of writing.
– Then the thoughts can now be focused until a
clear idea of the answers to the questions ‘why
am I writing?’ and ‘what am I trying to achieve?’ is
obtained.
– If there is more than one aim, then they should be
sorted into priority order.
b) Planning of the Work:
– There is need for adequate planning and execution
of the plan.
– The plan is about getting materials for the write-up.
– This implies that the experiment has to be well
conceived, well designed, monitored and supervised.
– There should be NO LAPSES in both design and
execution.
– Lapses in project implementation often yield fatal
results.
– For example, in a building construction with certified
design, if supervision is not properly done, there
could be a structural failure arising from not using
t he re c o mme nd e d mat e ri al s by t he bui l d i ng
contractors.
– The gravity of this failure can be imagined for three
or more storey buildings!
c) Data Collection and Analysis:
– Data for the write-up should be carefully collected.
– Analysis should be carried out using appropriate
statistical tools where necessary.
– It is very important that this step must be taken with
all seriousness.
– Interpretation of the result of analysis for wrongly
taken data would only give bad report.
– This also dangerously leads to misinformation.
– The crucial part of the report is obtained from the
analysis of the data collected.

• SECTIONAL DISCUSSION.
MODULE 6: WHO NEEDS A TECHNICAL
REPORT?
• The engineer needs to communicate:
– Engineers are problem solvers, but they are not
normally the implementers of their solutions.
– To be effective problem solver, an engineer's solution
must be communicated to policy and decision makers.
– Also to those who must implement the solution.
– E ngine e rs o fte n f in d the mse lv e s within a large
organizational structure, such as a design f ir m with
several layers of decision-making management.
– As one moves up through the layers, the managers
have less and less understanding of the technical
details and less and less time for reading reports.
– Thus, i t i s v i t a l l y i m po r t a nt fo r e ngi ne e r s t o
communicate effectively.
– Engineers spend on average 2/5 of their time in
communication, i.e., they spend 2 days out of 5
communicating to peers, superiors, laymen, the public,
etc.
– "An engineer who cannot communicate is in trouble"
– "If you cannot tell them what you are doing, they will
hire someone else who can."
– The primary means of communication in large
organizations are technical reports, which have
several vital organizational functions:
 – communication of technical information to others
within the organization who need the information to
carry out their jobs;
– communication of the activities of a company to
outside observers;
– communication of the activities of one division to
another division within the same company; (Other
divisions are often considered relative outsiders); and
– communication to colleagues and superiors about
what and why an activity is being done.

• SECTIONAL DISCUSSION.
 
MODULE 7: HOW THEN IS A TECHNICAL
REPORT WRITTEN?
• Presentation:
• With technical writing, information must be presented so
that readers can:
– use the repor t for the purpose for which it was
requested;
– extract the main points without necessarily reading
the whole report;
– easily find the information that interests them; and
– quickly absorb the crucial information they need to
know.
• Documents have to be well organized otherwise readers
may miss important information.
• It is up to the author to present his / her information in a
readable and well-organized way.
• Offer informative summaries, clear instructions and a
logical arrangement to let readers pick and choose the
parts they want to read.
• So it is a good idea to write down the sections and
subsections needed to plan the document.
• This helps the author think about his / her aim and
readers’ needs, drop unnecessary information, stress
important information and so on.
• I n presenting the repor t therefore, the following
presentation guidelines are recommended:
– Script – the report must be printed single sided
preferably on white A4 paper. Hand written or dot-
matrix printed reports are not acceptable.
– Margins – all the four margins [top, bottom, right and
left sides] must be at least 2.54 cm.
– Page Numbers – do not number the title, summary or
content pages; number all other pages consecutively
starting at 1.
– Binding – a single staple in the top left corner or three
spaced down the left hand margin for the draft; for
final report, binders should be used.
– Diagrams – should be simply drawn specif ic ally for
the report; put small diagrams after the text reference
and as close as possible to it.
– SECTIONAL DISCUSSION.
 MODULE 8: HOW THEN IS A TECHNICAL
REPORT WRITTEN? [Contd]
• Graphs – graph should follow after text reference
similarly to the diagrams.
• Tables – dependent tables [small] could be placed within
the text even as part of a sentence;
– independent tables [large] are separated from the text
with table numbers and captions;
– They are positioned as close as possible to the text
reference;
– larger and complicated tables should be placed in the
appendix.
• Mathematics:
– use mathematics only where it is the most eff ic ient
way to convey the information;
– longer mathematical arguments should go into the
appendix.
• Equations:
– like mathematics use equations in a technical report
where possible!
– Number all equations consecutively.
– All notations used should be clearly defined.
– Avoid using the same mnemonic for two different
variables!
– Equations should be centered on the page with
e q uat i o n numbe r o n t he si d e fo l l o we d by t he
explanation of the symbols. For example:
 • Q = AKR2/3 i½ (1)
Where, Q = flow rate in m3/sec
A = channel cross sectional area in m2
K = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius in m, and
i = longitudinal slope
M O D U LE 9 : OT H ER M I S C ELLA N EO U S
DESCRIPTIONS ON PRESENTATION
• Headings:
– major or f ir st level headings should start on a new
page just as a new chapter starts on a new page.
• Font Type and Size:
– the 12 point serif typeface such as Times New
Roman is standard for report writing.
– Keep colour usage to a minimum.
– Black or black gray-scale figures are adequate.
– Avoid using fancy fonts.
– Avoid using capital letters in the body of the report,
instead fonts can be bolden or italicized.
• Contractions and Abbreviations:
– not used in formal writing not even technical writing!
e.g. use “it is not possible” instead of “it’s not possible”
or “this equation will not work out well” instead of “this
equation won’t work out well”.
• Abbreviations should be sparingly used.
e.g. use “Figure 23” instead of “Fig 23” or “Table 45”
instead of “Tab 45”.
• Acronyms:
The full name should be written out with the acronym in
parenthesis the first time the name appears in the report;
then use the acronym in subsequent occurrences.
Use the ten to twenty most common and understood
acronyms in your organization without explanation when
writing internally.
Write full form and the shortened word form when
writing to other audiences or to the public.
• Third person narrative – write all formal reports in third
person narrative and avoid personalized writing.
e.g. “it was decided that equation 7 should be used”
rather than “we decided that equation 7 should be used”
or “maize seeds were planted in a spacing of 30 cm x 75
cm” instead of “I planted maize seeds in a spacing of 30
cm x 75 cm”.
• Use diagrams, flowcharts and graphs:
The cliché a picture is worth a thousand words is true. A
go o d d i a gr a m , f lo w c h a r t o r gr a ph c a n pr e se nt
information quickly that would take ten sentences to
explain.
See a diagram below showing a car's clutch. Such a
diagram makes any explanation or technical description
far easier to understand.
• Keep technical terms to a minimum:
– Use technical words reasonably.
– e.g. in a desktop publishing manual one could use the
terms folio, recto and verso. The simpler page or page
number (folio), right-hand page (recto) and left-hand
page (verso) are easier for the reader to follow.
– Use examples and illustrations:
• write up technical information, using examples,
illustrations and analogies to explain d iff ic ult
information or new ideas. e.g.
– The crawler tractor is as fast as a cruising snail, no
wonder you were unable to plough the specif ied area
intended for the farm.
– A simple example or illustration can go a long way to
making technical writing understandable.

– SECTIONAL DISCUSSION.
 MODULE 10: CONCLUDING PARTS
• Breakdown of Report into Sections
– Once the major sections and subsections have been
def ined, each section should be written going from
the general to the particular.
– Each section begins with a general description of the
greater detail to come at the end of the section.
– This way, the selective reading habits of the target
audience is enhanced.
– Some sections may be only of general interest to
certain people.
– Such may only want to read the f irst paragraph to get
an overview of the section's information content.
– The general part of a section may be as short as one
sentence that serves to summarize the information
content of the section.
– For larger sections, it may be several paragraphs.
• Finalizing the Report and Proofreading
– In the f inal stages, the author should ensure that the
introduction is intact.
– Main text in sections, conclusions, all properly
formatted.
– References and bibliography and any appendices are
all okay.
– Page numbers, contents and title pages will now be
added.
– Then the summary or abstract is written.
– The summary with the title should indicate the scope
o f t h e r e po r t a n d gi v e t h e m a i n r e s u l t s a n d
conclusions.
– It must be intelligible without the rest of the report.
– Many people may read and refer to a report summary
but only a few may read the full report, as it often
happens in professional organizations.
• Proofreading:
• This is checking of every aspect of a piece of written
work from the content to the layout.
• It is an absolutely necessary par t to the writing
process.
– Every scientist and engineer should cultivate the habit
of never sending or submitting any piece of written
work without at least one and preferably several
processes of proofreading.
– Let someone else who could be your colleague or
superior off ic er help you to read carefully and check
for errors in content, style, structure and layout.
– Such person or persons should be acknowledged in
the report.
• CONCLUSION
– A technical report is a formal report designed to
convey technical information in a clear and easily
accessible format.
– Good writing, whether technical or general, presents
relevant information in a clear style.
– In certain instances, technical writing has such a poor
reputation.
• For example, ask users what they think of computer
manuals.
• Many writers often fail to use the clear, plain English
style.
• P lain E nglish is a simple style that anyo ne c an
understand.
• Writers are encouraged to control sentence length, use
active verbs, cut down on unnecessary jargon, and
make their writing specific and tight.
 – The culture of academic writing and business and
scientif ic writing is the dull, long-winded, passive
style.
– M any w r it e r s hav e d iff ic ult y ke e p ing t he ir
messages simple and clear. Instead of using
everyday words they use complex or unfamiliar
words.
– Simple everyday words will get message across
to the would-be readers.
– Too often, technical writers use words such as
additional, indicate, initiate and proliferate instead
of the simpler extra, show, start and spread.
• SECTIONAL DISCUSSION.