The Higher Technological Institute (HTI) MTE211 : Sensors and Actuators

Department of Mechanical Engineering Spring 2023

MTE211 : Sensors and Actuators

Lecture (2)
Dr. Islam Mohamed
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Lecture Objective:

 Identify Sensors Terminologies.

 List different types of sensors for different applications.
 Explain Basic Principles of transduction/ sensing
 Sensors Classification.

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 Course Introduction:

Mechatronic System Components

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 Sensors & Transducers
Sensor
Sensor is used for an element in a measuring system that takes
information about the variable being measured and transforms it into a
more suitable form to be measured.
Transducer
The transducer consists of a primary element which is a sensor
plus a secondary element as a signal conditioning circuit that
transforms the passive change or small voltage signal into active
signal range that can be easily used in the control loops.

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 Performance of Sensor
 The performance of any process sensor whether is a new or old
can be summarized as follows:
• The sensor must be completely reliable under continuous operation
and ideally require no preventive maintenance.
• The sensor should be installed in such a way that it can be replaced
quickly in case it does eventually malfunction.
• The sensor should be easy to use and does not require a
complicated calibration sequence.
• The data it provides should be easily interpreted, for example,
sensors that measure scalar quantities such as temperature or flow
rate generally output a signal that is proportional to these
quantities.

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 Sensor Terminology
The performance of any process sensor whether is a new or old can
be summarized as follows:
• The sensor should be compatible with other sensors and with the
existing distributed control system.
 Sensor Terminology
Range and span Error Accuracy Sensitivity Hysteresis error

Nonlinearity error Stability Dead band or time Resolution

Output impedance Static characteristics Repeatability/ Precision
Saturation Dynamic characteristics

Settling time Rise time Time constant Response time

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 Sensor Terminology
Span or Dynamic Range
Range and span: the region between the limits within which an
instrument is designed to operate for measuring, indicating or
recording a physical quantity.
The range is expressed by stating the lower and upper values.
The Span represents the algebraic differences between the upper and
lower range value of the instrument.

For example
-10 °C to 80 °C Range
Span = 80 – (-10)= 90 °C

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 Sensor Terminology
Error
 Error is the difference between a measured value and the true
input value.
 Two classifications of errors are bias (or systematic) errors and
precision (or random) errors.
 These bias errors can be further subdivided into
1. calibration errors (a zero or null point error is a common type of
bias error created by a nonzero output value when the input is
zero),
2. loading errors (adding the sensor to the measured system
changes the system),
3. errors due to sensor sensitivity to variables other than the
desired one (e.g., temperature effects on strain gauges).

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 Sensor Terminology
Accuracy
 Generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and
ideal output signals. i.e. the maximum difference that will exist
between the actual value and the indicated value at the output of the
sensor.
Static Error = measured value- true value

i) Point accuracy: range = 0 – 1000 °C ± 1 °C

ii) Percentage of true value: range = 0 – 1000 °C ± 1%
iii) Percentage of full-scale range = 0 – 1000 °C ± 1% full scale
which means range = 0 – 1000 °C ± 10 °C

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 Sensor Terminology
Precision
 The concept of precision refers to the degree of repeatability of a
measurement.

 If the same value were measured several times, an ideal sensor

would output the same value every time.

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 Sensor Terminology
Precision Vs. Accuracy

(a) Accurate and precision. (b) Precision, but not accurate. (c) not Precision, not accurate

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 Sensor Terminology
Stability

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 Sensor Terminology

Output impedance
It is the impedance of the sensor circuit when being interfaced with
an electronic circuit.

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 Sensor Terminology

Resolution
Smallest change in a signal that can be detected and accurately
indicated.

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 Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity

Sensitivity is generally the ratio

between a small change in the
output signal to a small change
in the input signal.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑂

𝑆= =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝐼

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 Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity
Example (1):
Calculate the sensitivity of an electrical measuring instrument if a
movement of 0.001 mm causes an output voltage change of 0.02 V

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 0.02

𝑆= = = 20 V/mm
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 0.001
Example (2):

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 Sensor Terminology
Linearity
 Linearity is a measure of how the
sensitivity varies over the
operating range of the instrument
 Nonlinearity is the maximum
deviation from a linear transfer
function over the specified
dynamic range.
 An ideal instrument has constant
sensitivity
 All physical devices are nonlinear
to a certain degree due to certain
factor Saturation…etc.

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 Sensor Terminology

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 Sensor Terminology

Saturation

This nonlinearity due to saturation

may result from
 Plasticity–mechanical components
 Nonlinear defamation -springs

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 Sensor Terminology
Hysteresis

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 Sensor Terminology
Static characteristics
• The values given when steady state condition occur, or
the values given when the transducer has settled down
after having received some input.

Dynamic characteristics
• The behavior between the time that the input value
changes and the time that the value given by the
transducer settles down to the steady state value.

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 Sensor Terminology

Dynamic characteristics
the time taken for the output to reach 95%
Response time of the steady state output.

the time taken for the output to reach

Time constant 63.2% of the steady state output.

the time taken for the output to rise to

Rise time some specified percentage from 10% to
95% of the steady state output.
the time taken for the output to settle to
Settling time within some percentage as 2% of the
steady state value.

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 Sensor Terminology

Dynamic characteristics

Settling time

Response time
10%
Rise time

Time constant

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 Measurement instrument
100kg-3T Strain Gauge Pressure Sensor
Range: 100kg, 200kg, 300kg, 500kg
Overall accuracy: 0.03% F · S (F.S: full scale)
Sensitivity: 2 ± 0.1 mV / V
Nonlinear: ± 0.03% F · S
Hysteresis error: ± 0.03% F · S
Repeatability error: ± 0.02% F · S
Zero temperature coefficient: ± 0.03% F · S/10
Output temperature coefficient: ± 0.03% F · S/10
Input impedance: 700 ± 15Ω
Output Impedance: 650 ± 15Ω
Insulation resistance: ≥ 5000 MΩ
For the bridge voltage: Recommended 10 VDC (standard signal 12V 24V)
Operating temperature range:- 20 ~ +70
Safe overload: 150% F · S
Sealing Rating: IP67
Material: Alloy steel (40CrNiMo)

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 Measurement instrument
Digital-Flexible Thermometer
1. Display range: 32.0~42.0 °C
2. Accuracy: +-0.1°C
3. 60 ±10 seconds in oral
4. 100 ± 20 seconds, underarm
5. Beeper function
6. Auto shut-off
7. Battery: 1.5V button battery
8. Size: 126 x 18 x 10mm
9. LCD: 20 x 7mm
10. N. W.: 11.5g
11. Memory: Last measuring reading

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 Measurement instrument
Digital weighing-machine

1. Capacity 51g
2. Readability 0.01mg
3. Linearity ±0.03mg
4. Repeatability 0.02mg
5. Stabilization Time Approx. 3.5sec
6. Pan Size Ø 3.6"
7. Dimensions 8.4 x 17.4 x 12.24 "
8. Power 100-240V AC Adapter

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 Introduction to sensors and transducers:
Sensors in applications

Sound Detection Sensor Vision Sensor

MEMS Pressure Sensor GPS Force Sensor Temperature Sensor

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 Introduction to sensors and transducers:
Sensors in applications
Application Typical Sensors
Robot Optical image, displacement, speed, force, torque.

CNC Displacement, speed, force, temperature.

Aircraft Displacement, speed, acceleration, elevation, heading,

force pressure, temperature, fluid flow, global
positioning system (GPS)
Automobile Displacement, speed, acceleration, force, pressure,
temperature, fluid flow, fluid level.
Home Heating Temperature, pressure, fluid flow.
System

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Basic Principles of transduction/ sensing

 Resistive
 Capacitive
 Inductive
 Piezoelectric
 Thermoelectric
 Photovoltaic.

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 Resistive Principle

 Converts measuring parameter such as displacement,

strain, temperature into change in resistance of the
material.
 Measure of change of resistance can be done using
wheat-stone bridge.
 e. g. R.T.D, Strain gauge, …. etc.

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Classification of Sensors

 The subject of measurement

 Passive and active sensors

 Digital or analog Signal

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the subject of measurement

 Biological
 Chemical
 Electric
 Magnetic
 Mechanical
 Optical
 Radiation
 Thermal

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 Active vs. Passive Sensors

Active Sensors Passive sensors

It require an external power supply or an It directly generates an electrical signal
excitation signal for their operation and in response to an external stimulus
their output is a measure of variation in without the need for an external power
some electrical parameter, such as supply.
resistance, capacitance, inductance. The Output signal power comes from the
The output signal power comes from the stimulus
power supply. E.g.: thermocouple, piezoelectric
E.g.: Strain gauge, potentiometer sensors, tacho-generator

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 Analog vs. Digital Sensors

Analog Sensors Digital sensors

Analog sensors provide a signal that is The output of digital sensors takes the
continuous in both its magnitude and form of discrete steps or states.
temporal or spatial content.
Most of the physical measured are analog in Digital signals are more repeatable,
nature, reliable and easier to transmit
E.g., pressure, temperature, torque E.g., shaft encoder, contact switch.
displacement, light intensity, strain.

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 Analog sensors and Digital sensors:
Types of Input/output Devices

Digital Analog
These are inputs and outputs Are inputs and
that have only two states: ON outputs that can
and OFF, i.e. 1 or 0 have an infinite
A 1 means that the device is number
on and a 0 means that the
device is off
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 Analog sensors and Digital sensors:
Types of Input Devices

Digital inputs Analog inputs

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 Sensors Types

Displacement, Position and Proximity sensors

Velocity and motion
Force
Fluid pressure
Liquid flow
Liquid level
Temperature
Light Sensors
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 Sensors

Displacement, Position and Proximity sensors

Pneumatic sensor Potentiometer sensors

Hall effect sensor Strain gauges

Optical Encoders Capacitive element

Linear variable differential transformers
Proximity Inductive Eddy current
switch proximity switch proximity sensor

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 Sensors

Velocity and motion

Incremental Encoder Tachogenerator Pyroelectric Sensors

Force Fluid pressure

Strain gauge load cell Piezoelectric sensor

Tactile sensor

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 Sensors

Liquid Flow
Orifice plate Turbine meter

Temperature Liquid level Floats

Bimetallic strip
Differential pressure
Resistance temperature detector
Light sensor
Thermistors

Thermo diodes and transistor Photodiode

Thermocouple Phototransistor
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 End of Lecture

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