8 Theoretical Underpinnings:

Communication Theories and Contexts

Objectives
 To understand communication as a two-way process of PR

 To review the communication model and its elements

 To discuss the effects of communication

- Theories of mass communication effects

 To understand “public opinion”

 To review the coorientation model

1
What is Communication?

Levels of communication

 Intrapersonal communication

 Interpersonal communication

 Small group communication

 Organizational communication

 Intercultural/international communication

 Mass communication

What is Communication?

 Communication is “a reciprocal process of exchanging

signals to inform, persuade, or instruct, based on
shared meanings and conditioned by the
communicators’ relationship and the social context.”

2
What is Communication?

Communication Process Model (Figure 8.1)

What is Communication?

Purposes Step Processes

To inform Step1: Attracting attention to the communication

Step2: Achieving acceptance of the message
Step3: Having it interpreted as intended
Step4: Getting the message stored for later use

To persuade Step5: Accepting change or yielding to the point of view

of the sender

To instruct Step6: Stimulating active learning and practice

3
What is Communication?

In the crowded message environment, the goals of PR

communications are:

 To get the attention of target publics

 To stimulate interest in message content

 To build a desire and intention to act on the message

 To direct the action of those who behave consistent with

the message

Elements of Communication

SMCRE Model (By Harold Laswell, 1948)

 Sender (or Source)

 Message

 Channel

 Receiver

 Effect(s)

-Who? Says what? In which channel? To whom? With what effect?

4
Elements of Communication

The sender

 The effects involving characteristics of message sources –

Generally affect one’s initial acceptance of the message and
short-term impacts
(E.g., perceived status, reliability, expertness)

 “Sleeper effect” (Hovland et al.): A delayed increase in

persuasion observed when the discounting cue (e.g.,
noncredible source) becomes unavailable or “dissociated” from
the communication in the memory of the message recipients

Elements of Communication

The message
 The effects of message characteristics
- Message appeals (e.g., fear appeal, guilt appeal, etc.)
- Visual components
- Message frames (e.g., loss vs. gain frame)

 The effects of message order: “primacy” vs. “recency” effect

- For those with low initial interest?
- For those with high initial interest?

5
Elements of Communication

The channel or medium

 Face-to-face interpersonal

 Mass media: Differences between face-to-face and mass media

communication?

 Electronic media (E-mails, social media, instant message, etc. )

Elements of Communication

The receiver

 A monolithic and passive mass audience: Highly vulnerable to

messages and media manipulations

 Selected active receivers

6
Elements of Communication

Effects

 Creating perceptions of the world around us

 Setting and building the agenda

 Diffusing information and innovations

 Defining social support

Elements of Communication

Context of the relationship

 The relationship between communicators influence the
communication process

 Contextual dimensions
- Emotional arousal, composure, formality
- Intimacy and similarity
- Immediacy or liking
- Dominance-submission

 Nonverbal behaviors
- Proximity, facial expression, touching, eye contact, etc.

7
Elements of Communication

The social environment

 Diverse social settings: families, groups, organizations, nations,

cultures, etc.

 Communication depends on the nature of the group,

characteristics of group members, group size and structure, etc.

Theories of Mass Communication Effects

How powerful is mass communication?:

All-powerful  no effects  limited effects
(effects under specified conditions)

 Creating perceptions of the world around us

⇒ Cultivation theory
 Setting and building the agenda
⇒ Agenda-setting & agenda-building theory
 Diffusing information and innovation
⇒ Diffusion of innovation theory
 Defining social support
⇒ Spiral of silence theory

8
Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Creating perceptions of the world around us

 “the world outside and the pictures in our head” (Walter Lippmann)

- Mass media build the perception of the world beyond our read
and direct experience

Figure 8.2 (p. 197)

Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Creating perceptions of the world around us

 Cultivation theory
(by George Gerbner and colleagues)
– TV world perceived as real world
to heavy TV viewers, compared to
light viewers
– Mean world syndrome: more
dangerous and less trustworthy
world to heavy TV viewers

9
Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Setting and building the agenda

 Agenda-setting theory (McCombs & Shaw)

– Transfer of media agenda to public agenda
– Transfer of issue salience: media determine what’s
important or salient
– “What to think about” (cognition)

Media Public
Selection Agenda Agenda
Omission
Framing, etc.

Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Setting and building the agenda

 Second-level agenda-setting theory

- Media influence on public perception of issue
- Media affect both cognitions and predispositions
- “What to think” or “how to think” (opinions and feelings)

10
Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Setting and building the agenda

 Who is building the media agenda? (Agenda-building)

- Politicians and elected officials
- Public relations practitioners

Media Public
? Agenda Agenda

 Why do the PR practitioners emphasize the publicity

function? (p. 198)

Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Diffusing information and innovation

 Diffusion of Innovation Theory by Everett Rogers (1962)

– The theory explains how, why, and at what rate new
technology and idea spread
– Mass communication facilitates social interaction and
change
– The role of mass media effects + Interpersonal
communication in diffusion
– Two-step flow model: The role of opinion leaders who
has influence on a specific issue

11
Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Graph source: http://www.enablingchange.com.au/Summary_Diffusion_Theory.pdf

Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Diffusing information and innovation

 Characteristics of innovation: Relative advantage,

Compatibility, Complexity, Trialability, Observability

 Characteristics of adopters: Innovators, Early adopters,

Early majority, Late majority, Laggards

12
Theories of Mass Communication Effects

See Figure 8.3 (p. 199)

Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Defining social support

 “Spiral of silence” theory (by Noelle-Neumann, 1974)
– “the silent majority”: Individuals who think their opinion
conflicts with the opinions of most other people tend to
remain silent on an issue
– The influence of social support or opinion climate on one’s
opinion expression

13
Theories of Mass Communication Effects

Defining social support

 The amount of people not
openly expressing deviant
opinion and/or changing from
deviant to dominant opinion is
influenced by (a) opinion
expressed as dominant by mass
media and (b) interpersonal
support for deviant opinion
 Media coverage can reflect,
enforce, or challenge the spiral of
silence effect on public opinion

Public Opinion Contexts

What is public opinion?

▪ The aggregation of individual views on some issue, but more than
the collected views held by a particular category of individuals
▪ A dynamic process of developing consensus (“thinking together”),
in which ideas are expressed, adjusted, and compromised among
publics or groups of communicating people with common interest
through interpersonal and mass communications on issues
▪ Public opinion is the social process of forming, expressing, and
adjusting ideas that affect collective behavior in situations

Q. Why is public opinion important in Public Relations?

14
Public Opinion Contexts

5 Dimensions of public opinion

 Direction: Valence of feelings toward issue; the evaluative
quality of a predisposition (e.g., positive-negative-neutral, yes–
no, pro–con, agree–disagree, etc.)

 Intensity: How strongly people feel about the issue

 Stability: How long opinions have been held or will hold the
same direction

Public Opinion Contexts

5 Dimensions of public opinion (contd.)

 Informational support: How much they know about issue

 Social support: The extent to which people think their opinions

are shared by others (the perception of social approval or
disapproval)

 Opinion with much informational and social support have great

mass and not susceptible to easy or quick change

Q. How would you measure the five dimensions in your public

opinion polling (or survey)?

15
Orientation and Coorientation

 Individual orientation: includes perceptions of issues/objects in

one’s environment and perceptions of significant others’ view of
those same issues/objects
 Individual orientations do not become public opinion until they
are shared, or perceived to be shared by others

 Coorientation: when two or more individuals oriented to and

communicating about an object of mutual interest

Orientation and Coorientation

Figure 8.6 Model of Coorientation (p. 205)

16
 The Model of Coorientation
Concepts
 Agreement: the extent to which two or more persons share similar
evaluations of an issue of mutual interest

 Understanding: the extent to which two or more persons share

similar definitions of an issue of mutual interest

 Accuracy: the extent to which one’s estimate of another person’s

views matches the other person’s actual views

 Congruency: the extent to which one’s own views match one’s

estimate of another’s views on the same issue

Coorientational model of organization-public relationships

(Figure 8.7)

Q. What does the coorientational approach help public relations

practitioners? (Coorientational Relationships, pp. 207-208)

17
 The Coorientational Model

 What this model tells PR practitioners…

 An organization and a public may hold different definitions/evaluations
of an issue (low understanding, low agreement)
 The organization’s perceptions of a public’s view of an issue may not
match the public’s actual views and vice versa (low accuracy)
 The organization may formulate strategies for dealing with the public
or for spontaneously responding in interactions based on its false
perception
 The organization-public relationship is threatened by such differing
definitions/evaluations and inaccurate perceptions
 Communication helps increase accuracy and agreement, which
ultimately improve the organization-public relationship

18
 9 Internal Relations and
Employee Communication

Objectives
 To define internal and employee communication as a part of the

public relations function

 To understand the importance of the internal relations function

and the purposes of employee communication

- Along with some of the regulatory and business contexts

 To discuss the impact of organizational culture on internal

communication

 To apply systems theory to internal relations

1
 Internal Relations

 “As a part of the larger public relations function, the goal of internal
relations is to establish and maintain mutually beneficial relationships
between an organization and the employees on whom its success or
failure depends”
– Production line workers, managers/supervisors, administrative staff,
facilities and maintenance support, etc.

Internal Relations

 An organization’s most important relationships are those with

employees at all levels.

 Why is it important?

 Changes in internal communication with employees

– The value of understanding, teamwork, and commitment by

employees in achieving bottom-line results

– The need to build a strong manager communication network

2
 Internal Relations
 What are some characteristics of a good relationship with
employees?
– Confidence and trust between employer and employees
– Honest, candid information flow
– Satisfying status and participation for each person
– Continuity of work without strife
– Healthy or safe surroundings
– Success for the enterprise
– Optimism about the future

Employee Communication

Three Main Purposes

 Downward communication (information flow from management
to employee): letting employees know what is going on
- Using both mediated and non-mediated channels

 Upward communication (employee to management):

management’s listening to the views of employees

 Acculturation: (helping employees to understand & internalize the

organization’s culture and values)
- Using vision statements, mission statements, policy documents, ethics
statements, and training materials
- See ‘co-acculturation’ in Exhibit 9.1 (p. 218)

3
Cultural Context

Organizational Culture
 “the shared meanings and assumptions of group members”
 “a common values system or the behavioral norms in the
organization”
 “the sum total of shared values, symbols, meanings, beliefs,
assumptions, and expectations that organize and integrate a group of
people who work together”
 Influence on individual behaviors within an organization
 A valuable asset in building cohesion and teamwork inside the
organization
 Something that distinguishes one organization from another

Cultural Context

Cultural dimensions (by Geert Hofstede)

 Power distance : Extent to which people see inequities or

hierarchies as natural, unchangeable and expected
 Individualism-Collectivism : Extent to which people put their own
needs ahead of the needs of the group or vice versa
 Uncertainty avoidance : Extent to which people prefer
organizational communication and structures that reduce their social
anxiety
 Masculinity-Femininity : Extent to which behaviors are traditionally
(or stereotypically) “masculine” (aggressiveness, competiveness, and
independence) or “feminine” (compassion and nurturing)
 Why is the understanding of such organizational culture
important?

4
Cultural Context

Applying Systems Theory to Internal Relations

Closed system Open system

 With an asymmetrical  With a symmetrical worldview:

worldview: an organization’s incorporating the ideas of
goal is to get what it wants negotiation, conflict resolution,
without having to change the and compromise in an
way it does business organization’s operating
internally procedures

 Authoritarian culture  Participative culture

Organizational Culture
Authoritarian vs. Participative

Authoritarian Participative

 Communication is structured and

 Dialogue and input are encouraged
formalized
 Teamwork is valued
 Decision making is centralized
 Decision making is decentralized
 Individuals are accountable
 Collective accountability encourages
 Work is routine and divided
teamwork
 Input from employees is not seen
 Innovation is encouraged and
as vital to management
rewarded

 Innovative ideas/feedback can come

from any level of the organization

5
Regulatory and Business Contexts
Internal relations and employee communications are
especially important in terms of …

 Safety and compliance : Every organization must comply with its

country’s governing standards. Internal relations helps employees
comply with the governing standards of the country
e.g., taxes, labor laws, operational laws for workplace safety,
environmental laws for waste and transportation of materials, etc.

 Labor relations : Interactions with hourly employees, some of whom

belong to labor unions.
e.g., knowing the discontent of hourly employees before a strike

 Operational change
e.g., mergers, acquisitions, layoffs

Communicating Internally

Acculturating Employees (Acculturation)

- This process begins the moment a new person is hired.

 Vision statements (provide an overview of broad organizational goals),

mission statements (tell how the organization differs from its
competitors)

Figure 9.1
Row Boats Cartoon

6
Communicating Internally

Acculturating Employees (Acculturation)

- This process begins the moment a new person is hired.

 Policy documents (communicate organizational policies and

procedures): e.g., employee handbook, manuals

 Ethics statements (spell out management’s values, priorities, standards,

and policy): e.g., code of ethics, credo, principles, beliefs, values, or
standards

 Training materials (help socialize employees into the

organizational culture): e.g., orientation, new member training

Communicating internally

Downward & Upward Communication

 Non-mediated channels: the grapevine; in-person meetings,

teleconferences and videoconferences

 Mediated channels: employee publications; published speeches,

position papers, and backgrounders; bulletin boards; intranets; hotlines;
email; and other online channels

 Listening to employees
ombudsman or ombuds officer

7
https://www.teamblind.com/kr/blindindex/

8
9
Organizational Culture: TOSS (이승건 대표)

10
 10 External Media &
Media Relations

Contents
 To outline the major characteristics of traditional media channels
for communicating with external publics

 To discuss how new media affect external communication

practices, including some challenges to PR in the digital era

 To define the relationship between PR practitioners and

journalists as being mutually dependent and mutually beneficial,
but as sometimes adversarial

 To outline basic guidelines for building good media relations and

working with the media

1
Controlled vs. Uncontrolled Media

Controlled media
 Controlled media include those in which practitioners have control over what
is said, how it is said, when it is said, and—to some extent—to whom it is
said

Uncontrolled media
 Uncontrolled media are those over which practitioners have no direct role in
decisions about media content

– Instead, media gatekeepers decide if it is reported, what is reported,

how it is reported, when it is reported, and to whom it is reported
– Include most of traditional media

Every newspaper when it reaches the

reader is the result of a whole series of
selections as to what items shall be
printed, in what position they shall be
printed, how much space each shall
occupy, what emphasis each shall have.
There are no objective standards here.
There are conventions.”
(Walter Lippmann, 1922)

2
 3 Types of Media: Paid, Owned, and Earned Media

Image Source:
https://cdn.sketchbubble.com/pub/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/
720x540/c96a280f94e22e3ee3823dd0a1a87606/p/a/paid-owned-earned-
slide1.png

(Traditional) Mass Media vs. New/Digital/Online Media

(Traditional) Mass Media New/Digital/Online Media

 Centralized/top-down  Speed of information dissemination

 Costly to publish  Cost-effective, easy-to-use, easy
updates
 Controlled by media gatekeepers
 Full control of contents
 Mostly one-way communication
with limited feedback channels  No space or time limitation
 Interactivity / easy access to public
 Media credibility
opinion and ideas
 Wide scope of audiences
 Able to do global-scope activities
 Reaching niche markets & specific
targets
 Friendly and less formal communication

3
4
5
Changes in Media Environment

Key changes in the current media environment

(1) Audiences have become fragmented, choosing smaller
niche media for their own unique needs

(2) Audiences are more active, choosing two-way media

that permit interactivity

(3) A “journalist” today is anybody with a camera cell

phone and Internet access – bloggers and citizen
journalists

Traditional Media, New Uses (pp. 234-245)

 What are some key characteristics of each medium?

Newspapers
Wire services
and news
syndicates Magazines

Cable &
Satellite TV
Radios

Television

6
Traditional Media, New Uses (pp. 234-245)

 Newspapers
 Remain the workhorse of the public information system.
 Are a powerful force in shaping public opinion, especially
among the most literate and influential people (or the
“opinion leaders”) on important issues.
– See the “agenda-setting theory” (Ch. 8) of newspapers in shaping the
public agenda and influencing the outcome of debate

 Offer strengths including a massive audience, wide range of

depth and content, and intimacy with local publics.
 Provide strong readership through online versions.

Traditional Media, New Uses (pp. 234-245)

 Magazines
 More than 20,700 magazines, specialized publications in the
U.S. / 325 million subscriptions

 Provide an array and variety of channels to reach audiences

with common interests

 More durable information than newspapers

 Magazine placement is critical for anyone seeking to influence

national or specialized audiences.

7
Traditional Media, New Uses (pp. 234-245)

 Radio
 Radio is a mobile medium for mobile people.

 Offers flexibility unmatched by other media.

 Listeners average 2 ½ hours per day.

 Offers a direct, personal touch through the spoken word.

 It’s a person-to-person medium that flourishes on

conversation.

 Public relations practitioners can utilize free public service

time through public service announcements (PSAs).

Traditional Media, New Uses (pp. 234-245)

 Television
 A rich medium combining printed and spoken word, video, color, music,
animation.
 Strong ability to shape our view of the world (see Ch. 8 for cultivation
theory).
 It is the most intimate mass medium, providing news to more than half
the population each day.
 Public relations practitioners “pitch” story ideas to TV producers. They
also produce and distribute video news releases (VNRs) to television
news directors.
 However, the limits of time and dominance of dramatic pictures
inevitably oversimplify and distort the news stories.

8
Traditional Media, New Uses (pp. 234-245)

 Cable and Satellite Television

 Includes 500-plus channels and high-definition
capabilities.

 Some cable channels now have a greater share of the

television audience than major broadcast networks.

 Digital recorders and IPTV give viewers flexibility as to

when they watch programs—“time-shifted viewing.”

Traditional Media, New Uses (pp. 234-245)

 Wire services and news syndicates

 Can help distribute human interest and spot news to state,
regional, national, or international media subscribers
 Increase the likelihood of immediate, widespread news
coverage
 Examples:
 International: Associated Press (AP), United Press International
(UPI), Reuters, Agence France Presse (AFP), ITAR-TASS, etc.
 Korean: Yonhap News (연합뉴스), Newsis (뉴시스), 뉴스1 (News1),
etc.

9
10
New Media, New Challenges and Opportunities

Four challenges for public relations practitioner

(1) Staying abreast of changing technology

(2) Responding to the demand for transparency

(3) Dealing with new media players who communicate

directly with organizational stakeholders

(4) Representing organizations in the social media

Working with the Media: Practitioner – Journalist Relationships

 The person in the middle: Both parties take the liaison role in
the communication between an organization and its publics

The persons in the middle

Publics
Organization PR
practitioners Journalists

11
Working with the Media: Practitioner – Journalist Relationships

 As being mutually dependent and mutually beneficial, but as

sometimes adversarial or even hostile
- 90% of journalists get story ideas from news releases; 89% rely on
public relations sources for reporting
- Tension from the underlying conflicts of interests and news values and
of mission

 The high quality of news coverage (e.g., accuracy, fairness, etc.)

is not assured only by reporters’ work but also the relationship
between the practitioners and journalists
 불가근불가원 (不可近不可遠)

Working with the Media: Practitioner – Journalist Relationships

 How to contact and communicating with the media

– News releases
• Internet-ready news releases, video news releases (VNRs),
or multimedia releases (high resolution photos/graphics,
video, and audio components)
• Usually follow the inverted pyramid format

To see news release samples,

정부기관 보도자료실:
https://www.korea.kr/briefing/pressReleaseList.do
NewsWire 보도자료실:
https://www.newswire.co.kr/?md=A00

12
13
 Source: Think Public Relations
by Wilcox, Cameron, Reber, and Shin (p. 252)

Working with the Media: Practitioner – Journalist Relationships

 How to contact and communicating with the media

– Media kit
• the main news releases + fact sheets on the
product/organization/event + background information +
photos/drawings + biographical materials on the
spokesperson/CEO + contact information, etc.

– Interviews and news conferences

(ex. 정부기관 브리핑자료실
https://www.korea.kr/briefing/briefingHomeList.do )

– Media tour or media party

14
Figure 10.3 Pentagon press conference

15
16
Guidelines for PR Practitioners

 For good media relations (pp. 252-254)

‒ Shoot squarely (honestly) and build credibility
‒ Give service by respecting media deadlines and by being
available to the media
‒ Do not beg or whine, especially by asking for special
treatment
‒ Do not ask media to kill a story
‒ Do not flood the media with information that does not have
news value

17
Guidelines for PR Practitioners
 For working with the media (pp. 255)
‒ Talk from the viewpoint of the public’s interest, not the
organization’s.
‒ Make the news easy to read and use
‒ If you do not want some statement quoted, do not make it.
‒ State the most important fact at the beginning
‒ Do not argue with a reporter or lose your cool
‒ If a question contains offensive language or simply words
you do not like, do not repeat them even to deny them
‒ If the reporter asks a direct question, give an equally direct
answer
‒ If spokespersons do not know the answer to a question,
they should simply say, “I don’t know, but I’ll get the answer
for you”
‒ Tell the truth, even if it hurts
‒ Do not call a news conference unless you have what reports
consider news

Guidelines for PR Practitioners

 Discussion on the guideline (p. 255)

‒ What are the most impressive or important tips for you as a
future PR practitioner?
‒ What are the tips that seem most difficult to follow in the
real-world PR practices? And why?

18
Working with the Media: Practitioner – Journalist Relationships

 Understanding key terms of journalism

– Off the record: If someone says something “off the record,” they do
not want it to be publicly reported.
– Embargo (also news embargo or press embargo): A request or
requirement by a source that the information or news provided by
that source not be published until a certain date or certain conditions
have been met.

19
 15 Business and Industry PR

Outline
Part 4: The Practice

What types of organizations?

 Business/Industry/Corporate Public Relations (Chapter 15)

 Government PR (Chapter 16)

 Nonprofit PR (Chapter 18)

1
 Objectives
 To describe the role of public relations in supporting profit-
driven corporations

 To discuss current business issues, such as corporate social

responsibility (CSR)

The Environment of Public Relations

in Corporate Organizations

 Plays a strategic and interactive role with a broad array of stakeholders,

including employees, customers, government officials, media, and NGOs

 A borderless society
- Globalization – no geographic boundaries
- Social media – direct organization-public communication, citizen journalists

 “Public relations professionals functions as the eyes, ears, and conscience of

the company; bring objective opinions and perspectives to the decision-
making table; and help manage the priorities of senior management.” (p.
364)

2
 The Environment of Public Relations
in Corporate Organizations

 Public mistrust of business and institutions

- Unprecedented corporate misconduct, victimized employees, indicted executives,
and massive lawsuits against senior management threatened public trust
- High unemployment rates, the recession, and a series of crises

 Focus on corporate social responsibility

- Doing well and doing good at the same time

- Corporate citizenship

- Positive impacts on corporate reputation, public trust and respect

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

 What is it?
- Corporations’ obligations to the society in which they operate
- Often referred to as: corporate citizenship, corporate responsibility,
philanthropy
- A driver of corporate reputation

 Emphasized from the 1960s - The Period of Protests and

Empowerment (1965-1985) of the environmental, consumer, and civil
rights movements
- Civil litigation: Individual and class-action suits involving diverse
issues, such as product safety/liability, sexual harassment, racial
discrimination, breach of contract, etc.

3
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid (Carroll, 1991)

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

 Examples of CSR programs (pp. 365-367)

- The Chicago Bulls’ “Read to Achieve”
- McDonald’s “Good Neighbor”- RMHC (Ronald McDonald
House Charities)
- SC Johnson’s “Sustainability”

A news clip
on CSR

4
Evolution of CSR

Evolution of CSR

 CSV (Creating Shared Value)

- Introduced in a research paper
published in Harvard Business
Review by Michael E. Porter &
Mark R. Kramer (2011)
- Generating economic value in
a way that also produces value
for society by addressing its
challenges

5
 Key Issues in Corporate PR (from the textbook)

 Corporate misconduct  Crisis management misconduct →

– Personal usage of company funds, distribution of incorrect information
(e.g., earnings statements, listings of debt, etc.)
– Managing crises caused by business misconduct (e.g., Gulf of Mexico
Oil Spill, Toyota Recall, Goldman Sachs and the Global Financial Crisis,
etc. )
 Restoring public trust (also known as anti-corporate sentiments)
- Trust threatened in the social and economic environment of high
unemployment rates, recession, and corporate misconducts and
related crises
☆
- ‘Authenticity in words and deeds’
 Globalization
– To overcome a growing sense that the globalization is benefiting only
the rich, with no gains for the poor in the developing world
– To understand cultural differences and have a global perspective:
Cultural sensitivity, understanding of the global media environment,
ability to use technology for the public around the globe, etc.
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Other Key Issues in Corporate PR

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 Corporate image/reputation management

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 Corporate identity (CI) programs >

– CI originally refers to the manner which a corporation expresses

its values, characters and itself, to the public, typically using the
visual and verbal tools, such as a corporate symbol and logotype,
a corporate color and typeface, and corporate mascot/character.

6
Other Key Issues in Corporate PR
The corporate images of major Korean corporations
from a survey of 952 college students

Other Key Issues in Corporate PR

 President identity (PI) ideutity

– Links between the PI and corporate images/values
(e.g., Bill Gates & Microsoft, Steve Jobs & Apple)
– Influence of top-level individuals on sales and stock
prices of the corporation
– Help overcome corporate crises; but at the same
time, a CEO or corporate leader may trigger a crisis
– Contribute to putting personal touches on corporate
communication (e.g., CEO-managed SNS channels)

7
 18 Nonprofit PR

Objectives
 To describe and discuss the role of PR in the nonprofit sector

 To understand major changes in recent PR practice in nonprofit

organizations

1
 For-profit vs. Nonprofit organizations

 What happens to any

 What are the goals? moneys that are not spent on
overhead and operating
expenses?
–
– For-profit organizations – For-profit organizations
Developing products and ‘Profit’ goes to those who –
services that will make money own the company ' '
– for its owners and shareholders
–
– Nonprofit organizations – Nonprofit organizations 'Surplus'

Fulfilling an education or ‘Surplus’ funds are

charitable mission reinvested in the
organization to strengthen
and expand the scope of
their work

 But, the lines between nonprofit, for-profit, and government become blurred. Why?

Defining nonprofit organizations

The “third sector”

2
1. . , , , , .
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4. . , , .
5. . , .

Defining nonprofit organizations

The “third sector”

1. Organized: charter, officers, regular meetings, rules and other evidence

of permanence

2. Private: institutionally separate from government, even if receiving

government funds

3. Not-for-profit: no profit can be distributed to owners or directors

4. Self-governing: own board governs organization without external

control or government direction

5. Voluntary: voluntary participation and charitable contribution are

required in the management of the organization

Types of Nonprofits
1. Foundations: e.g., Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 한국여성재단, 어린이재단
2. Social service agencies (or Human service agencies): e.g., World Vision,
Compassion

3. Faith-based and cultural: e.g., churches (or other religious groups), libraries,
museums, and arts groups

4. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs): e.g., Greenpeace, UNICEF

5. Education-related : e.g., public schools/universities
6. Associations and society: e.g., Professional association/society, federation of
labor unions

12,500 in 1940  32,000 in 1950s  1.5 million (today)

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 Changing Environment (pp. 402 – 403)

1. Government cutbacks are shifting public services to nonprofits.

2. Intensified competition among charitable groups for donations
and volunteers.
3. Demand for social services exceed resources
4. Diversity and cultural issues in the workplace and among target
publics.
5. Growing public concern about the credibility and accountability
of tax-exempt organizations
6. Collaborative relationships and strategic partnerships with
corporate donors.

1. .
2. .
3.
4. .
5.
6. .

Role of Public Relations in Nonprofits

1. Define or “brand” the organization, gain acceptance of its mission, and
protect its reputation.

2. Develop channels of communication with those an organization serves.

3. Create and maintain a favorable climate for fund-raising & volunteerism

4. Support the development and maintenance of public policy that is

favorable to an organization’s mission.

5. Inform and motivate key publics to dedicate themselves to the mission,

goals, and objectives of the organization.

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3.
4. .
5. , .

4
 New Approaches in nonprofit PR (pp. 404 – 405)

1. Integration with marketing and business development.

2. Organizational leaders are retaining professional public relations
practitioners.
3. Recruiting volunteers, gaining public support, and helping achieve
financial stability.
4. Paid advertising as a major controlled communications tactic.
5. Cause marketing and strategic partnerships linking nonprofits with
corporate donors and media.
6. Technology has boosted communication speed and capability, but
raises ethics and privacy questions.
Plus, regular fund-raising activities, such as walk-a-thons, auctions,
concerts, exhibitions, and so on.

1. .
2. .
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4. .
5. .
6. .
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Awareness Ribbons
 “(RED)” branded products  Pink Ribbon products
– To raise money for the Global – To raise money for the Breast
Fund for HIV/AIDS prevention in Cancer Research Foundation
Africa

5
Text a Coffin Away Campaign
by Doctors Without Borders

LOVE PARKING
CAMPAIGN

by Good Neighbors &

Homeplus
(Innocean Worldwide)

Video Clip

6
 Save the Children 신생아 모자뜨기 키트 – GS샵 판매

Public Relations
in Universities and Higher Education
 Major PR issues
• Emergency response and communication systems
• Publicizing innovative research of faculty members
• Image/reputation management
• Conflict resolution among internal groups
• Technology-based communication
• Fund-raising / Structured capital campaigns
• Recruiting qualified faculty and students (both locally and globally)
• Building trust with diverse internal and external publics – who are the
key publics?

7
 이화여대 선배라면
장학금 모금 캠페인

Growing importance of PR in Associations

1. To provide members with helpful information
2. To expand the association by recruiting new members
3. To harmonize member viewpoints by promoting positive positions
4. To promote the industry or profession
5. To influence government legislation and regulation in favor of its
members
6. To improve products and services
7. To gain popular support and combat adverse publicity
8. To train recruits and provide continuing education for all members
9. To contribute to social progress by sponsoring public service programs
10. To promote behavior standards among members that will enhance
credibility and stave off government regulation

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. 8
10.
 The Newspaper Association of America

“… public relations expertise is required to achieve

organizational goals such as maintaining existing
funding and attracting new philanthropy, building a
committed staff and mobilizing volunteers, educating
legislators and key community leaders to gain their
support, establishing strategic partnerships, and so on.”
(p. 407)

9
 .

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16 Government and Politics

Objectives
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 To discuss the major goals of government public relations
(or public affairs) programs

 To outline major barriers to effective government public relations

 To identify the major aspects of government public relations,

including media relations

1
 Government Public Relations
(or Public Affairs)

Government PR (GPR) vs. Public Affairs

 Government PR (GPR): PR practices enacted by governmental organizations

 Public affairs: Two different, but related meanings

 As a substitute of GPR

 As the efforts of corporations and nonprofits to contact the governmental units

and legislators in order to influence public policy. (See Chapter 1, pp. 35-37)

Government Public Relations

PR
(or Public Affairs)

 Every governmental agency and ministry has a public relations function, but
hesitates to use the term of public relations because of …

‒ The 1913 Gillette Amendment: Prohibits the government to use taxpayer

money to persuade publics or to hire “publicity experts” if there is no
legislative approval

“No money appropriated by any act shall be used for the

compensation of any publicity expert unless specifically
appropriated for that purpose.” (38 U.S.C. 3017)

2
The Title for GPR

 Less-offensive and more public-spirited titles for GPR practitioner include:

 Public information officers/ specialists
 Public affairs managers/directors
 Public affairs officers
 Publication specialists
 Communication specialists
 Community facilitators
 Community relations coordinators
 Constituent liaisons
 Client relations managers
 Press secretary
 …. but NOT ‘public relations officer/practitioner’ t

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출처: 홍혜현 (2019). 정부기관 PR 부서의 위상과 역할에 대한 연구. 홍보학연구, 23권 1호, 26-61.

3
 Government Public Relations (or Public Affairs)

 Where? '

– Governmental ministries and agencies

– National Assembly or the Congress
– Office of the President (Cheong Wa Dae or the White House)
– Local level information services

7 Goals of Government PR

 Specific GPR objectives vary from agency to agency,

but two fundamental premises are:
.
1) A democratic government must report its activities to the citizens

2) Effective government administration requires active citizen

participation and support

 The purpose of GRP itself closely matches that of democracy

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4
 7 Goals of Government PR

1. Informing constituents about the activities of a

government agency
2. Ensuring active cooperation in government programs
:
3. Fostering citizen support for established policies and
programs
4. Serving as the public’s advocate to government
administrators
.
5. Managing information internally .
[
6. Facilitating media relations
7. Building community and nation
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EXAMPLES?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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7
Barriers to effective GPR

• Questionable credibility:
- Credibility of PR practitioners - Perceptions of government public affairs
as “just PR” or “propaganda,” implemented by “spin doctors” or “flacks.”

- Credibility of government

- Credibility of government-disseminated information

- Electronic Freedom of Information Act (1996) / Data Quality Act (2001)

in order to improve public access to government information and
transparency of government

• Public apathy
- GPR involves all taxpayers and citizens

- Citizen frustration and impotence toward government

• :
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-
-
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•
- GPR
-

Barriers to effective GPR

• Legislative Hostility
- Greater public hostility and suspicion

- Legislative opposition

- Legal restrictions, including budgetary procedures and other practical

executions

Any other factors/barriers?

8
 Government-Media Relations

 Constitutional freedom of the press

Freedom of speech/writing + Access to government information

 The First Amendment: the freedom to speak out or write freely about
government

 The Freedom of Information (FOI) Legislation: guarantees the media access

to government information

“Except for well-defined areas, such as national security, litigation, certain

personnel records, etc., virtually all government information is open to
inspection by the press, as well as by the public”

(국내 정보공개법/정보공개시스템)

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Government-Media Relations

 The media access to government

 The role of the media to access to government information and meetings

 The government-media interdependence

 Despite different perceptions of news value and organizational natures, the two
entities rely heavily on each other for their own interests.

- Media are the major channels for government to better reach its diverse publics

- Media need the assistant of government for complete news stories under a
variety of constraints

 “The relationship between journalists and government is simultaneously an

unquestioned necessity and an obstacle to government communication with
citizens.” (p. 389)

9
Government-Media Relations

 The watchdog function of the media

 The role of the media that helps guarantee accountability of

government, reduce corruption, and crystallize public issues and
opinions

 The role of the media as the citizen’s representative in the checks and
balance system (the role of media criticism)  adversarial government-
press relationship

 Compare with the ‘lap dog’ or ‘guard dog’ function

10
Government PR

PR practitioners in government “make government more

responsive to citizens’ needs and concerns, gain acceptance of
necessary programs, and make services widely available to those
who need them. In short, the PR [public affairs] function in
government is increasingly recognized as a truly essential
element of effective government.” (p. 390)

11