Yang, Mei Jung (2000) Problem solving in chemistry at secondary

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PROBLEM SOLVING IN CHEMISTRY
AT SECONDARY SCHOOL

by

MeiJung Yang
B. Sc.(Chemistry), M. Sc. (Science Education)

A thesis submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D. )

Centre for Science Education, Faculty of Science

University of Glasgow

V Mei Jung Yang

 Abstract

Problem solving happensin every field of human enquiry and form of knowledge. There
are many problems in areasthat are artistic, philosophical, linguistic, journalistic, legal or
medical. Indeed, these problems have to be solved just as much as those in mathematics,
scienceand technology. Life is a problem solving process.

While most significant real-world problems are ill-defined, problem solving at school
level tends to be limited to a training in various exercisesand algorithmic processes. In
life, problems tend to be more multi-faceted and open-ended, rarely having a single or
final solution. Indeed, if education is to prepare pupils for life, then the skills of problem
solving, where the problems are open-ended, must be considered as an area of high
priority.

In this project, the nature of open-ended problem solving is explored and working
descriptions presented. In order to study the ways by which secondarypupils (ages 14-
17) seek to solve open-ended problems in chemistry, a set of eighteen problems was
devised. These were used with several hundred school pupils and data was gathered to
examinethe nature of difficulties experiencedin facing such problems.

The set of problems (described as units) was designed to be difficult and pupils worked
in groups of three to seek solutions. They were encouraged to discuss the problem as
they tried to solve it and to make notes of their attempts at solution. After each
problem, they completed an assessmentindividually where they were askedto reflect on
the process through which they had moved as they tried to solve the problem. Tape
recordings of the discussions of many groups of pupils were made and other
observations were made to build up a more complete picture. The information obtained
was analysed and summarised to seek to gain insights into the process of problem
solving where the problems were open-ended,unfamiliar and difficult. The main area of
interest was to explore the way long term memory affected problem solving in such
situations.

Pupils enjoyed the units and liked working in groups. They tended to perceive the
problems as difficult because they were unfamiliar and they felt they did not have
enough knowledge. In fact, all the units were based specifically on the syllabus content
and, therefore, pupils should have had enough knowledge. Nonetheless, they felt a
knowledge inadequacy. It is possible that this observation might be linked to the lack of
long term memory connections between islands of knowledge: while they should have
known the key facts, perhaps the way they were required to link them to solve the
problem was itself a major source of difficulty-.--

In many units, the difficulty is clearly related to the feeling of pupils that they were
unsure that they had the "right" answer. This probably reflects the fact that the units
were very different in character from their previous experiences where "right" answers
,,, u. y , c4v, d. Insecurity seemsto be related to perceived difficulty.
,.

It was found that the S5 pupils were very much better in discussion and had very much
greater confidence than the S4 and S3 pupils. However, they were not much more
successful in solving problems. It appears that their greater chemistry knowledge
backgroundgave them greaterconfidencein discussingthe given task.

Quite a number of areasof difficulty related to the demandsarising from specific areasof
chemistry. For example, the way chemical equations can be interpreted and applied was
an areawhere confusion was seenvery clearly: pupils could write them and balancethem
but had very variable understanding of what they meant.

It was found that pupils rarely planned; they just started with what they could do. This
lack of planning was very evident in the way they handled the problems, even when
encouraged to to do so. When faced with an amount of unfamiliar information, pupils
tended to lose confidence and seemed very unsure how to tackle a problem. Pupils'
uneaseand insecurity also occurred when faced with ambiguous data where there were no
unequivocal answer or approaches. Confidence is a very important factor in successin
problem solving.

Although working in groups and being encouraged to make notes throughout was
designedin order to minimise difficulties due to limitations in working memory space,in
one or two problems information overload was observed as a major source of difficulty.

In looking at long term memory, it was very clear that absenceof key information (facts,
concepts or processes) posed a major difficulty. However, it was noted that correct
information, inappropriately applied, could also be a significant difficulty. One area of
difficulty pupils frequently encounteredwas in bringing various parts of information and
knowledge together. This suggests that the creation of mental pathways between
"islands" of knowledge or skills is extremely difficult. It seemsthat learners cannotmake
linkages between key concepts and the links must be suggested or supplied by the
teacher in some way.

Specific evidence gained suggestedthat by learning a procedure in one direction, there is

no guarantee that it can be applied in the opposite direction. This suggeststhat links in
long term memory need to be made in both directions in order for the linkage to be
soundly made. If the key concepts are partially grasped, then approaches to problem
solving were confused and the problem solver was not even be aware of the confusion.
In such situations, pupils started to generateexplanations which mixed error with truth.

Overall, the evidence supports the ideas suggestedby an information processing model
and raises major questions about whether problem solving can be taught or whether it is a
generic skill at all. The conventional use of problem solving in curriculum documents
also needsmajor re-thinking in the light of the picture gained.
 Acknowlegements

It has been my good fortune to study in the Centre for Science Education in Glasgow
University, where I have received a great deal of help and inspiration from a number of
people. I sincerely wish to give tribute to them.

First of all, I would like to express my eternal gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Norman
Reid, for his constant support, valuable guidance, encouragement and patience
throughout my entire study. Without all of his help, this study could not have been
achieved. His intellectual suggestionscollectively refined my thoughts. I am also greatly
indebeted to Prof. A. H. Johnstone for his continuous assistanceand helpful criticisms
dueing my study.

I would like to thank all members of the Centre for their support and friendship.
Particularly Dr. Fakhir Al-Naeme and Dr. Craig Gray who have given me great help in
administration of this project. I am also thankful to Dr. GhassanSirhan for his generous
help.

I am very grateful to the members of staff and pupils in the eight schools in Scotland and
Taiwan which participated in this project. Certainly, my great thanks must also go to my
school's colleagesand best ffiends in Taiwan and Scotland for their backing.

Finally, I reserve my great acknowledgement for my parents and my sister, Min-Li. I

would have achievednothing had it not been for all the they
spiritual encouragement have
provided over the three years.
 Contents
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 The Enormous Significance of Problem Solving in Life
1.2 The Definition of Problem Solving
1.2.1 Problems and Exercises
1.2.2 The Definition of Problem Solving 2
1.3 Problem Categories 4
1.4 Problem solving and The Bloom Taxonomy 6
1.5 The role of Knowledge in Problem Solving 7
1.6 The Aims of this Project 8

Chapter Two
Theories of Learning and Problem Solving 9
2.1 What is Learning? 9
2.2 Two leading learning Approaches 9
2.3 Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 10
2.3.1 Stagesof Development 10
2.3.2 The Validity of Piaget's Theory 11
2.4 Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky : Languageand Thought 12
2.5 Cognitive Theories of Learning 13
2.6 JeromeBruner: Discovery Learning 14
2.7 David Ausubel : Meaningftil learning 15
2.7.1 Reception and Discovery Learning 15
2.7.2 Meaningful and Rote Learning 16
2.7.3 The Implication of Ausubel's Theory in Problem Solving 17
2.8 Information ProcessingModels of Learning 18

Chapter Three
Problem Solving 19

3.1 The Developmental Theory of Problem Solving 19

3.2 The Factors Influencing Successin Problem Solving 20
3.3 Prior Experiencesand SuccessfulProblem Solving 21
3.3.1 Prior Knowledge Baseand Problem Solving 21
 3.3.2 Knowledge, Learning and Problem Solving 22
3.3.3 The Cognitive Structure 24
3.4 The Effects of Cooperative Group Work on Problem Solving 25
3.5 Algorithms and Conceptual Understanding 27
3.6 GeneralProblem-Solving Strategiesand Problem Solving Skills 28
3.7 The Role of Long Term Memory in Problem Solving 30
3.8 Cognitive Style and Problem Solving in ScienceEducation 31
3.9 Problem Solving and Teaching 31

Chapter Four
The development of Problem Solving Exercises 33

4.1 The Criteria 33

4.2 A Typical Unit 37
4.3 The Eighteen Units 39

Chapter Five
The Experimental Structure 44
5.1 Aims and Experimental Structure 45
5.1.1 The Aims of the Study 45
5.1.2 The Experimental Structure 45
5.2 Group Work in Problem Solving 47
5.3 The Chemistry Problem Units 47
5.4 Teacher's Guide 48
5.5 Sourcesof Experimental Data 49
5.5.1 Answer Sheet 49
5.5.2 Evaluation Sheet 49
5.5.3 Others : Hints, Word Association Tests, and Tape Transcripts 51
5.5.3.1 Hints 51
5.5.3.2 Word Association Tests (WAT) 52
5.5.3.3 Tape Transcripts 55

5.6 The Pupil Samples 55

5.7 The Methods of Data Collection 56
5.8 The Experimental Procedure 57
5.8.1 The First Data Collection Stage 58
 5.8.2 The SecondData Collection Stage 59
5.8.3 The Third Data Collection Stage 59

Chapter Six
Result I: Type 4 Problem 60
6.1 Unit 6 Heat Packs for Mountaineers 60
6.1.1 Word Association Test Results 60
6.1.2 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 62
6.1.3 Responsesfrom Endpiece 63
6.1.4 Information from Tape Recordings 64
6.1.5 Analysis Summary 65
6.2 Unit 9 The Formula for Ozone 66
6.2.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 67
6.2.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 67
6.2.3 Information from Tape Recordings 71
6.2.4 Analysis Summary 71
6.3 Unit 14: The Swimming Pool Problem 71
6.3.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 72
6.3.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 72
6.3.3 Information from Tape Recordings 73
6.3.4 Analysis Summary 73
6.4 Unit 15: Trees and Cars 74
6.4.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 74
6.4.2 Hints Given to Pupils 74
6.4.3 Responsesfrom Endpiece 74
6.4.4 Information from Tape Recordings 76
6.4.5 Analysis Summary 76

Chapter Seven
Result 11 : Type 6 Problem 77
7.1 Unit I: Argon andElectricWelding 77
7.1.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 78
7.1.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 79
7.1.3 Information from Tape Recordings 82
7.1.4 Analysis Summary 83
7.2 Unit 4 Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay? 83
7.2.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 83
7.2.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 84
7.2.3 Analysis Summary 86
7.3 Unit 5 The Glowing Splint Problem 86
7.3.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 87
7.3.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 88

7.3.3 Information from Tape Recordings 91

7.3.4 Analysis Summary 91

7.4 Unit 8: Moving Gases 91

7.4.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 92

7.4.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 93

7.4.3 Information from Tape Recordings 97

7.4.4 Analysis Summary 97

7.5 Unit 10 :The PhosphorusProblem 98

7.5.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 98

7.5.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 99

7.5.3 Information from Tape Recordings 101

7.5.4 Analysis Summary 101

7.6 Unit 13 : Solubility 101

7.6.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 102

7.6.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 103

7.6.3 Information from Tape Recordings 105

7.6.4 Analysis Summary 105

7.7 Unit 16: Bonding 106

7.7.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 106

7.7.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 106

7.7.3 Analysis Summary 107

iv
Chapter Eight
Result III : Type 2,3 and 5 Problem 109
8.1 Unit 2: Which is the Best Fuel? 109
8.1.1 Word Association Test Results 110

8.1.2 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 112

8.1.3 Scottish Pupils' Answers 113

8.1.4 Taiwanese Pupils' Answers 114

8.1.5 Responsesfrom Endpiece 115

8.1.6 Information from Tape Recordings 120

8.1.7 Analysis Summary 120

8.2 Unit 12 : Salt, Salts and pH 120

8.2.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 121

8.2.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 121

8.2.3 Analysis Summary 123

8.3 Unit 18 : Rates of Reaction 123

8.3.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit 123

8.3.2 Responsesfrom Endpiece 123

8.3.3 Analysis Summary 126

Chapter Nine
Statistical Results and Interpretation 127
9.1 A Comparison of the Thirteen Fixed Questions 127
9.1.1 The Common Trend of Responses 128

9.1.2 Specific Trends of Responses 132

9.2 Correlations between Responsesfrom the Thirteen Fixed Questions 136

9.2.1 Analysis of the Category 1 137

9.2.2 Analysis of the Category 2 137

9.2.3 Analysis of the Category 3 138

9.2.4 Overall Conclusions 139

V
Chapter Ten
Conclusions, Limitations and Suggestions 140
10.1 Conclusions 140
10.1.1 General Conclusions 140
10.1.2 Specific Conclusions 141
10.2 Limitations 143
10.3 Recommendation 143
10.4 Suggestions for Further Research 144

References 145

Appendices

vi
 List of Figures
Chapter One
Figure 1.1 An Alternative Model (Johnstone, 1993)

Chapter Two
Figure 2.1 Reception Learning and Discovery Learning 16
Figure 2.2 Information ProcessingModel (Johnstone,1978) 17

Chapter Four
Figure 4.1 Problem Solving by Individual 35
Figure 4.2 Problem Solving by Group 35

Chapter Five
Figure 5.1 The Experimental Structure 46

Chapter Six
Figure 6.1 Concept Map I (Unit 6) 61

Chapter Eight
Figure 8.1 Concept Map 11(Unit 2)

Chapter Nine
Figure 9.1 A Typical Graph from Responsesto Question I in Unit 1 127
Figure 9.2 Question 4: The Common Graph and the
Specific Graph of Unit 5 128
Figure 9.3 Question 5: The Common Graph 129
Figure 9.4 Question 7: The Common Graph and the
Specific Graph of Unit 2 Taiwan 130
Figure 9.5 Question 8: The Common Graph 130
Figure 9.6 Question 9: The Common Graph and the
Specific Graph of Unit 15 131
Figure 9.7 Question 10 : The Common Graph 131
Figure 9.8 Question I The Various Graphs 132
Figure 9.9 Question 2 The Various Graphs 133
Figure 9.10 Question 3 The Various Graphs 134

vii
Figure9.11 Question 6 : The Various Graphs 135
Figure 9.12 Question II The Various Graphs 136
Figure 9.13 Question 12 The Various Graphs 137
Figure 9.14 Question 13 The Various Graphs 138

viii
 List of Tables
Chapter One
Table 1.1 Classification of Problems 5

Chapter Five
Table 5.1 The Sample of Pupils and the Used Units 58

Chapter Six
Table 6.1 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece (Unit 6) 63
Table 6.2 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 9 First Data Collection) 67
Table 6.3 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 9 SecondData Collection) 68
Table 6.4 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece (Unit 14) 72
Table 6.5 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece (Unit 15) 75

Chapter Seven
Table 7.1 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit I First Data Collection) 80
Table 7.2 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit I SecondData Collection) 80
Table 7.3 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece (Unit 4) 84
Table 7.4 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 5 First Data Collection) 88
Table 7.5 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 5 Third Data Collection) 89
Table 7.6 The Order of Give Gases(Original) 92
Table 7.7 The Order of Give Gases(Revised) 92
Table 7.8 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 8 First Data Collection) 94
Table 7.9 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 8 SecondData Collection) 94
Table 7.10 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece (Unit 10) 100
Table 7.11 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 13 First Data Collection) 103
ix
 Table 7.12 Summaryof Fixed ResponseQuestionsin Endpiece(Unit 16) 107
Chapter Eight
Table 8.1 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 2 The Scottish Pupils) 117
Table 8.2 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece
(Unit 2 The Taiwanese Pupils) 117
Table 8.3 The Salts and the pH of Their Solution 121
Table 8.4 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece (Unit 12) 122
Table 8.5 Summary of Fixed ResponseQuestions in Endpiece (Unit 18) 125

x
 ChapterOne

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 The Enormous Significance of Problem Solving in Life

Problem solving happens in every field of human enquiry and form of knowledge.
Typical problems in our life include finding a way to pay the bills, discovering a flat tyre
and wondering what to do about it or finding a shortcut to avoid a traffic jam. In addition,
when confronting social, technological, or political problems, people need to make a
conscious decision and take responsibility for the consequencesof their actions. There
are many problems in areasthat are artistic, philosophical, linguistic, journalistic, legal or
medical. Indeed, these problems have to be solved just as much as those in mathematics,
science and technology. As a result we can say that life is a problem solving process.

Glover et aL (1990) assertedthat most significant real-world problems are ill-defined.

They also tend to be more multi-faceted and open-ended. Such problems rarely have a
single or final solution, most of them only have a variety of possible approachesrather
than an exact outcome. Teachers and schools need to provide many opportunities for
pupils to study these kinds of ill-defined and open-endedproblems and learn how to use
science to solve crucial everyday problems. Indeed, if education is to prepare pupils for
life, then the skills of problem solving, where the problems are open-ended, must be
consideredas an area of high priority.

1.2 The Definition of Problem Solving

Frequently, a problem has been representedas: well-defined, ill-defined; closed or open-

ended. Before exploring the definition of problem solving further in the context of this
project, it is essential to know what is the difference between problem and exercisesand
what is the meaning of well-defined / ill-defined problems and closed / open-ended
problems.

1.2.1 Problems and Exercises

In contrast to real-life problems, most problems presented at school tend to be well-

defined. They tend not to be open-ended and they focus on one right answer. Is this
kind of problem a real problem or just an exercise? It is certainly necessaryto distinguish
between problems and exercises. Hayes (1981) defined a problem as what exists
"whenever there is a gap between where you are now and where you want to be, and you
don't know how to find a way to cross that gap". This approach suggests that if you
know what to do when you read a question, it is an exercise not a problem.

Page 1
 ChapterOne
As Kahney (1986) claimed, the distinction betweenwell-defined
problems and ill-defined
problems is in terms of how well they are defined. In a well-defined problem, the solver
is provided with all the information which including the initial state,
goal state, and what
he calls the operators and operator restrictions at the start of the problem. An
ill-defined
problem is one in which information about either the initial or goal state, or the method of
solution, is incomplete. In short, in ill-defined problems the solver has to define the
problem for himself, that is, the degree of structure depends on the solver's own
knowledge. As regards the closed or open-endedproblem, the former meansthe problem
only has "a unique solution" and the latter meansit may have "a variety of solutions".

In an early study looking mainly at problems that tended to be more like exercises or
applications, Ashmore, Frazer and Casey (1979) classified chemical problems on two
dimensions, namely the nature of the solution required (goal state) and the sources of
inforination (initial state) which must be employed. In their views, a problem situation
ranged from "chemical puzzles" (where there is a unique answer and the information is
given in the problem statement)through to the highest levels of researchwork (where the
answer may not be unique and the information must be generated by observation or
experimentation). They suggestedthat when defining problem solving it must encompass
this wide range of problem situations.

1.2.2 The Definition of Problem Solving

The term of problem solving is defined in the Dictionary of Education (Lawton and
Gordon, 1996) as "a style of teaching or learning where the aim is to encouragepupils to
acquire knowledge and skills in the process of solving problems rather than simply
leaming about how other people have solved such problems".

Different writers have defined problem solving in a variety of ways. According to

Wheatley (1984), problem solving is defined broadly as "what you do when you don't
know what to do". Gagne (1977) statedthat problem solving can be viewed as a thinking
by
process which the leamer discovers a combination of previously learned rules that he
can apply to solve a novel problem; it is also a processthat yields new learning. Ashmore
et al. (1979) defined problem solving as the result of application of knowledge and
procedures to a perceived problem. Spanish academics Gil Perez and Martinez
Torregrosa (1983) saw problem solving as a scientific investigative task in their research
work in physics. Mayer (1997) viewed problem solving as almost synonymous with
thinking. Ausubel (1978) defined problem solving as a form of meaningful discovery
learning, but not a completely autonomous discovery. He insisted that no frequently
practised procedure or strategy could be called problem solving. In fact, problem solving
is a type of learning in which problem conditions and desired objectives are substantively
related to existing cognitive structure.
Page 2
 ChapterOne
In this project, problem solving is defined as "when a person
encounters an open-ended
or unfamiliar situation, problem solving is the processwhere the person usesknowledge
and thinking skills to reach a solution".

Other viewpoints about problem solving from within the Scottish educational
system
have been proposed. The Scottish Qualifications Authority (1997) set up a list
of
Problem Solving Abilities to analyse what pupils need to be able to do for success
in
Problem Solving. The abilities assessedare listed as follows:

Selectinginformation
Presenting information
Selectingprocedures
Concluding and explaining
Prediction and generalising

While each of these abilities is frequently required in problem solving, collectively they
cannot claim ftilly to enable a student to undertake any possible problem solving. There
are clearly definable gaps in the list. For example, selecting procedures implies that
procedures are known whereas in most open ended problems such as real life problems,
procedures need to be developed. The list certainly seems to be somewhat limited and
selective.

It is necessary to examine whether these Problem Solving Abilities can be seen as

comprehensive and duly reflect the essenceof problem solving. In many examination
papers, certain questions are identified by the examiner as testing problem solving skills.
Looking at many of these questions would leave the observer with the impression that
the questions do not really test problem solving but demonstrate pupil abilities to apply
knowledge in a routine way. They could be described as algorithmic in nature. The most
clear examples occur in mathematics where problems are really just exercises - routine
solutions being achieved by the use of learned algorithms. A typical example from
science illustrates the kind of problems that are most frequently found.

The following question (overleaf) comes from a previous examination paper (Standard
Grade Chemistry, 1996) and the examiner identified the question as testing problem
solving skills.

Page 3
 ChapterOne

Coloured solutions can be madefrom fruits andflowers.

The colours of these solutions can be affected by pH.

pH

Solution Less than 7 7 Greater than 7

A hydrangea pink blue yellow

B marigold orange orange orange

C rose pink pink yellow

D strawberry red red green

(a) Identify the solution which gives a different colour with hydrochloric acid
and with sodium chloride solution.
(b) Identify the solution which is not suitable for showing the difference between
an acid and an alkali.

To reach an answer for the question, pupils just compare the colours in different pH and
the solution becomes quite obvious. It is not a real problem but just an opportunity for
pupils to demonstrate an application of knowledge or skills in a routine way. Indeed,
little chemistry knowledge is required: the question is nearly just a test of logic.

1.3 Problem Categories

Problems have been categorised in several different ways. Greeno and Simon (1978,
1988) suggesteda four-part typology of problems:

(1) Problems of transformation: the problem-solving process was

described as "searching through a set of possibilities. "
(2) Problems of arrangement: they were regarded as design problems and the
problem-solving process was described as "narrowing the set of

possibilities. "
(3) Problems of inducing structure: the problem-solving process was described as
"finding a general principle or structure."
(4) Evaluation of deductive arguments: they viewed that "psychological analyses
provide no evidence for a belief in deductive reasoning as a category of
thinking processes different from other thinking processes."

They also pointed out that not all problems can be neatly classified into one of these
types. Instead, some problems include aspectsof several types of problems.

Page 4
 ChapterOne
A more thorough classification of problem types has been
made by Johnstone (1993).
He suggested that there are three variables associated
with all problems: the data
provided, the method to be used and the goal to be reached. By looking at the extremes
where each variable is either known or unknown, he came up with eight problem types.
The eight types of problem are shown as below (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Classification of Problems (Johnstone, 1993)

Type Data Methods Goals/ Skills Bonus

Outcomes

I Given Familiar Given Recall of algorithms

2 Given Unfamiliar Given Looking for parallels to known methods

3 Incomplete Familiar Given Analysis of problem to decide what

ftirther dataare required

4 Incomplete Unfamiliar Given Weighing up possible methods and

then deciding on data required

5 Given Familiar Open Decision making about appropriate

goals. Exploration of knowledge
networks

6 Given Unfamiliar Open Decisions about goals and choicesof

appropriate methods. Exploration of
knowledge and techniquenetworks

7 Incomplete Familiar Open Once goals have been specified by the

student,these data are seento be
incomplete

8 Incomplete Unfamiliar Open Suggestionof goals and methods to get

there; consequentneed for additional
data. All of the above skills

Type I and 2 are the "normal" problems usually encountered in textbooks and exam
papers. Type I is of the algorithmic nature and can be regarded as an "exercise". Types
3 and 4 are more complex, with type 3 seeking data while type 4 requiring very different
reasoning from that used in types I and 2. Type 5 to 8 have open goals, and are very
demanding. Indeed, the type 8 problem is the nearest to real life problems but not
necessarily more difficult than any other type. In fact, Johnstonenever intended that the
eight types would be seen as hierarchical. Thus, he did not imply that anyone proceeds
from type I to type 8 as a kind of development in problem solving. This is a most useful
classification, being simple and relatively easy to apply and understand. Therefore, it is
considered as one way to sort out problem types in this project.

Page 5
 ýqq

Chapter One

1.4 Problem Solving and The Bloom Taxonomy

In Scottish school syllabusestoday at StandardGrade (ages 14-16),

problem solving is a
specific outcome that is frequently listed. For example, in all the science syllabuses
(Scottish Qualifications Authority, 1997) as well as syllabuses in many other
areas(like
Computing, Home Economics, Technology, Social and Vocational Skills), problem
solving
is a listed outcome attracting a significant proportion of the marks for final accreditation.

In previous syllabuses (Scottish Examination Board, 1962) such as the Ordinary Grade
(discontinued in the early 1970s), a common feature was to use the Bloom Taxonomy
(1956) as a basis for describing educational outcomes. In this taxonomy, Bloom described
six cognitive skills:

Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge

The tendency is to assumethat these six skills are hierarchical. Thus, for example, the
skill of application depends on being able to comprehend relevant knowledge, while
evaluation dependedon the use of the five other skills. Frequently, the "top" three skills
are described as "higher order skills" (Garrat, 1998), implying that these skills are more
in
advanced some way when compared to the "lower" three skills. Perhapsthese three
skills are one way of thinking about problem solving in that, in problem solving that is
not algorithmic, the skills of analysis, synthesisand evaluation may be very important.

Bloom has pointed out that problems requiring knowledge of specific facts are generally
answered correctly more than problems requiring knowledge of the universals and
abstractions in a field. Moreover, problems requiring analysis and synthesis are more
difficult than problems requiring comprehension. It is possible to look at the Bloom
taxonomy (Figure 1.1, overleaf) in an alternative way. In other words, this does NOT
assume that the skills are hierarchical. Instead, knowledge is seenas the basis for any of
the other five skills.

It is possible to use this modification of Bloom's taxonomy as a way to describeproblem

solving. For example, the solving of algorithmic problems can be thought of as an
application where the pupil is applying some learned procedure using new data. More
open ended, real-life problems can be thought of as one or more of analysis, synthesisand
evaluation. The to
important point note, however, is that all these cognitive skills depend
on knowledge.

Page 6
 ChapterOne

Figure 1.1 An Alternative Model

1.5 The Role of Knowledge in Problem Solving

Psychologists view that knowledge is at the core of human cognition. It not only
underlies all cognitive activities but also influences problem solving. According to Glover
et al. (1990), a strong assertion was proposed that problem solving is knowledge based.
However, having knowledge does not ensure problem-solving skills. Furthermore, they
also pointed out that three types of knowledge are important to undertake complex tasks
such as problem solving. These three types of knowledge are described as follows.

(1) Domain-specific knowledge: it is knowledge specific to performance of a

particular task.
(2) General knowledge: it refers to knowledge that is not domain-specific,
but essential to utilisation of domain-specific information.
(3) Strategic knowledge: it focuses on how domain-specific and general
knowledge should be organised and sequencedfor effective use.

Mayer (1997) identified five kinds of domain-specific knowledge, which are necessaryfor
solving mathematical story problems. These are listed below.

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 ChapterOne

(1) Linguistic knowledge: recognising words, parsing sentences,etc.

(2) Semantic knowledge: knowledge of the world relevant to the
problem.
(3) Schematic knowledge: knowledge of problem types.
(4) Procedural knowledge: knowledge of the algorithms necessaryfor
problem solution.
(5) Strategic knowledge: techniques for using types of knowledge and
heuristics.

1.6 The Aims of this Project

The aim is to explore problem solving with school pupils of ages 14-17. Thesepupils are
following Chemistry courses at Standard Grade or Higher Grade. It is recognised that
there may be many factors that influence successin solving problems of a non-algorithmic
nature. One of these is likely to be knowledge and how it is used. On this basis, the
following questionsare raised:

1. If pupils do not have the key chemistry knowledge, problem solving will be more or
less impossible. Does the way the knowledge is gained and stored affect successin
problem solving?

2. Sometimes,solving a problem may needto bring severalpieces of knowledge together.

A problem solver may be hindered if these pieces of knowledge are not linked or are
not linked in the correct way. Are pupils able to create a pathway or make
appropriate linkages between islands of knowledge?

3. Pupils' confidence is likely to be important when they encounter new types of

problem, especially when the given data are ambiguous and the method of approachis

unfamiliar. Is it to
possible minimise the effects of lack of confidence which might
hinder problem solver success?

In fact, many other factors will be involved in influencing successin problem solving.
Limitations in working memory space as well as psychological factors such as field-
independenceand divergence may be important. In seeking to explore the way that long
term memory may influence problem solving success, those other fctors will be
minimised by group work.

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 ChapterTwo

Chapter Two

Theories of Learning and Problem Solving

In a sense, life is all about solving problem, problems which are open
ended in some
measure. In solving such problems, experienceis gained and learning can take place. It is,
therefore, reasonable that learning theories may have a major contribution to make in
understanding how problem solving skills are developing. However, many theories have
been developed in learning contexts that are very different from the open-endedtype
of
situation envisaged here. Therefore, in reviewing briefly contributions from learning
theories, only those models which can be seen to be linked to open-ended problem
solving situations are discussed and the contributions to understanding learning in any
overall sense are not discussed in a comprehensive way. Only those observationsthat
seemrelevant to problem solving are considered.

2.1 What Is Learning?

In general, learning has occurred when our behaviour or attitudes have been changedor
modified. Although learning has various definitions, most psychologists and educators
tend to agreethat "learning is a processby which behaviour is either modified or changed
through experience or training". It refers not only to an outcome that is manifestly
observable, but also to attitudes, feelings, and intellectual processesthat may not be so
obvious (Hamachek,1995). Leaming can also be defined as improvement in behaviour,
but that does not imply that one's behaviour improves from the standpoint of
desirability.

2.2 Two Leading Learning Approaches

Learning theories have been classified into two major groups: Behaviouristic theories and
Cognitive theories. These two groups both agree that learning result in a modification or
changein behaviour basedon experience,but there are two areasof debatewhere they do
not approach learning in the sameway. They have different viewpoints as describing: (1)
how learning occurs; (2) how to best establish the conditions that maximise learning in the
firstplace.

Behaviouristic theories have been known as stimulus -response theories (S-R theories).
For behaviourists, learning is a change in observable behaviour, which occurs through
stimuli and responses. They interpret learning in terms of changes in strength of S-R
connections, associations, habits, or behavioural tendencies. For cognitive theorists,
learning is likely to be holistic. Learning is a process of gaining or changing insights,
outlooks, expectations, or thought patterns. They define learning in terms of
Page 9
 ChapterTwo

reorganisation of perceptual or cognitive fields so as to gain understanding (Bigge and

Shermis, 1999).

Behaviourists do not discuss what is happening internally as learning occurs but

concentrate on the stimuli and the responses. Cognitive theorists, on the other hand, are
involved with the internal mechanisms that bring about learning. In fact, these two
theories both have their value in education. Behaviouristic theories help us to define the
conditions under which particular types of learning must be broken into smaller subunits.
Cognitive theories help us understandthe need for developing a broad cognitive structure
in coping with specific learning tasks.

2.3 Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

JeanPiaget (1896-1980) is one of the best well-known developmental psychologists. His

most important contribution is the "theory of cognitive development" which was
obtained from the detailed observationsof his own children.

2.3.1 Stages of Development

As he defined, there are four stagesof cognitive developmentnamed:

(1) sensori-motor stage (age 0-2): children using grasp, suck or look at
objects to develop their internal representation.
(2) pre-operational stage (age 2-7): at this stage, children can remember,
imagine and pretend.

(3) concrete operational stage (age 7-11): during this stage, children
begin to learn to handle the basics of logical thought but still relied on
the real concrete objects. That is, they can perform mental operations
with concrete materials but not with abstract possibilities.
(4) formal operations stage (age 11 plus): at this stage, pupils are
mentally able to solve abstract problems; their logical processes move
into abilities to handle abstract ideas with the formation of hypotheses.

All children develop their cognitive structure (construct their own knowledge) through
these stagesin the same order but not at the same rate. As each stage unfolds, the pupil
is able to understanda more complex view of the world.

One extremely important Piagetian concept which is useful in education is "equilibrium".

Cognitive development can be seen as a period of dis-equilibrium followed by adaption
when the child changes his or her present cognitive structure to fit a new environment.
The process of adaptation occurs through two complementary mechanisms: assimilation

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 ChapterTvvo

and accommodation. In Piaget's view, the child is seen as an organism growing in an

environment that influences development. The child adapts to surroundings, absorbing
(he calls assimilation) what is required for cognitive growth and changing
(accommodation) behaviour as necessary (Hyde, 1970). He viewed that
cognitive
development is a logical series of what he calls "equilibrations" which
are constant
adjustments of the balance between assimilation and accommodation (Flavell, 1963). In
Novak's study (1978), he also suggested the accommodation process takes
place
simultaneously with the assimilation process, when the new experiences lead to the
modification and alteration of the leamer's thought patterns.

Piaget regardedlearning as an activity with that stagesof cognitive developmentwhich are

biologically determined and that cannot be changed. Among those four stagesof cognitive
development, only the latter two stages(3 and 4) are significant in secondaryeducation.
At the age of some of the pupils involved in this project discussed (ages 14-17), pupils
are likely to be operating cognitively with the formal stage at various levels of
development. This may mean that the handling of abstract ideas and the ability to pose
alternative ways of looking at information may not be well developed. Indeed, there is
evidence that first year university students are not necessarily operating fully at the
formal stagealthough they might be capableof it (Herron, 1975).

2.3.2 The Validity of Piaget's Theory

Although Piaget's development theory provides an underpinning framework for

education, his findings are limited in that they describe children's thinking and reasoning
at the concrete operational level, with only a few descriptions bordering on the formal
operational stage (Bliss, 1995). Thus, there has been many doubts about the validity of
Piaget's development theory. Critics of Piaget have noted his boundaries are far too rigid,
his conclusions being basedon poor sampling. It appearsthat the child's experienceand
environment are far more powerful influence on their cognitive development than Piaget
allowed (Bruner, 1996). Recently, Bliss (1995) makes a clear point that three challenges
to Piaget are particularly relevant to scienceeducation, they are:

(a) queries about the appropriateness of the description of 'formal

":
operations many educators have argued that the formal operational
stage did not describe appropriately the thinking and reasoning of most
secondary school pupils.
(b) the realisation of the importance of domain specific knowledge,
rather than general operational schemes;
(C) the realisation of the importance of the socio-cultural context of
learning, that is the situatedness of learning.

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 ChapterTwo

Such questions have been examined by many researchers. For instance,the

results from
Wason's studies (1966,1978,1984) have shown that even highly educated
adults
perform badly on tasks involving abstract hypothetical thinking. Keil (1986) and Carey
(1985) saw adults as different from children mainly by knowing more, not by possessing
different general cognitive structures. Carey claimed further that once domain specific
knowledge have been studied in children's own right, then it would possible to sort
out
the nature of general development and its constraints.

The importance of the socio-cultural context of leaming is acceptedand it is influencedby

Vygotsky's (1974) ideas. A typical example is from Wood's study (1991), he followed
Lave, Murtaugh and Rocha's idea: children's strategies for solving "Similar problems"
depends on the environment where they encountered the problems, and suggestedthat
when adults and children in different context (e.g. home and school) doing similar things,
the processes involved are dissimilar. This suggests that problem solving skills are
context dependentand are not generic in nature.

Similarly, Fox (1994) also reported that there are two critical issuesinvolved with Piaget'
theory. Firstly, it can be argued that many of changes observed by Piaget are basically
changes in children's thinking due to developments in their language. On the contrary,
Piaget believed that it is the cognitive structure changes first and the language
development just stems from the changesin cognitive development. The secondissueis
whether the four stages are an accurate reflection of children's cognitive development.
Bruner's (1959) believes that there are other stagesof development once a child reaches
11. However, although such criticisms emerged,Piaget still has to be consideredas one of
the outstanding cognitive and developmentalpsychologist of all time.

2.4 Lev Sernyonovich Vygotsky: Language and Thought

The Russian psychologist, Vygotsky (1974), found that social and cultural interaction
was the key to success in learning. He rejected the view that intelligence was fixed. On
the contrary, he claimed that all children have a potential for development in collaboration
with others. His well-known social-cognitive theory is characterisedby three underlying
themes: (a) the importance of culture; (b) the role of language; (c) the idea of a zone of
proximal growth.

Vygotsky thought that human learning had a social characteristic and that children grew
into the intellectual life of their peers. When children interact with more capablepeers or
adults, under these people's assistance they will be able to solve more problems on their
own. Culture obviously plays an important role. As regards "language", he stressedthat
children begin to use language, not only as a means to communicate with others, but also
to plan and guide their own activities.
Page 12
 ChapterTwo

In his book "Language and Thought", Vygotsky (1974) proposed the idea of "the Zone
of
Proximal Development (ZPD)" and defined it as "the discrepancy betweena child's
actual
mental age and the level he reaches in solving problems with assistance". By giving
harder problems to two aged 8 children and providing them with some slight
assistance,
he discovered that one child could, in cooperation, solve problems designed for twelve-
year-old, while the other could not go beyond problems intended for nine-year-old. This
result suggestedthat every child has his or her own "zone ofproximal development".This
refers to potential for learning, given assistanceby others. In addition, it has also been
shown by Vygotsky that a child with a larger zone of proximal developmentwill do much
better in school than do others.

It seemsto be likely that the idea of "the zone of proximal development" is relevant to
group problem solving where one more experiencedindividual could move othersforward
in understandingincreasing levels of abstractness.

2.5 Cognitive Theories of Learning

In cognitive models of learning, the learner is seen as an active processor of information

and cognitive approaches to learning are more concerned with ways to help students
become more effective processors of information. This is in marked contrast to the
behaviourists' view, where they regard the learner as a passive recipient whose leaming is
automatically shaped by practice and reinforcement (Mayer, 1992). In fact, these two
theories both have an important value in education.

Within a cognitive framework, the understanidng of leaming has shifted gradually.

Hamachek (1995) has provided a clear description about this evolution. Based on how
animals learned, human leaming was first seen as response acquisition. At this time,
studentswere perceived as passive beings whose learning was influenced by the rewards
and punishment which controlled and given by teachers. In 1950sand 1960s,a new view
of learning emerged that of learning as knowledge acquisition. It emphasised how

students acquired knowledge instead of focusing on students' responses to new

information. Afterwards, because many educational psychologists began to do a large
amount of research on how learning occurs in an actual classroom setting, the cognitive
theory became matured in the 1970s and 1980s to its current status. The emphasis
changed to knowledge it
construction, concerns a person capable of controlling his or her

own cognitive processes during learning. Learning is not merely responding to new
information, nor is it just acquiring new information; it is also constructing new
knowledge. Therefore, the most important teacher's responsibility is to help studentsto
process new material in in to its
meaningful ways order encourage storage in long-term

memory.

Page 13
 ChapterTwo

There are three theorists who have been prominent in advancing the cognitive
point of
view: Jerome Bruner, David Ausubel, and Robert Gagne. The first two have a significant
contribution understandingproblem solving and are discussedbriefly.

2.6 Jerome Bruner: Discovery Learning

Bruner's study integrates knowledge from biology, anthropology, linguistics, philosophy,

and sociology. He views learning as involving three simultaneous processes: (a)
acquisition of new information; (b) transformation of knowledge; (c) check of the
pertinence and adequacyofknowledge. His researchin the development of mind hasbeen
greatly influenced by JeanPiaget and Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky. However, he doesnot
accept Piaget's idea of "stages" of human development. In an autobiography (Bruner,
1983), he stated:

"It never occurred to me to believe in stages of development in the Piagetian

sense. There was always some way in which anything could be made clear to
them, given patience, willing dialogue, and the power of metaphor. "

He took a different approach to cognitive psychology than that of Piaget. In his learning
theory (Bruner, 1986), development of thinking was seenas a function of experienceand
apparently independent of maturational factors. The key concept was "representation".
A person's representations collectively constitute that person's model of reality. There
are three distinct modes of representation of reality: enactive, iconic and symbolic. The
enactive mode of representation is highly manipulative in character. It consists of
knowing some aspect of reality without the use of imagery, i. e. "knowing" how to do
something (for example, a child knows how to ride a bike). In the iconic mode, the
representation is based upon internal visual imagery that is governed by principles and
techniques such as filling in, completing and extrapolating knowledge from available
sensory experience to make transformations in perceptual organisation. As a person
approaches adolescence, language becomes increasingly important as a medium of
thought. The person thereby uses symbolic representations (mathematics and language)
that are based upon an abstract and more flexible system of thought. A person will
increasehis or her knowledge and understandingby using thesethree modestogether.

Bruner also places emphasison the role of the teacher in learning. The role of the teacher
is to help children to focus on the key concepts of what they are learning, and construct it
in their own way. He treats discovery as it relates to a given culture and he prefers the
term problem solving rather than discover Y in discussions of creative learning (from
"some elements of discovery", 1966). One major aspect of Bruner's contribution in the
is be helped by they to find
context of this project the way individuals can others as seek
solutions to problems.
Page 14
 Chapter Two

2.7 David Ausubel: Meaningful Learning

Ausubel has made a major contribution in learning, the main idea in his theory is the
role
of prior knowledge in learning. This idea can be seen in his early book that "the most
importantfactor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organisation
of the
learner's present knowledge" (Ausubel, 1963). In the past, classroom learning
can be
located along two dimensions: the rote-meaningful dimension and the reception-discovery
dimension. However, much confusion has been generated by regarding all reception
learning as rote, and all discovery learning as meaningful. The clear distinction between
these four kinds of learning was made by Ausubel (1978).

2.7.1 Reception and Discovery Learning

Reception and discovery learning are two quite different kinds of processes. In reception
leaming, the content of what is to be learned is presentedto the leamer, either by teachers
or by written materials in its final form. All the learner has to do is to intemalise or
incorporate the content into his or her cognitive structure to learn and remember it. In
fact, reception learning in schools is mainly associatedwith didactic forms of teaching
(Ausubel and Robinson, 1969). Generally, the teacher presentsthe whole content to the
students in some coherent form, thus the students do not need to in
engage any real
independent discovery learning. On the other hand, with discovery learning, the main
content to be learned is not presentedto the learner but must be discovered by the learner
before it can be incorporated meaningfully into his or her cognitive structure. It means
the learner has to undertake some kind of mental activity such as rearrangement,
reorganisation or transformation of the given material to rebuild their cognitive structure.

Concerning the confusion which emergedbetweenthesetwo dimensions: rote-meaningful

and the reception -discovery, Ausubel (1961) stated that both reception and discovery
learning can be classified either as rote or as meaningful learning depending upon what
happensafter the content to be learned is presentedto the learner (see figure 2.1).

As regards the relationship between discovery learning and problem solving, it was
thought that discovery learning was a psychologically more involved process than
reception learning, since the individual in
engages a problem solving stage (Ausubel and
Robinson, 1969).

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 ChapterTwo

2.7.2 Meaningful and Rote Learning

In Ausubel's view, the basis of meaningful learning is the quality and organisationof what
the learner already knows. On the other hand, rote learning occurs if the learner lacks the
relevant prior knowledge necessary for making the learning task meaningful. The
following criteria were used to describe the circumstancesthought most likely to produce
rote learning (Ausubel and Robinson, 1969):
(1) the material to be learned lacks logical meaningfulness;
(2) the learner lacks the relevant ideas in his own cognitive structure;
(3) the individual lacks a meaningful learning set.

In summary, "meaningful learning occurs when the learner's appropriate existing

knowledge interacts with the new learning. Rote learning of the new knowledge occurs
when no such interaction takesplace" (West and Fensham, 1974).

Ausubel believed that successful learning occurs when new material is linked with pre-
existing knowledge is
and concepts, and contrasted with "rote leaming", which doesnot
link new information to old cognitive structure and is therefore not made meaningftil. He
defined three important conditions which must exist before meaningful learning could take
place (Ausubel and Robinson, 1969):
(1) the material itself must be relatable to some hypothetical, cognitive
structure in a nonarbitrary and substantive fashion;

(2) the learner must process relevant ideas which relate to the material;
(3) the learner must process the intent to relate these ideas to cognitive
structure in a nonarbitrary and substantive fashion.

Meaningful JL
Clarification of Well designed Scientific research
Learning (new music or
relationships audio-tutorial
between concepts instruction architecture)

Lectures or most School Most routine

textbook presentations laboratory work "research" or
intellectual production

Multiplication Applying Trial-and-error

Rote
tables formulas to "puzzle " solutions
Learning
solve problems
.4

Reception Guided Discovery Autonomous

Learning Learning Discovery
Learning
Figure 2.1 Reception Learning and Discovery Learning (Ausubel, 1978)

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 ChapterTwo

2.7.3 The Implication of Ausubel's Theory in Problem Solving

Ausubel suggested that previous knowledge and experience influenced future learning
heavily. Although this contribution has been considerable in the context of classroom
teaching, an important aspect does relate to problem solving. What the individual knows
and how that information has been learned and is stored in his or her memory is likely to
be critical in successin problem solving

2.8 Information Processing Models of Learning

The way that information is processed in learning has been summarised in the model
proposed by Johnstone (Figure 2.2). In this, the learner is seen to view new events,
observations and instructions through a perception filter which is influenced by what is
already stored in the long term memory. In this way, the leamer selects and interprets
new information in termsof what he/shealreadyknows.
Perception
Long Term Memory
Filter Working Memory Space
Do=

Uw Storage
nte rpr etiing
IInterpreting ng
Events Sometimes
Rearranging
R iing
ng
ea ' branched
Obse CComp
mpari]
ning g
Instructions Sometimes as
Storage
separate
reparat iion
P rp on fragments
------------------

Figure 2.2 Information Processing Model (Johnstone, 1997)

The Working Memory Space is of limited capacity and is involved in holding new
information, holding information which is moved from the long term memory store and
processing information. In problem solving, new information and the nature of the
have to be taken the memory space and the selection of what is
problem into working
taken in is influenced by what is already held in the long term memory. Clearly, if a pupil
is trying to solve a problem on an individual basis, then the capacity of the working
(thought to by I unit for each two years of age to be 7±2 in an
memory grow on average
(Miller, 1956) may be a limiting stage. It has to be noted that Miller measured
adult
by recall tests mithout information processing. However, if
working memory space
to
pupils attempt solve problems in groups, then the limitations of the working memory

spacemay be unimportant.

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 ChapterTwo

What is stored in the long term memory and how it is stored will only effect the way the
perception filter operates but will also influence what is transferred into the working
memory space in an attempt to solve a problem. This will be important both for
individual problem solving and group problem solving although, in the latter case,pupils
will be able to influence each other in that it is unlikely that all member of a group will
hold the same information in the same way in long term memory. It is hoped that this
interchange of experience will reveal something of the way the long term memory
influences successin problem solving.

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 ChapterTbree

Chapter Three

Problem Solving

In the last chapter, specific contributions in understanding problem solving from

some
learning models were discussed. Over the years, a huge literature has developed
which
focusseson problem solving. In this chapter, some of this literature is reviewed, with
an
emphasis on those contributions which are seen to be more directly related to problem
solving in the sciencesin general and chemistry in particular. In this, it has to emphasised
that the focus of this project is on open-ended types of problems while much previous
research has considered those types of problems that can be described as exercisesor
applications of algorithms.

3.1 The Developmental Theory of Problem Solving

Early experimental problem-solving tasks were mainly "content free". Most of them
seem to be "gamelike" and people obtained the solution without specialised knowledge.
At that time, a number of General Problem-Solving Strategies(GPS) such as means-ends
analysis, hill climbing and working backward etc. appearedto be taught to students. GPS
was employed in specific subject domains such as physics and mathematics.
Simultaneously, cognitive psychology developeda new direction about problem solving.

Polya (1945) proposed a model of problem solving that consists of four steps:
(1) Understand the problem;
(2) Devise a plan;
(3) Carry out the plan;
(4) Look back.

The initiation of the model is based on solving mathematics problems and it may be
suitable for a routine exercise but is not a model of the way people usually solve real
problems.

A major advance for investigating problem solving came from cognitive psychology. The
information processing theory of human problem solving, initiated by Newell and Simon
(1972), characterisedproblem solving as an interaction between the task environment and
the problem solver. They saw the solver as an Information-Processing System and the

properties of the Inform ati on-Pro cessing System such as the capacity of working

memory and retrieval processes in long-term memory were considered to influence

problem-solving outcomes.

This kind of thinking arises naturally from the Information ProcessingModel (figure 2 of

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 Chapter Three

chapter 2). Indeed, this model suggestssome of the key features

of mental activity that
might be the limiting factors in problem solving ability. Of these, two
are particularly
important. The limited capacity of the working
memory space(where the actual process
of problem solving is occurring) may be a significant factor in that, if the
process of
problem solving involves too much space (in terms of "chunks" of information
or
processing), then problem solving may be impossible. However, if writing and talking
with others is possible, then the effect of this limited capacity may be minimised.
Secondly, the vital importance of previously held knowledge
can be seen. This can
influenced the way the problem solver actually "sees" the
problem as well as the way
such knowledge can be used to solve the problem.

3.2 The Factors Influencing Successin Problem Solving

Gabel and Bunce (1994), in their review of research studies on problem solving in
chemistry for the past 12 years, proposed that students' success in problem solving
appearto be influenced by three factors. These factors are:
The nature of the problem and the underlying concepts on which the
problem is based: it includes the problem style and conceptual
understanding.
(2) Learner characteristics: it includes the individuals' cognitive styles,
developmental levels and their knowledge base.
(3) Learning environment factors: it includes problem-solving strategies/
methods, individual or group activity.

To clarify the factors that influence successful problem solving, this project considered
Gabel and Bunce's suggestionsand tries to build up a broader view of problem solving in
chemistry. In this chapter, what appear to be the most important groups of factors that
would influence pupils' successon problem solving are discussed. The first group is
prior experiences that include prior knowledge base and the emotional experience. The
next group is the effects of cooperative group work. The third group is problem solving
strategies/ methods, including algorithms, conceptual understanding and problem solving
skills. The fourth group covers the factors that arise from the Information-Processing
Model. The fifth group is the individual's cognitive styles, developmental levels and
other factors. Finally, it is important and necessaryto take account of the possibility of
teaching problem solving.

3.3 Prior Experiences and Successful Problem Solving

Prior problem solving experience has been shown by several studies to be important in
determining successful problem solving (Ashmore et al., 1978; Frazer and Sleet, 1984;

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 ChapterThree
Waddling, 1988). The prior experiences include
prior knowledge and emotional
experience related to the problem solving area.Theseresearchersall employed
a net"vork
to explore the influence of prior experienceon chemistry problem
solving.

Firstly, Ashmore, Frazer and Casey (1979) proposed

a problem-solving network
approach to show the interconnection of pieces of information and to identify all the
information required to solve problems. The networks were derived from breaking down
problems into unitary pieces of information and reassemblingthem to arrive at a solution.
The information appearing in the networks were from three areas:it might be
statedin the
problem, or retrieved from pupils' memory, or by reasoning. They suggestedthat the
network approach could help a teacher to perceive student difficulties in solving
problems. Waddling's study (1988) confirmed that the problem-solving network designed
by students can help teachers understanding the students' thinking patterns. The
networks revealed the factors which prevented the students from problem solving
successfully. Ashmore et al. (1978) finally concluded that the best chancesfor successin
chemical problem solving rest on a combination of (a) a strong background knowledge of
chemistry; (b) a knowledge of problem solving strategiesand tactics; (c) confidence.

A similar study by Frazer and Sleet (1984) used a closed chemistry problem which
involving calculations and broke the problem into a seriesof sub-problemsto identify and
ascertain why some students,who can separatelysolve all the sub-problems,but are still
unable to solve the complete problem. They employed the same network method in
accordance with Ashmore et al. 's approach. The results showed that many of the
studentswho cannot solve a main problem but who are able to solve all its sub-problems
lack a clearly defined plan for solving the problem. It might be due to their lack of
confidence or they become uncertain or confused when they encountered an unfamiliar
term, or when confronted with an unusually long problem. These experiences of
uncertainty may put an excessive burden on their working memory capacitiesand prevent
them from recognising all the steps in the main problem. It is clear that students'
emotional experiences are definitely involved in the process of problem solving.
Although it is a closed problem, the network approach and the prior experiences seem
also to be in
relevant the open-endedproblem.

In Gayford's study (1989), an interesting finding indicated that pupils came to problem-
solving activities with their own experiences and background knowledge that may or may
have been derived from school. For instance, many pupils' previous knowledge
not
loss from the leaves of plants was gained from television,
about enzymes and water
books and their own observations in the environment and this inevitably affected their
in
performance the task.

In a case study of a college chemistry student conducted by Herron and Greenbowe

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 ChapterThree
(1986), the student lacked the ability
of verification (the ability to see if the answer
obtained is reasonable) failed to solve the chemistry problem. She had dIfficulty
when
"she was confronted with unfamiliar
problems that require analysis of the problem to
produce a sensible representation and subsequentuse offamiliar rules in a new
context".
She was described as a "rule learner": she
could apply rules correctly but was unable to
solve problems that required the integration of algebra, chemistry and reasoning. In
conclusion, the authors pointed out that successfulproblem solvers exhibit four kinds of
characteristics:
(1) Have a good command of basic facts and principles.
(2) Are able to construct appropriate representations
ofproblems.
(3) Have the ability to use general reasoning strategies that
permit logical
connections among elements of the problem.
(4) Are able to apply several verification strategies to insure the problem
representation is consistent with the given facts, the solution is logically
sound, the computations are checkedfor errors, and the problem
solved is the problem presented

3.3.1 Prior Knowledge Base and Problem Solving

Frazer (1982) reviewed a sequenceof chemical problem solving research papers. Not
surprisingly, he drew a clear conclusion that chemical problem solving requires chemical
knowledge. However, much work has indicated that students failed to solve problems,
even though they possessedmost of the requisite conceptualknowledge (Sumfleth, 1988;
Shaibu, 1992; Adigwe, 1993;Lee, 1996).

Sumfleth (1988) administered three tests, which included an explanation test, an

achievement test and a connectivity test, with students aged 16+ years and focused on
two areas of chemistry: structure-property relations and the setting-up of formulae. The
results showed that the students had a basic knowledge of chemical terms but did not
recognise relationships and were unable to apply their knowledge. It was concluded that
the knowledge of terms is a necessary, but not sufficient, prerequisite for successful
problem solving. Shaibu (1992) used structured paper-and pencil tests in mechanistic
organic chemistry to identify the relationship between the conceptual knowledge of
science students and their ability to use such knowledge to solve contextual problems. It

was found out that students failed to solve the problems, even though they possessed
the conceptual knowledge. There was a weak link between the students'
most of requisite
possessionof requisite conceptual knowledge and their problem-solving proficiency.

In an large study, Adigwe (1993) employed five tests to identify some correlates of
students' performances in chemical problem-solving of an algorithmic nature at the

Page 22
 ChapterThree
(1986), the student lacked the ability of
verification (the ability to see if the answer
obtained is reasonable) failed to solve the chemistry problem. She had difficulty
when
"she was confronted with unfamiliar problems that
require analysis of the problem to
produce a sensible representation andsubsequentuse offamiliar rules in a new context".
She was described as a "rule learner": she could
apply rules correctly but was unable to
solve problems that required the integration of algebra, chemistry and reasoning. In
conclusion, the authors pointed out that successfulproblem solvers exhibit four kinds of
characteristics:
(1) Have a good command of basic facts and principles.
(2) Are able to construct appropriate representations ofproblems.
(3) Have the ability to use general reasoning strategies that permit logical
connections among elements of the problem.
(4) Are able to apply several verification strategies to insure the problem
representation is consistent with the given facts, the solution is logically
sound, the computations are checkedfor errors, and the problem
solved is the problem presented

3.3.1 Prior Knowledge Base and Problem Solving

Frazer (1982) reviewed a sequenceof chemical problem solving research papers. Not
surprisingly, he drew a clear conclusion that chemical problem solving requires chemical
knowledge. However, much work has indicated that students failed to solve problems,
even though they possessedmost of the requisite conceptualknowledge (Sumfleth, 1988;
Shaibu, 1992; Adigwe, 1993; Lee, 1996).

Sumfleth (1988) administered three tests, which included an explanation test, an

achievement test and a connectivity test, with students aged 16+ years and focused on
two areas of chemistry: structure-property relations and the setting-up of formulae. The

results showed that the students had a basic knowledge of chemical terms but did not
recognise relationships and were unable to apply their knowledge. It was concluded that
the knowledge of terms is a necessary, but not sufficient, prerequisite for successftil
problem solving. Shaibu (1992) used structured paper-and pencil tests in mechanistic
to identify the relationship between the conceptual knowledge of
organic chemistry
science students and their ability to use such knowledge to solve contextual problems. It

was found out that students failed to solve the problems, even though they possessed
the conceptual knowledge. There was a weak link between the students'
most of requisite
possessionof requisite conceptual knowledge and their problem-solving proficiency.

In an large study, Adigwe (1993) employed five tests to identify some correlates of
in chemical problem-solving of an algorithmic nature at the
students' performances

Page 22
 Chapter Three

(1986), the student lacked the ability

of verification (the ability to see if the answer
obtained is reasonable) failed to solve the chemistry problem. She had difficulty
when
"she was confronted with unfamiliar problems that
require analysis of the problem to
produce a sensible representation and subsequentuse offamiliar rules in a new context".
She was described as a "rule learner": she could
apply rules correctly but was unable to
solve problems that required the integration of algebra, chemistry and reasoning. In
conclusion, the authors pointed out that successfulproblem solvers exhibit four kinds of
characteristics:
(1) Have a good command of basic facts and
principles.
(2) Are able to construct appropriate representations
ofproblems.
(3) Have the ability to use general reasoning strategies that
permit logical
connections among elements of the problem.
(4) Are able to apply several verification strategies to insure the problem
representation is consistent with the given facts, the solution is logically
sound, the computations are checkedfor errors, and the problem
solved is the problem presented.

3.3.1 Prior Knowledge Base and Problem Solving

Frazer (1982) reviewed a sequenceof chemical problem solving research papers. Not
surprisingly, he drew a clear conclusion that chemical problem solving requires chemical
knowledge. However, much work has indicated that students failed to solve problems,
even though they possessedmost of the requisite conceptualknowledge (Sumfleth, 1988;
Shaibu, 1992; Adigwe, 1993;Lee, 1996).

Sumfleth (1988) administered three tests, which included an explanation test, an

achievement test and a connectivity test, with students aged 16+ years and focused on
two areas of chemistry: structure-property relations and the setting-up of formulae. The
results showed that the students had a basic knowledge of chemical terms but did not
recognise relationships and were unable to apply their knowledge. It was concluded that
the knowledge of terms is a necessary, but not sufficient, prerequisite for successful
problem solving. Shaibu (1992) used structured paper-and pencil tests in mechanistic
organic chemistry to identify the relationship between the conceptual knowledge of
science students and their ability to use such knowledge to solve contextual problems. It

was found out that students failed to solve the problems, even though they possessed
knowledge. There was a weak link between the students'
most of the requisite conceptual
possessionof requisite conceptual knowledge and their problem-solving proficiency.

In an large study, Adigwe (1993) employed five tests to identify some correlates of
students' performances in chemical problem-solving of an algorithmic nature at the

Page 22
 ChapterThree
(1986), the student lacked the ability of verification (the
ability to see if the answer
obtained is reasonable) failed to solve the chemistry problem. She had difficulty when
"she was confronted with unfamiliar problems that
require analysis of the problem to
produce a sensible representation and subsequentuse offam iliar rules in a new context"-
She was described as a "rule learner": she could apply
rules correctly but was unable to
solve problems that required the integration of algebra, chemistry and reasoning. In
conclusion, the authors pointed out that successfulproblem solvers exhibit four kinds of
characteristics:
(1) Have a good command of basic facts and principles.
(2) Are able to construct appropriate representations ofproblems.
(3) Have the ability to use general reasoning strategies that permit logical
connections among elements of the problem.
(4) Are able to apply several verification strategies to insure the problem
representation is consistent with the given facts, the solution is logically
sound, the computations are checkedfor errors, and the problem
solved is the problem presented

3.3.1 Prior Knowledge Base and Problem Solving

Frazer (1982) reviewed a sequenceof chemical problem solving research papers. Not
surprisingly, he drew a clear conclusion that chemical problem solving requires chemical
knowledge. However, much work has indicated that students failed to solve problems,
even though they possessedmost of the requisite conceptual knowledge (Sumfleth, 1988;
Shaibu, 1992; Adigwe, 1993;Lee, 1996).

Sumfleth (1988) administered three tests, which included an explanation test, an

achievement test and a connectivity test, with students aged 16+ years and focused on
two areas of chemistry: structure-property relations and the setting-up of formulae. The

results showed that the students had a basic knowledge of chemical terms but did not
recognise relationships and were unable to apply their knowledge. It was concluded that
the knowledge of terms is a necessary, but not sufficient, prerequisite for successful
Shaibu (1992) used structured paper-and pencil tests in mechanistic
problem solving.
to identify the relationship between the conceptual knowledge of
organic chemistry
to knowledge to solve contextual problems. It
science students and their ability use such
was found out that students failed to solve the problems, even though they possessed
the knowledge. There was a weak link between the students'
most of requisite conceptual
possessionof requisite conceptual knowledge and their problem-solving proficiency.

In an large study, Adigwe (1993) employed five tests to identify some correlates of
of an algorithmic nature at the
students' performances in chemical problem-solving

Page 22
 ChapterThree

secondary school level. Four factors [attitude, logical thinking ability (proportional
reasoning ability), knowledge of chemistry, and knowledge of mathematics] were
considered to play some role in problem solving in this study. These five tests are
describedas below:

(1) A ftee response achievement test (FRT): to assessthe students'

capabilities to solve chemical problems on stoichiometry.
(2) A structured response test (SRT): to assessthe students' knowledge
of
the relevant chemistry.
(3) A mathematics test (MST): to assessthe students' knowledge of the
relevant mathematical operation.
(4) Attitude test (ATQ).- to assessthe students' attitudes towards chemical
problem-solving.
(5) A modified version of the Group Test of Logical Thinking (GTLT): to
assessthe students' capabilities to do proportional reasoning.

The results indicated that the students' logical thinking ability and knowledge of
mathematics appearedto be the crucial variables in chemical problem solving. The author
stated that, although the significant relationships of the relevant knowledge to
performances in problem solving have been proved, it does not guarantee that the
knowledge of the domain alone could lead to successfulproblem solving. The procedural
knowledge and the reasoning skills that go with it are also important factors. He also
suggestedthat the studentsmust have acquired logical thinking ability and the capability
for basic mathematical operations before they are introduced to stoichiometry. However,
although logical thinking ability and the capability for basic mathematical operations
played an important role is suitable for stoichiometry problems, it does not mean it could
be applied to other non-mathematicsproblems.

3.3.2 Knowledge, Learning and Problem Solving

Science is hard to learn. Johnstone(1991) suggestedthat chemistry, physics and biology

each contain at least three levels of knowledge: the macroscopic, the microscopic and the
symbolic level. It is hard for pupils to learn if they have to learn these three aspectsof
knowledge simultaneously. Past research studies indicates that students have great
difficulty with the microscopic level and develop many scientific misconception
(Nakhleh, 1992; Garnett et al. 1995). This may have significance in problem solving in
chemistry in that, in
if a problem requires confidence moving between all three levels,
then a source of difficulty has been introduced at the outset which hinders successful
problem solving.

Chandran et al. (1987) examined the role of four cognitive factors, which are formal
reasoning ability, prior knowledge, field dependence / independence and memory

Page 23
 ChapterThree

capacity, on chemistry achievement of Australia grade 11 students. The results indicated

that prior knowledge and formal reasoning ability were both significantly related to
chemistry achievement. Interestingly, they found that field dependence/ independence
and memory capacity played no significant role in chemistry achievement. The failure to
observe any effect arising from field dependence / independencemight be affectedby the
sample used, the chemistry tasks and/or the measurementsmade. However, the finding
that prior knowledge is a significant predictor of achievement in chemistry is consistent
with Ausubel's (1978) meaningful learning theory.

In looking at problem solving in chemistry, it is easy to appreciate that a lack of

appropriate chemical knowledge will hinder problem solving ability. Lychcott (1990)
studied high school chemistry students as they solve problems about mass in chemical
reactions. The evidence revealed that students who solved simple mass-massproblems
correctly had woefully inadequate chemical knowledge. He concluded that most
chemistry students when faced with an unusual or more difficult problem could be
expected to fail if chemistry instruction did not provide a set of rules to follow or did not
help them understand chemical knowledge during the learning process. If we want our
students to be to
able solve problems, it is essential to help them to understandrequisite
knowledge and avoid just simply possessthis knowledge in a rote fashion. In addition,
Anderson (1993) also suggestedthat bringing together ideas from problem-solving theory
and learning theory can make important progress with respect to understanding how
complex problem-solving skills are learned.

Bodner (199 1) examined the conceptual knowledge that chemistry studentsconstruct

during their undergraduateexperience. The study has yielded some conclusions:
knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learners (Bodner, 1986).
During the learning process, students construct their knowledge but
have difficulty in applying it to other areas;

misconceptions are resistant to instruction;

(3) knowledge is not the same as understanding. Students all too often possess
knowledge without understanding. It was revealed that the same problem may
be solved in varying ways by different individuals due to dissimilar problem
solving steps, strategies, and knowledge.

3.3.3 The Cognitive Structure

The cognitive structure existing in pupils' mind has been considered by many researchers
factor (Kempa Nicholls, 1983; Lee,
as an important which affects problem solving and
1985; Lee et.al. 1996). According to Ausubel's learning theory, meaningful learning
involves effective linking between new knowledge and existing cognitive structure
(Ausubel et.al., 1978). Three aspectsof linkage are important in learning processesin
Page 24
 ChapterThree

science.
In an important study, Kempa and Nicholls (1983) used chemistry achievementtest
and
word association test to explore the relationship between students' cognitive structure
and their problem-solving abilities in the context of chemistry. The term "cognitive
structure" was defined in terms of their ability to solve problems in a particular concept
area. They found that the cognitive structures of good problem-solvers are more complex
and contain more associationsthan those of poor problem- solvers. The strength of links
between different concepts seems important in determining problem-solving behaviour.
It was also revealed that the deficiencies in the cognitive structures of poor problem-
solvers appear predominantly for abstract concepts. Although this study used problems
mainly of an exercise or algorithmic nature, its findings may also apply in more ended
problems.

3.4 The Effects of Cooperative Group Work on Problem Solving

Problem solving is typically not a solitary activity. In our society most problem solving
happen in groups, such as work teams, families and friendship groups. Problem solving
is an inherently cooperative process in which several individuals join together to
accomplish shared goals (Johnson and Johnson, 1975). Thus, if studentswant to become
successful problem solvers, it is necessary that they must learn how to cooperatewith
their partner: talking together and sharing information, exchanging eachother's experience
and generating inferences about data.
The small cooperative group was described by Slavin (1983) as an instructional
environment in which individual and group incentives are used to promote student
engagement in tasks to increase helping behaviours among group members. Several
studies have examined the effects of cooperative group work on science achievementand
learning (Basili and Sanford, 1991; Grant, 1978; Foster, 1981; Kempa and Ayob, 1991,
1995; Tingle and Good, 1990). Before reviewing these studies, it is important to look at
the results of an investigation by Qin and Johnson (1995). This provides a broader view
of cooperative group work in problem solving.

Qin and Johnson (1995) examined 46 studies that were published between 1929 and 1993
to determine the relative impact of cooperative and competitive efforts on problem
solving success. They considered six independent variables during their investigation,

which include:
(1) cooperation versus competition;
(2) the type ofproblem solving tasks that include linguistic, nonlinguistic,
well-defined, and ill-defined problem;
(3) the age ofparticipant;
(4) the year of publication;

Page 25
 Chapter Three
(5) the duration of research study;
(6) methodological quality of study.
There are 63 relevant findings listed in their review
and clear evidence showed that
cooperation promoted greater success with nonlinguistic problems than did competition.
One area is to look at the internal dynamics of groups working
on nonlingulstic problems.
According to the results of their investigation, Qin and Johnson
pointed out that only
Lovelace and McKnight's (1980) study found that cooperative
groups generated more
strategies for solving the problems than did competitors working alone. Nevertheless, the
nonlinguistic problems were mostly mathematical in nature and it is not certain if their
findings can be generalisedto other types of problems.

If the nonlinguistic problems are not mathematics and close to conceptual tasks, are the
cooperative efforts still effective? Basili and Sanford (1991) investigated the conceptual
change of college chemistry students in small cooperative groups. The results provided
evidence that cooperative group work on a concept-focused task can provide a viable
environment for learners to overcome misconceptions in chemistry. It also revealedthat
group discussion could help students clarify their views of science and help them to
develop explicit distinctions between everyday and scientific words. Overall, the
cooperative approach is effective in both mathematical and conceptualproblems.

Referring to the ill-defined problem, Qin and Johnson (1995) said that solving in an ill-
defined problem requires generating a creative or novel representation and procedure
primarily through imagery. The evidence indicated that cooperative efforts resulted in
better performance in these ill-defined problems. This may be due to individuals
exchanging ideas and building a shared representation of the problem through group
discussion.

In general, the past work has so far yielded positive results that cooperative group work
produces higher quality problem solving on a wide variety of problems that require
different cognitive processes to solve. The possible reasons why cooperation may
increase problem-solving success include sharing expertise and insights among
cooperators, the generation of a variety of strategies to solve the problem, increased
ability to translate the problem statement into questions, the development of a shared
cognitive representation of the problem. Additionally, Tingle and Good's (1990) study
of 178 high school students in chemistry provided further evidence that, in most cases,
pupils were able to teach their members by modelling, asking questions, and using
analogies during group discussion. This may increaseproblem-solving success.

Finally, it is important to ask whether age is a factor in enabling cooperative group work
to be successful. Qin and Johnson (1995) concluded that the difference between

cooperative efforts and competitive efforts on problem solving would be greater for older

Page26
 ChapterThree

participants than for younger participants It is may because the problem solving is
complex and often requires the higher-level reasoning: age and experienceplay a vital role
that could affect the ability of reasoning and group interactions.

There is general agreement from many studies that cooperative groups indeed
increase
problem-solving success. Nevertheless, it is still unclear how the internal dynamics
determining cooperative group approach problems. In addition, other factors
may also
influence the effectiveness of cooperation, such as the leadership of group, the
pupils
learning style and developmental level. For instance,Basili and Sanford (1991) found
out
that poor leaders prevented effective discussion by rushing through questions and
imposing their narrow view of the purpose of the task. In this project, the researcher
have tried to encouragepupils to discuss frequently to avoid the poor leader effect.

3.5 Algorithms and Conceptual Understanding

It is clear that students do not always use algorithms to solve problem and, more often,
they need the other skills to reach a solution. As regards the role of algorithms in
problem solving, Bodner (1987) pointed out that algorithms are useful for solving routine
questions or exercisesbut not sufficient for answering exam questionsthat are more likely
to be problems for students. He insisted that there is more to working problems than just
applying algorithms in the correct order. On the other hand, Frank, Baker, and Herron
(1987) argued that algorithms are not necessarily bad and some of them are useful
shortcuts for exercises. However, algorithms may actually prevent understandingwhen
students encounter a real problem. Much depends on how the algorithms are used by
students. They suggestedthat, if a student is able to modify an algorithm or createa new
algorithm, then he or she is making use of algorithms as an efficient tool for unlocking
problems. Therefore, it is necessaryto help to
students use algorithms. How to do this
is much less clear.

Numerous studies have shown that strict adherence to instruction that emphasises
algorithmic problem solving in chemistry does not produce conceptual understanding in

students (Nurrenbern and Pickering, 1987; Sawrey, 1990; Pickering, 1990; Nakhleh, 1993;
Nakhleh and Mitchell, 1993).

Nurrenbern and Pickering (1987) examined how the students do both a traditional
problem on gases and a multiple-choice question that had no mathematical content but

asked for a purely conceptual understanding of gases. The results revealed that students
can solve problems about gases without knowing anything much about the nature of a
gas, and they can solve limiting-reagent problems without understanding the nature of
chemical change. They found little connection between solving an algorithmically-based

Page 27
 ChapterThree

problem and understanding the chemical concept behind that problem. Sawrey (1990)
repeatedthe Nurrenbern and Pickering's experiment with a larger, more uniform group of
students at a well-known university. A similar finding appeared with even the good
performers still having difficulty with the concept questions. It confirmed the
experimental results from Nurrenbern and Pickering with a very different student
population.

Another study by Pickering (1990) also replicated the work of Nurrenbern and Pickering.
He used a conceptual gas question and a traditional gas question to examine whether the
ability to do the conceptual questions was due to some special ability or due to specific
knowledge. The students who enrolled in the freshman chemistry course and followed
into organic chemistry course participated in the research. He concluded that the
difficulty with the conceptual question is the lack of some specific factual knowledge
about gases,not some special ability difference The results also showed that the students
who can successfully solve both gas questions performed slightly better on the organic
final exam.

Nakhleh (1993) constructed five pairs of questions in five specific areas of general
chemistry [(I) ideal gas laws; (2) equations; (3) limiting reagents; (4) empirical
formulas; (5) density] to test the differential performance on conceptual and problem-
solving question. Approximately 1000 first-year students were involved in the study in
four courses: remedial, sciencelengineering major, chemistry major, and honours. The
questions on the ideal gas laws were adapted from studies by Nurrenbern and Pickering
(1987,1990) and Sawrey (1990). The result showed that 85% of the students (N=1090)
could successfully answer the algorithmic gas law question, but only 49% could correctly
answer its conceptual counterpart. As with Nurrenbern and Pickering's study, it was
concluded that, across all levels of student, conceptual problem-solving ability lagged far
behind algorithmic problem-solving ability. Many students can answer an algorithmic
question about a chemical idea but cannot answer a conceptual question dealing with the

sameidea.

Nakhleh and Mitchell (1993) conducted a similar study that involved 60 freshman

chemistry students and was completed in two parts. The first part used paired exam
questions on gas laws, one a conceptual question and the other an algorithmic question,
to identify studentsas being either conceptual or algorithmic problem solvers. The second
interviewed six studentswho were specifically selected, each student worked out the
part
two and an additional pair of stoichiometry questions by verbalisation.
same questions
The results of first part showed that more than 50% of students fall in the low
85% of students are good algorithmic problem solver. The
conceptual category while
is that problems using algorithms does not seem to facilitate
conclusion solving
the underlying concept. The interviews' results indicated that all six
understanding of
Page 28
 ChapterThree

students answered both gas law problems correctly, but most of them used algorithmsto
solve conceptually basedproblems regardlessof their conceptual problem-solving ability.
That is, most students rely on algorithms to solve problems, even problems specially
intended for conceptual solution. The authors finally reaffirmed that current algorithm-
basedteaching doesnot necessarilylead to conceptuallearning.

3.6 General Problem-Solving Strategies and Problem Solving Skills

Successful problem solvers exhibited more effective problem solving skills such as
organisation, persistence, evaluation, heuristics and formal operations than unsuccessful
problem solver (Greenbowe, 1983). In spite of these skills, it has been noted that the
skill of representation is important for solving some difficult problems (Bodner and
Domin, 2000; Greenbowe, 1983).

When students work on a problem, the first step is to find and understand the problem.
If they do not understand a problem at the beginning, it is impossible for them to solve
the problem successfully. Many activities such as imaging, inferencing, decision-making
and retrieving of knowledge from memory frequently have been used to help students
understanding the problem. As Haye (1981) explained, there are two types of
representations which can exist when people try to understand the problem. First, there
is the internal representationthat reflects how people imagine the objects and relations in
his or her mind. The term "internal representation" has also been defined as "information
that has been encoded, modified, and stored in the brain" (Simon, 1978). Another is

external representation: people will create it by drawing sketches or diagrams, or writing

down symbols or equations. To clearly distinguish between internal and external
representations, Bodner and Domin (2000) defined the internal representation as "the
in the internal the problem in his or
way which the problem solver stores componentsof
her mind". As to external representation, they defined it as "physical manifestations of
this information". It may be a sequence of words used to describe an internal

representation, a drawing, or a list of information that captures particular elementsof an

internal representation,or an equation such as PV= nRT.

For some difficult is

problems, an external representation very helpful. Bodner and
Domin's (2000) recent study at university chemistry student level provided significant
evidence. For instance,when studentstried to balancethe following equation:

13- (aq) + S203 2- (aq) -00- 1- ( aq) + S406 2- ( aq)

By using the Lewis structure, studentswere able to understand how Lewis structurescan
be used to explain the products of this reaction. In addition, studentsare more successful

Page 29
 ChapterThree
balancing redox equation by using this
approach. They concluded that one of the
characteristic differences between successful and unsuccessful
problem solvers is the
number and kinds of representationsbrought to the problem. It is
possible that student
performance on problem-solving tasks improves when adding a symbolic
representation
or drawing a diagram, as Bodner and Domin's claim, but will this be as
effective and
significant for secondary school pupils as it is for university students? In fact,
most
school pupils do not appear to know how to use drawing or other representationsto help
themselvesunderstanda difficult chemistry problem at all.

Greenbowe (1983) investigated the variables involved in

chemistry problem solving.
Thirty college chemistry students and one college chemistry
professor solved chemical
stoichiometry problems. He found that successful problem solvers were able to
construct and use an appropriate representation for the problems and their conceptual
understanding influenced the problem representation. It is obvious that conceptual
understanding and representation are reciprocal causation. The stoichiometry problems
have been identified as being very difficult for most school pupils. In the light
of
difficulty, it seems to be practical to use an appropriate representation to
solve some
kind of difficult problems. Therefore, if teachers want pupils to be able to solve these
difficult problems, they might find it is helpful to place emphasison representationskills.

3.7 The Role of Long Term Memory in Problem Solving

Student may learn and understand many science concepts from science courses.
Therefore, it does not guaranteethat they will solve problems successfully. Many factors
may influence the successin problem solving and are discussedat previous sections,such
as working memory overload which has been discussedpreviously. Here, it is essential
to examine the role of long term memory in problem solving. In their literature review,
Gabel and Bunce (1994) suggestedthat "how scienceconceptsare networked in long-tenn
memory, and the ease of transferability to working memory are important conditions
leading to successor failure in problem solving". This is consistent with the arguments
put forward by Ausubel (1978) and is implied explicitly by the Information Processing
Model (see 2.8). It is also supported by the work of Kempa and Nichols (1983).

If school pupils are to be able to solve open ended problems in chemistry, they will
require the necessary chemical knowledge in long term memory. However, how that
knowledge is stored and linked will also be important. Chemical knowledge acquired in
one context may well not be easily accessible to be applied in a different context while
one concept may not be well linked to another, making their meaningful use in problem
solving difficult.

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 ChapterThree
3.8 Cognitive Style and Problem Solving in Science Education

A series of studies of chemistry problem solving by Niaz (1987,1988a, 1988b,

1988c,
1989) included that not only working-memory capacity
as an important variable but also
students' cognitive styles and formal-operational reasoningpatterns.

In science education, the cognitive variable described as Field Independence(FI) / field

Dependence (FD) is regarded as the most important cognitive style. A
person who is
field independentis able to distinguish the key messagefrom the surrounding
inforination
while the filed dependentperson cannot do this so easily. Several studies have looked
at
this variable in relation to problem solving. Four research investigations (Ronning,
McCurdy and Ballinger, 1984; Pirkle and Pallrand, 1988; Lawson and Wollman, 1977;
Squires, 1977) all focused on the field independence/ field dependencewithin science.
These studies were examined by Helgeson (1994) collectively and the evidence from
those studies clearly indicated that high school studentswho are fi eld-independentenjoy
a significant advantageover field-dependentstudentsin solving scienceproblems.

Since many researchesin problem solving focused on problem-solving methods/strategies

and domain specific knowledge, Ronning, McCurdy and Ballinger (1984) proposedthat a
viable theory of problem solving should consider a third component of problem solving:
"individual differences". They adopted the cognitive style as being a 'useful indicator'
and chose the well-known field-independence / field-dependence as the main factor. After
detailed analyses, they found those field-dependent students responded more briefly,
there being more pausesand false starts than did the field-independent students. On the
other hand, field-independent studentswere more likely to attack the problems by keying
on relevant information and they significantly out-performed field-dependent studentson
the problems.

3.9 Problem Solving and Teaching

There are important questions to be posed: Why teach problem solving? Can problem
solving be taught? If so, how can problem solving be taught? It appears from a number
of studies that teachers do believe that problem solving skills can be taught. There is,
however, scant evidence that such skills can be transferred from one context to another.

It has been shown that there is a gap between conceptual understanding and algorithmic
in chemistry students from high school to graduate school (Nakhleh,
problem solving
1993; Bunce and Gabel, 1991; Osbome and Cosgrove, 1983; Bodner, 1991). It might be

caused by the conventional teaching that always f6cusses on correct numerical answer.
There have been several studies providing some insights into the question (Phelps, 1996;

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 Chapter Three
Gayford, 1989).

Phelps (1996) tried to bridge the gap by

altering the instructional method in general
chemistry and implementing it in science major and non-science
major university
students. The approach he used focussed on conceptual problem
solving and the
problem rarely had a numerical answer. The many positive results obtained
indicated
that the nonscience majors' students showed more enthusiasm for the
course and were
less resistant to chemistry and more involved in the
course. The sciencemajors' students
were insecure because this approach was not consistent with their expectation of the
nature of chemistry. According to their prior experience, they believed that chemistry
problems had to have a right answer and that they should know it. However, after
adjusting their expectations, many science majors students appreciated spending more
time developing the concepts.

It would appear that it is possible to changethe instruction method and to adjust

student
expectations, with outcomes that students are able to change their strategies. It seems
clear that if the goal of chemistry instruction is to have students think about and solve
conceptual problems as well as algorithmic problems then the approach to chemistry
instruction must change (Nakhleh and Mitchell, 1993). Two open-ended biology
problem tasks were used in Gayford's study (1989), he suggestedthat a logical approach
to problem solving could form the basis of a model for teaching and assessmentof group
performance in science.

In Tingle and Good's (1990) study, they suggestedthat cooperative grouping is a viable
alternative strategy for chemistry problem solving. The cooperative group could provide
an active environment for students to practice solving problem rather than through
reception learning. If a teacherswant to teach their pupils about problem solving skills, it
is feasible by using cooperative groups to enhance students' problem-solving ability.
Gabel and Sherwood (1983) used four strategiesto teach solving the mole concept, the
gas laws, stoichiometry and molarity problems.

Overall, the evidence from the work discussedsuggeststhat, in a given context, pupils
and students can be given assistance in developing strategies in solving problems.
However, much of this may well be a matter of practice as they gain confidence in the
application of appropriate methods and algorithms. It is much less clear if pupils and
students can be taught how to solve open ended problems. However, it may be that
in
practice such problems raises levels of confidence and generatesa willingness to take
in
risks seeking solutions.

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 ChapterFour

Chapter Four

The Development of Problem Solving Exercises

While it has been establishedthat the skill of problem solving has received a high
profile
in Scottish education as well as in other systems, it has also been noted that the type
of
problems that are usually under consideration are those which could be described as
algorithms. In life, however, problems tend to be much more open-ended, less
quantitative and less well defined.

To explore how pupils approach problems in chemistry that are not algorithmic in
nature, it is necessaryto develop a set of problems that could be used with school pupils
and which would allow exploration of the processesof problem solving.

4.1 The Criteria

In designing theseproblem solving exercises,many factors must be considered. First, the

topics of the problems had to reflect the themes and objectives which are involved in the
secondary school chemistry curriculum. There is no national curriculum in Scotland
(Clark and Munn, 1997). Post-fourteen-year-old pupils in Scotland take coursesleading
to awards in the Scottish Certificate of Education (SCE) at Standard Grade and Higher
Grade. Therefore, the Standard Grade syllabus was employed to define the areas of
chemistry used in the problem solving exercises. The Standard Grade Arrangements in
Chemistry (1997) consists of fifteen topics listed as below.

I ChemicalReactions
2 SpeedofReactions
3 Atoms and the Periodic Table
4 How Atoms Combine
5 Fuels
6 Structure and Reactions ofHydrocarbons
7 Properties ofSubstances
8 Acids andAlkalis
9 ReactionsofAcids
10 Making Electricity
II Metals
12 Corrosion
13 Plastics and SyntheticFibres
14 Fertilisers
15 Carbohydrates and Related Substances

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 ChapterFour
In the Standard Grade examinations, there are two levels offered: General Chemistry
and
Credit Chemistry. A survey of past papers at both levels from 1992 to 1997
showed
two kinds of question: knowledge and understanding; problem solving. The questions
in
the latter group were largely opportunities for pupils to demonstrate applications
of
knowledge and were not open-endedin any way. Thus, in developing a set
of problems
to explore the process of problem solving, this type of question was rejected. Instead,
problems were developed that were more open-ended.

Open-ended problems tend to be those most frequently encountered in life. Several

studies concluded that it is important that students are enabled to apply scientific
knowledge to their real-life problems and issues. Hence, the research also considered
societal issues and real-life problems as factors in deciding which subjects would be
chosen.

Problem solving very often involves experimental work but it is not always so. In fact,
problems can be tackled on paper, by discussion in a group, or even by an individual just
thinking in a disciplined way. The chemistry problems devised in this project were
simply paper-and-pencil activities and did not involve any practical activity. Part of the
reason lay in the enormous difficulty in controlling variables in laboratory problems.

A set of eighteen chemistry problems was devised. The set of eighteen units covered
many areas of the Standard Grade syllabus and reflected a variety of approachesand
styles. These were based on the Standard Grade Chemistry syllabus although some of
them, in terms of difficulty, were thought to be more appropriate for pupils studying for
the Higher Grade. The eighteen chemistry problems were categorised according to the
eight types of problems which are set out by Johnstone and introduced in chapter 1.3.
Types I and 2 problems are mostly related to algorithms and recall knowledge. Type 3

-6 are more complex; among these types of problem, one of the variables (data, method,
is
goal) not fully specified. Types 7 8
and seem to be more like real life problems and
have been found to be very hard to design. Therefore, this project put much emphasis
on problems of types 3,4,5, and 6.

This project planned to use the problems with groups of three in the hope that these
interactions would provide evidence about how the problems were being solved. The
problems were deliberately designed to be difficult so that they could not be

satisfactorily solved by the pupils just recalling factual information learned by rote
without understanding. Pupils within the groups would be encouraged to work together.
The desired level of difficulty in the problems was that a pupil was unlikely to be able to
it
solve on his or her own. They neededto work in small teams, helping each other.

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 ChapterFour

It is possible to think of an individual pupil interacting with a problem in the following

way (Figure 4.1):
Previous
Knowledg e

Zr 00.
-ld -
. I
O:b Working
Memory
Space

Figure 4.1 Problem Solving by Individual

The only way that a pupil can solve the problem is to use his or her own previous
knowledge and working memory space. If the pupil does not have sufficient previous
knowledge or his or her working memory spacewas overloaded, he or she might not be
able to solve the problem successfully.

Working in groups of three, one of the advantagesis that they can combine their previous
knowledge and working memory space together to reduce the difficulties. In addition,
more importantly, like one of Grant's (1978) research conclusions that "group work can
improve the quality of pupils responsesto problems that require the ability to think".
The following diagram (Figure 4.2) illustrates the way that the problem solving might
occur.

Previous
Previous
Knowledge]
Knowledge 11110-

Working
Working Memory
Memory Space
Space

Problem

u,
\ -If
tl

Working oL. Previous

Memory Knowledge
Space

Figure 4.2 Problem Solving by Group

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 ChapterFour
It is important to set the numbers of each group for effective discussion. If the
group
has just two members, a student could feel embarrassedwith an uncooperative
partner.
In contrast, if the size of the group is too big, some pupils might not participate
at all.
According to the results of Heller and Hollabaugh's study (1992), they found
that
groups of two did not have the "critical mass" of conceptual and procedural knowledge
for the successful problem solving in physics. In groups of four, one student
was
invariably left out of the problem-solving process. They finally concluded that the
reasonable and optimal group size for prompting pupils' interactions is three members.
This project adopted their suggestion and pupils were mostly placed in groups of three.

The problem solving exerciseswere called "UNITS", this being a neutral word that would
not cause pupils to have unnecessaryconcerns. When used with pupils, this word was
used and it was stressed to them that there was no assessment, the units were
unconnected with examination marks and that answers obtained were not neatly "right"
or "wrong". It was hoped that this would encourage genuinely open discussion which
would provide useful insights into problem-solving.

The presentation of the problems was critical. The aim was, by the use of careful design
and layout, to minimise difficulties solely due to poor presentation. Brevity was a
feature and careful structuring of questions was employed and diagrams and tables were
used wherever appropriate. Great care was taken to use language that was appropriate
to pupils aged 14-17 in terms of the chemical ideas being used and in terms of normal
English languagewhich was likely to pose few problems to such pupils.

Becauseof the need to use the units with pupils at the right stage of their course(so that
the unit theme fitted in with topics being studied), formal pre-testing of the units was
not easy. As an alternative, units written early were pre-tested with one small group of
pupils to check on style, presentation, language and difficulty level. Subsequent units
reflected the observations from this pre-test. However, all the units were tried out with a
team of research students (with variable background in chemistry). This proved very
useful in that ambiguities were detected and removed. However, this was not seenas a
full pre-test. Nevertheless, pupils seemedto encounter few difficulties that were related
to languageand presentation.

For flexibility of use and to ensure the least confusion when pupils were solving the
problems, each unit was laid out in the same way: the title, the use of boxes and shading
to guide the instructions of task on one side of A4 paper. In addition, space was
aside to encourage pupils to write notes or calculations during problem
specifically set
solving. This was mentioned several times on the working paper and answer sheet to

encourage pupils to talk and write in a group. Each unit had a separate "Answer sheet"
which was completed by each group, sharing their answers and their working.

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 ChapterFour

There was also an evaluation sheet, called an "Endpiece" which each pupil had to
complete individually. In addition, a set of "Teacher's Guides" was devised and the
original purpose was these would serve as guidance for teachers. However, the real
experiment was administered by the researcher and the "Teacher's Guide" finally was
not provided to teachersbut was still used by the researcher. When pupils were engaged
in doing problem solving, tape recording was conducted in some groups that beganfrom
the seconddata collection stage.

4.2 A Typical Unit

Here, one unit (unit 8 Moving Gases)is presentedto illustrate the units' forinat. It has
to be noted that pupils had no previous knowledge of the idea of diffusion in any
quantitative sense and certainly know nothing of Graham's Law of Diffusion on which
the problem was based. The unit is shown in full overleaf.

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 Chapter Four

Moving Gases

Your Name:
...................................

Have you ever smelled the perfume from someone immediately after they
entered the
room ? This is because the particles of perfume are travelling through the air and have
reached your nose. All gases travel but they do not all travel at the same speed. It has
been found that different gases travel different distances in the same time.

The following data were collected from an experiment. The distances travelled by various
gases in a set amount of time through a horizontal glass tube were observed. This was
done at room temperature and the same pressure for all the gases.

Gas Distance (cm)

S02 50
CH4 100
HCI 66
S03 44
NH3 94

- -------- ----------
You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of
the group can write in your acireed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Working as a group,

(1) Look at the results as a group and see if you can spot
any pattern in these results ?

(2) How would you test to see if your pattern is correct ?

I
At this point, check with you

(3) Predict how far you would expect chlorine gas (C12)to
travel under the same conditions. Show how you
obtained your result.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

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 ChapterFour
4.3 The Eighteen Units

A brief description of each of the eighteen units is given below. The

units are given in
full with teacher's guides in Appendix A.

Unit 1: Argon and Electric Welding (Type 6)

The idea for the development of this unit came from a study by Toby (1997). A
newspaper report, which mentioned a tragic industrial accident when electrical-we]ding
was taking is
place, the starting point. The pupils are then asked to spot the chemical
errors from a detective's statementand look for a reasonableexplanation for the accident.

Unit 2: "ich is the Best Fuel (Type 3)

Pupils are given some information about three fuels: coal, oil (C II H24) and gas (CH 4).
The problem given to pupils is to find out which fuel will release most energy. They are

given I Kg of each. They are taken through four steps to reach the answer.

The first part is to write the complete combustion equation of each fuel. The second
part is to calculate the formula masses of each fuel. Told to assumethat the energy
releasedis related to the number of molecules formed, the pupils have to work out which
fuel would give the most energy. Finally, they also have to judge whether this
assumption is fair.

Unit 3: The Chewing Gum Problem (Type 4)

Does gum-chewing really help to fight tooth decay? The unit provides the basic
ingredients of chewing gum for pupils but not enough information to reach an answer.
Therefore, they have to search and make a list of useftil information that they would
need to know to solve the problem.

Unit 4: Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay? (Type 6)

The idea for the development of this unit was adapted from a study by Toby (1997). A

the influence fluoride tooth decay is quoted from a magazine.The

statement about of on
pupils' task is to find out as many errors as possible in the statement.

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 ChapterFour
Unit 5: The Glowing Splint Problem (Type 6)

The unit provides several results of experiments,which have shown that

a glowing splint
could be re-kindled by pure oxygen but not by N02 or air. On the other hand, in another
experiment, copper (11)nitrate breaks up when heated and the products consistedof a
mixture of N02 and 02 (in the ratio of 4: 1, the proportion of oxygen being similar to
that in air). This mixture re-kindles a glowing splint. Pupils have to try to explain the
unexpectedresult.

Unit 6: Heat Packsfor Mountaineers (Type4)

The heat pack produces its heat by means of a chemical reaction. The ingredients of a
heat pack (fine iron powder, fine carbon powder, salt and moist cellulose) is given to
pupils. The instruction for using the heat packs is also provided along with a picture.
Pupils are asked to work out how the heat pack works and where the energy comes
from. They also have to suggestother metals that might substitute for iron in the packs.

Unit 7: Iron: How can we Obtain it? (Type 2)

The unit is related to iron, which is produced from iron ore in the blast furnace. The
names and formula for three ores of iron are given. Pupils are also provided with a series
of chemical equations for the process of producing iron from the iron ores. The main task
is pupils have to select and rearrangethe reasonableequations.

Unit 8: Moving Gases (Type 6)

The idea for the development of this unit came from a study by Kogut (1996). Pupils
introduced to the idea of gasesmoving (diffusion). Experimental data about five gases
are
and the distance in
travelled are given a table. By looking at the table, pupils are asked to
in these and test whether their pattern is correct or not. In
spot any pattern results
addition, they also have to make prediction about the distance a sixth gas would travel

under the sameexperimental conditions.

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 ChapterFour
Unit 9: The Formulafor Ozone (Type 4)

Pupils know the formula of oxygen. They have learned of ozone but do
not know its
formula. From a series of balanced equation, pupils are asked to try to
establisha rule
relating gas volumes to balanced equations. Afterwards, an equation for the break up of
ozone to form oxygen is given. Pupils have to use the rule to work out the likely fon-nula
for ozone.

Unit 10: The Phosphorus Problems (Type 6)

To obtain pure phosphorus from rock phosphate is the main task. Pupils are given
tabulated information about the various products from the industrial process: melting
points, boiling points, reaction with water, reaction with air, and density. Although the
problem seems simple using an understanding of methods of separation,it turns out to
be more difficult if pure phosphorusis to be obtained safely.

Unit 11: The Leaking Pipe (Type 6)

The idea for the development of this unit came from a study by Toby (1997). A
statement about an explosion resulting from a leaking underground pipeline is quoted
from a local newspaper. The report said the pipeline carried liquefied propanegas,often
called LP gas; natural gas liquids turn to gas when they come in contact with air. Pupils
are asked to criticise the statement and re-write it in such a way that they explain why
the explosion occurred.

Unit 12: Salt, Salts, andpH (Type 5)

The unit provides data about various salts and the pH of their solution in water. Pupils
are askedto find in
patterns the data, relating the salts and their pH. An is
example given
as a hint to help pupils drawing conclusion. At this stage,pupils have not met the ideas

of salt hydrolysis.

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 ChapterFour
Unit 13: Solubility (Type 6)

This unit provides solubility of a large number of compounds in table. This is

a
specified by reference to the cations (such as Na+, K+, Mg2+, Pb2+)and the anions(like
OH- F- C032- etc.) are shown in the table. A definition of solubility is
, , also provided.
The pupils' first task is to draw out the patterns of solubility from the given table. Then
pupils are asked to predict the result when mixing two solutions together, and predict the
approximate solubility for two strontium compounds by interpreting trends in the data.

Unit 14: The Swimming Pool Problem (Type 4)

When people go swimming, some experience sore eyes. A story about swimming pool
problem is described first. In the first question, pupils have to discuss what are the
desirable properties for swimming pool. Then an equation showing the reaction of
chlorine with water is provided and pupils are askedto list the ions formed. In the third
part, a graph of pH and % of chlorine present as HOCI, and substancescontain the N-Cl
bond that are causing the eye soreness are given. Pupils have to use the given
information to judge the best pH value of water for the swimming pool.

Unit 15: Trees and Cars (Type 4)

The idea for the development of this unit came from a study by Toby (1997). The unit
is concerned with ways of reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Pupils have to make a
to
rough calculation check the quoted statementabout how many trees would be needed
to assimilate carbon dioxide emitted from a car in one year.

Unit 16: Bonding (Type 6)

The unit provides information about various types of chemical bonds (covalent, polar
covalent, ionic, metallic) including in
patterns melting points, boiling points, electrical
in water. Pupils are then given an imaginary budget f 100
conductivity, and solubility
to the money by selecting experiments (each of which is costed) which
and asked spend
help them to decide the type of bonding present in AIC13. They have to decide
might
information in that they do have enough money to pay for
which tests will give most not
all the tests.

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 ChapterFour
Unit 17: Chemicalsfrom Salt (Type 6)

Sodium chloride produces sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen by

electrolysis.
During the electrolysis process, the products must not be allowed to mix. There
are
three types of electrolysis cells which are used in industry and the main featuresof the
three cells are shown in a table. Firstly, pupils have to work out why the cell products
are not allowed to mix during the process.Then pupils are askedto make decisionabout
which process they would choose if they build a new factory, giving reasonsfor their
choice.

Unit 18: Rates of Reaction (Type 5)

What kind of factors would influence the rate of chemical reaction? The unit looks at the
reaction of zinc with dilute hydrochloride acid. The reaction time and the volume of
hydrogen from four experiments are also given in a table. Pupils are askedto plot graphs
according to these four results, and, after completing the graphs, they have to work out
the factors that influence the speed of the reaction. At this stage, they have no prior
knowledge of the factors.

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 ChapterFive

Chapter Five

The Experimental Study

5.1 Aims and Experimental Structure

It can be argued that one outcome of education is to develop problem solving

skills.
Indeed, it has already been noted that this outcome receives a high profile In Scottish
education although the conception of the skill may be inadequate. In recent years,
research has provided evidence that successin problem solving is influenced by many
factors. These factors, involve thinking (cognitive variables), emotional or motivational,
and behavioural componentsare explored, basedon various theories.

In Piagetian theory, the importance of the developmental stage of a student in problem

solving and learning is highlighted. As Andre (1986) pointed out, the Plaget developed
an approach to problem solving that focuses on mental logic. However, Ausubel (1978)
has argued that the relevant prior conceptual knowledge is as important in solving
problems as the developmental stage reached. Nevertheless, Ausubel did not examine
the relationship between students' conceptual knowledge and problem solving strategies.
To treat the relationship more explicitly, the Information ProcessingModel, which has
been described previously (pl7-18), has provided useful insights. The model
emphasisescognitive variables such as working memory space, field dependency/ field
independency, divergency/ convergency, and long-term memory that influence problem
solving.

Many studies suggestedthat problem solving is a very complicated process, involving

more than one cognitive variable as well as affective ones (Tsaparlis and Angelopoulos,
2000). In addition, Fisher (1995) has also stated that there are three sets of interacting
factors involved in problem solving:

(1) Attitude: it includes interest, motivation and confidence.

(2) Cognitive ability: it includes knowledge, memory and metacognition.
(3) Experience: it includes familiarity with content, context and strategies.

By reviewing these large number of factors, it is difficult to explore all the factors in one
Therefore, it is important to select a limited range of factors as this project's
project.
Although factors Working Memory Space, Field
main concerns. some such as
Dependency/ Field Independency, Divergency/ Convergency are likely to be very
and
in solving, they were, in this project, minimised in significance as
influential problem
much as possible by way of group work.

Page 44
 ChapterFive
When pupils work together in groups, they have accessto the working
memory spaces
of all the groups members. In addition, if writing and drawing are encouraged,there is
even less likelihood of the working memory space being overloaded. Similarly, the
influence of Field Dependency/ Field Independency and Divergency/ Convergency
on
problem solving also could be by
reduced meansof group work in that, within a group, it
is likely that the group members will vary in thesepersonal characteristics.

In this way, the project seeks to focus on the role of long term memory in problem
solving. It is hoped to gained insights into the way conceptsare stored and are linked to
each other in assisting pupils in successfulproblem solving.

5.1.1 The Aims of the Study

The overall aim was to attempt to gain insights into the ways pupils solve open-ended
chemistry problems. The focus is on the way the operation of long-term memory is a
factor in determining successat such problems. This involves much more than the recall
of information. The aim was to explore how concepts and linkages between concepts
might influence successin solving such problems. It was also important to look for any
other factors relating to long-term memory.

5.1.2 The Experimental Structure

The experimental structure dependedon the development and use of a set of problems
that were specifically designed to fit the chemistry syllabus but which also were of an
open-ended nature. By allowing groups of pupils to attempt these problems, the aim
to observe the interactions between pupils and seek to deduce what factors were
was
important in determining successor failure.

The experimental structure is presented in Figure 5.1. The eighteen problems were
designed and pre-tested with one small group of pupils and trialled with six fellow

to for any major ambiguities of language and structure. After modifying

students check
first data collection proceededwith S3 and S4 pupils. In the
the eighteen problems, the
light of observation and analysis of data, minor adjustments were made to some of the

(named Endpiece) was slightly revised. Tape recordings

units and the evaluation sheet
the third data collection stages. Again, minor
were employed at the second and
before the data collection stage. The third data
adjustments were made as after second
following February 2000. The whole process is summarised in
collection stage was until
Figure 5.1.

Page 45
 ChapterFive

Answer Sheeý

00010

I
1. Minor adjustments
to some units
ysis) 2. Slightly revised
Endpiece

Collection
CSI
1. Observation I Minor adjustments
1.
2. Teacher comments -
to10e
some
so;
sV e units
3. Tape recording (Data analysis) 2. Slightlyy re sed
4. Use of "hints" Endpiece
Eýhdpie4
5. Word Association tests
Third Data
I

Collection

Final data analysis

Figure 5.1 The Experimental Structure

Page 46
 Chapter Five

5.2 Group Work in Problem Solving

It was decided to use problems that were too difficult for an individual
pupil to solve and
to use them with groups of three in order to explore the interactions betweenthe
pupils.
In this way, it was hoped to be able to gain insights into the mental processesbeing
employed in relation to concepts held in the long-term memories of the pupils. Several
other studies have looked at the value of group work in the context of leaming and
problem solving.

Kempa and Ayob (1991,1995) conducted two investigations that focused on learning
from group work in science. They suggestedthat a significant amount of " learning from
others" occurs. They also noted that even seemingly "inactive" group memberscould
benefit from their involvement in group learning experiences. There do not seemto be
many research studies that focus on problem solving in groups. In Garret's review
(1986), he described two studies that refer to group versus individual problem solving.
One is the study from Grant (1978) where she analysed the responsesto two biological
problems from high school pupils working either alone or in groups of four. Not
surprisingly, she found that those working in groups solved problems more effectively
than those working on their own. Another is the study from Foster (1981) where he
found that small cooperative groups did significantly better on creating electrical circuits
than individuals working alone.

Problems are solved better in groups. However, these studies do not throw any light
upon the use of small groups as a method to gain insights into the mental processes
involved in solving open-ended problems. In this project, most of groups consist of
three members. The groups were formed randomly.

5.3 The Chemistry Problem Units

A set of eighteen chemistry problem units were devised and fully described in chapter4

and Appendix A. When the researcher contacted with schools, a brief list of eighteen
chemistry problem units and a few exemplary units with teacher's guide were provided
to teachers. This to
enabled teachers seewhere the units might fit best.

At the outset, the intention was to employ all the eighteen chemistry units to investigate
the process of pupils' problem solving. However, four units (unit 3,7,11, and 17) were

not used that because to

access schools was not possible at times when such units would
have been appropriate. The units used were selected after consultation with the

teachers. Frequently, a unit was chosen simply because it fitted to the syllabus
Eventually, fourteen chemistry problem units were used in this project.
appropriately.
They are listed as follows:
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 Chapter Five

Unit I Argon and Electric Welding

Unit 2 Which is the Best Fuel?
Unit 4 Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay
Unit 5 The Glowing Splint Problem
Unit 6 Heat Packsfor Mountaineers
Unit 8 Moving Gases
Unit 9 The Formulafor Ozone
Unit 10 The Phosphorus Problem
Unit 12 Salt, Salts, andpH
Unit 13 Solubility
Unit 14 Swimming Pool Problem
Unit 15 Trees and Cars
Unit 16 Bonding
Unit 18 RatesofReaction

5.4 Teacher's Guide

The teacher's guide was developed for each chemistry unit. They contained four
sections: introduction, learning outcomes, guidelines, andpossible conclusions and
answers. The introduction includes curriculum links and prior knowledge, which
provides guidance for the teacherin integrating the unit into the curriculum. The learning
outcomes lists the most important objectives for solving the problem. The guidelinesled
the teacherto conduct and managethe experiment in class. The possible conclusionsand
answers provides a series of answers to help teachers when they use the unit in their
class.

In reality, the teacher's guides were not used by teacherswhen the project proceededin
school. At the it
outset, was hoped that school teachers would be willing to conduct the
experiments in their class and the researcher did not need to be present on every
classroom in order to gather large data. In this situation, the teacher's guide has to be

provided to teachers. Unfortunately, this was not achieved because the school teachers
preferred that the researcher administered the experiment in person after consultation
with them. However, the teacher's guides were still helpful for the researcher to check
out pupils' answers and for the school teachers if they decide to use it in the future.

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 ChapterFive
5.5 Sources of Experimental Data

5.5.1 Answer Sheet

Before pupils began to solve problems, they were asked first to write their
nameson the
answer sheet. This was for identification pupils only as the various pieces of paper and
tape recordings were matched to each other. No pupil was identified for any
other
purpose.

The following instruction was presented on the sheet to guide the group to write their
answer: "After discussing with your group, write down the conclusionsyou think thatyou
can make". In addition, considering pupils might need more space to write their
answers, a reminder "If you need more space, use the other side" was placed at the
bottom of the answer sheet. Each group only need to fill in a piece of answer sheet. If
the unit has different parts of questions, the numbers are printed on the sheet. Some
exemplary Answer sheetsseeAppendix C.

5.5.2 Evaluation Sheet

The evaluation sheet was entitled "Endpiece" and was designedto be an integral part of
the problem solving session. It provided an opportunity for pupils to reflect on the
process of problem solving and to reveal how they had approached the problem and
what were the features that were critical in terms It
of success. consists of two kinds of
questions: closed questions and open questions. The first section included thirteen
closed questions:

The problem was enjoyable

The problem was difficult
Ifound that solving this problem was satisfying
The problem was completely new to me
I learned nothing ftom the problem
I had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem
I prefer solving problems on my own
We worked well together as a group
We did not share the work out evenly in our group
Ifound the group discussion helpful
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer
I could not have solved the problem by myseýf
I needed the other group members to help me remember background information

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 ChapterFive
Responses were offered on a five-point scales, ranging from
strongly agree, agree,
neither agree nor disagree, disagree, to strongly disagree. Pupils indicated this
in way
their evaluation of each statement. These thirteen questions seemedto
allow the pupils
to reflect their feelings and experiences clearly and definitely,
and as a result, these
questionswere not revised and were used throughout the experiment.

The second sessioncontained eight open questionswhich tried to

explore the underlying
processes and the difficulties when pupils were engaged in solving problems. Pupils
were given a small space to respond, enough for about a sentence. The set of open
questions are:

(1) What did you do first to solve the problem?

(2) What was the second step?
(3) What did you need to know before you began?
(4) What was the easiestpart in the problem?
(5) What was a hindrance in preventing you ftom reaching a solution?
(6) How did you overcome obstacles in the problem?
(7) In what ways did working in a group help to solve the problem?
(8) What have you learnedftom the problem?

After analysis of the data from the first data collection exercise, it was found that many
pupils were not answering these open questions in a way that led to meaningful
conclusions. This could have been due to not having sufficient time to reflect their
opinion, or because the language used was difficult and ambiguous for them to
understand. For example, in question 5 the term "hindrance" seemeda problem to many
pupils. To answer question 1, many pupils wrote their answer as "read the problems
first". Therefore, these eight questionswere revised and made more precise. The English
language of questions 1,2,5, and 8 were changedwhile questions4 and 7 were deleted.
The second version of the evaluation sheetcontained six open questionswhich are listed
below:

(1) After reading the problem, what did your group discussfirst?
(2) What was the second step your group took to solve the problem?
(3) What did you need to know before you began?
(4) What made it difficultfor you to solve the problem?
(5) How did you overcome obstacles in the problem?
(6) The problem was quite difficult. What do you think you learnedftom
trying to solve it?

When the revised evaluation sheetwas used at the seconddata collection stage,this time
better but there still a few groups which did not finish in a reasonable time
pupils coped
the they these were also not very clear. For
and opinions reflected on questions

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 ChapterFive

example, if the unit has two or more parts, some of their answers to question I
were
"discuss part P. Answering question 5 (how didyou overcome
obstaclesin theproblem
?), most answers were "by discussing with other members". They
seemto be unable to
responseto these questions meaningfully. Therefore, it was decided to revise thesesix
questions again in order to collect the information more effectively. At the third data
collection stage, there were two questions remaining in this section, thesetwo questions
are listed:
(1) What did you need to know before you began?
(2) What made it difficult for you to solve the problem?

The overall completed three versions of evaluation sheetare given in Appendix D.

5.5.3 Others: Hints, Word Association Tests, and Tape Transcripts

In the first stage of the experiment, an enormous amount of data was gatheredfrom the
Endpieces (pupil's self reflection on the process), the Answer Sheets (each group
indicated the answers to the main steps of the problems), and the Problem Working
Sheet (where there were spacesfor working, doodling, playing with ideas). Despite the
vast amount of information, it was felt that the insights gained on the mental processes
of problem solving were limited. Several other strategieswere developed to generatedata
that might be more focussed. Each of these strategies (Hints, Word Association Tests,
and Tape Transcripts) is now described.

5.5.3.1 Hints

In two units, a set of written hints was provided. If in difficulty, groups were invited to
ask for a hint. It was stressedto them that this was not any indication of failure on their
It
part. was hoped that, by examining which hints were sought most frequently, insights
into the areasof difficulty would be observed.

In unit 8" Moving Gases", a tabulated information was given which includes five gas
formulas and their distances travelled under the same experimental conditions. Pupils
in Undoubtedly, many pupils were able to
were asked to spot any pattern these results.
the heavier the is, the less distance it travels. But
point out a common pattern: molecule
it seemsto be just a superficial answer. Can they draw a more exact pattern? Primarily
it is expectedthat they can make a clearer connection between the distance travelled with
formula However, this connection definitely at the first
the mass. no group could make
data collection stage. Hence, it was decided to develop an extra hint to help pupils
the The hint is "You have noticed that the heavier the molecule,
achieve objective. will
Can find between the mass of the
the slower it moves. you a more exact relationship

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 ChapterFive

molecule and the distance moved? ". At the second data collection stage, pupils v"ere
given the hint after they wrote the common pattern.

In unit 15 "Trees and Cars", a quotation stated that one tree can use up the carbon
dioxide which produced by one car. Pupils were asked to confirm if the quotation is
correct. To solve this problem, pupils had to combine the combustion equationswith
chemical arithmetic. It was very difficult for them to handle these combined processes,
most pupils encountered obstacles during solving this problem. Therefore, it was
decided to develop some hints to help pupils to overcome the obstaclesthey have met.
However, these hints could also provide valuable information about how the pupils
managed the combination. The hints were given to pupils based on their enquiry. There
are sevenhints described as follows:

Hint IA possible way to tackle the problem is to:

(a) Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide formed by using a mole
of octane.
(b) Calculate the mass of octane used by an average small car in
one year.
(c) Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced by an average
small car in a year.

Hint 2 Write a balanced equation for the combustion of octane. How many
moles of carbon dioxide are formed by burning one mole of octane?

Hint 3 One mole (114 g) of octane gives 8 moles (352 g) of carbon dioxide.

Hint 4 What volume ofpetrol will the car use in one year?

Hint 5 If the car uses 4200 litres ofpetrol in one year and each litre has a
700 g, what mass ofpetrol will be used by the car in one year?
mass of

Hint 6 352 g of carbon dioxide is produced by using 114 g of octane in

the car engine. This means that, approximately:

3g of carbon dioxide is formedftom Ig of octane.

Hint 7 You know that 2 940 000 g of octane is used by the car in one year.
What mass (in grams) carbon dioxide will this produce? Now convert
this into kilograms.

5.5.3.2 Word Association Tests (WAT)

tests have been widely used to investigate

In scienceeducation, although problem-solving
have limitations (Deese (1965) and Johnson
the acquisition of concepts, they still some
test (WAT) is a method which appears to
(1969)). By contrast, the word association
often supported by many
put few constraints upon a pupil's responses and was

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 ChapterFive
researchers. Deese (1965) claimed that the WAT is "perhaps as close to
a context-free
testing situation as can be devised". In work with university science
students,comparing
three method of mapping cognitive structure, Preece (1976) also
gave a supportive
suggestion that the word association test was a particularly valuable method for
examining semantic relationships and cognitive structure in the context of science
education. Furthermore, Shavelson (1972) proposed a clear illustration which focussed
on the importance of the order of the response: "the underlying assumption in a word
association test is that the order of the responseretrieval from long term memory reflects
at least a significant part of the structure within and between concepts".

Subsequently,several studies have used word associationtests to explore the

students'
performance and problem solving abilities in chemistry (e.g. Kempa and Nicholls, 1983;
Johnstone and Moynihan, 1985; Caphapuz and Maskill, 1987)

Kempa and Nicholls (1983) used word association test to explore the relationship
between students' cognitive structure and their problem-solving abilities using
algorithmic type problems in the context of chemistry. It was found that the cognitive
structures of 'good' problem solvers are more complex and contain more associations
than those of 'poor' problem solvers. Although they found out the links between
different concepts observed for good and poor problem solvers do not appear very
different, it still can be seen that where concepts are only weakly linked, accessto one
concept via another is not readily achieved, and then problem solving in which the link is
essentialdoes not occur.

In another study by Johnstone and Moynihan (1985), a word association test was used
to map cognitive structure of areas of the Scottish Chemistry Syllabus for secondary
schools. Based on the previous class tests in chemistry, pupils were divided into 'good'
and 'poor' groups. Following the word association tests, a short multiple-choice
achievement test (it consisted of twenty questions which mostly were based on the
Scottish Certificate of Education 0 grade chemistry exam paper) was applied to the
pupils. The results showed that there were significant differences between the emerging
cognitive structure of 'good' and 'poor' pupils. In addition, it was also found that there

was a statistically significant positive correlation between the students' performance in

the word association tests and in the achievement tests. Only a few of 'poor' pupils
in tests. It provided further evidence that
were able to get the correct answer chemistry
if a pupil possessesan unstable cognitive structure in a particular subject area then
be inhibited in that area. In Cachapuz and Maskill's
algorithmic problem solving may
(1987) study, they had a similar findings as those which existed in Johnstone and
Moynihan's study.

In this project, it helpful to employ the word association test to all

was not thought
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 ChapterFive

problem units. Some units, such as unit 8 (Moving Gases) and unit 12 (Salt, Salts,
and
pH), do not need many concepts to reach the solution. On the contrary, the more
important factor to reach the solution of these units is reasoning
ability and ability to
deduce (the ability to make a rule or inference from a series of given data ). After
analysing the units' contents, it was therefore decided that two units (unit 2 and unit 6)
would be appropriate to use the word association test to measurepupils' understanding
of concepts.

A word association test was constructed in the following way. For the key concept,the
related key words were suggested by "experts" who were familiar with both the
chemistry and the school syllabus. These words were used as stimuli in the word
association test. In unit 2 (Which is the Best Fuel ?), eight stimulus words were
provided. They are: combustion, oxides,fuel, oxygen, energy, burning, heat, and carbon
dioxide. In unit 6 (Heat packs for Mountaineers), nine stimulus words have beenused.
They are: oxidation, Metal, oxidation, energy, reduction, electron, oxides,redox reaction,
burning.

A booklet for each word association test was produced in which a page of instructions
and two completed examples were followed by other pages, each headed by a different
stimulus word. In the first page of the booklet, pupils were given the instruction as
follows:

Whenyou hear or see a word, it often makesyou think of other words. In this
study we would like to find out what other words are brought to your mind by

some words used in Chemistry.

On each page you will find a key word written many times. Say the word to

yourself, and then as quickly as possible write the first word to come to mind
in space Number 1. And then continue to write in the other spaces other
associated words which come to mind.

Continue in this way until you are told to turn the next page. There are no
Write as quickly as possible since you are allowed only 30 sec.
right answers.
for each page.

The secondpage of the booklet contains an example of responsesto the generalstimulus

"Eagle" and the third pages contains an examples of responses to the chemical
word
stimulus words "Acid". The detail of these two word association tests are given in
Appendix E.

For each stimulus word, pupils were required to list up to ten words which they thought
In the studies by Kempa and Nicholls
to be closely associatedwith the stimulus word.
(1983), Cachapuz and Maskill (1987) and Bahar (1999), all of them gave thirty seconds

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 ChapterFive
for each stimulus word. In this project pupils were also given thirty
secondsto response
for each stimulus. Pupils did the word association test before they
tackled these two
units and the total test time (5 minutes) was controlled by the researcher.

5.5.3.3 Tape Recording and Tape Transcripts

Tape recording as a method to collect data has been in use widely for long time,
a
especially in the field of "think aloud' experimental studies. In this kind of study, when
a student is asked to "think aloud" as he attempts to solve a problem, his verbalisations
will be recorded for subsequentanalysis. In a typical example conductedby Reif, Larkin
and Brackett (1976), they found tape-recorded protocols useful for analysing the
problem solving processes of college physics students prior to devising materials to
teach problem solving skills.

In this project, pupils were asked to solve a problem by group discussions. It is

considered that the group discussionsmight be helpful to provide some critical evidence,
becauseevery pupil has to share their thoughts during the process of problem solving.
As regards the difficulty the pupils will be encountering and the way they overcome
them, it is hoped that insights might be gained by analysing the tape transcripts. All
tapes were listened to by the researcherbut only some of them were transcribed in full,
this being carried out when it appearedthat some useful insight might be gained.

5.6 The Pupil Samples

Almost all Scottish Secondary schools are 6 year comprehensives(aged 12-18). In this
project, the schools chosen were a cross-section of such schools. The pupils (n=668)

who participated in this study were 14-17 years old, following StandardGrade or Higher
Grade Chemistry in Scotland Secondary schools. They were drawn from eight
secondary schools including city, urban areasand rural areas. Each school provided one
for participation in this study from S3, S4, and S5 stages. The
or more whole classes
teachers tended to be enthusiastic over taking part in this study because they thought

problem solving was important and there was a lack of suitable materials.

The first data collection began in May/ June 1999 and involved 343 mainly S3 pupils
(aged 14). The seconddata collection followed in September / October 1999and involved

216 (mainly S4 and a few S5) pupils. The third data collection was carried out from

November 1999 to February 2000,109 (S4 and S5) pupils participated the study.
In addition, there was an opportunity to have 63 Taiwanese pupils (aged 16)
They in the department of chemical engineering
participating this project. were enrolled
in a municipal vocational high school. They have a strong chemistry knowledge

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 ChapterFive
background such as general chemistry, organic
chemistry and analytical chemistry.
Under a very different learning environment
and culture, did they solve problems
differently from Scottish pupils? Considering the limited
time the researcher stayed
in
Taiwan, it was decided to use one unit for Taiwanese
pupils. Unit 2 was then selected
and translated along with its answer sheet and evaluation sheet into the Chinese language
and taken to Taiwan to test it.

5.7 The Methods of Data Collection

In order to gain as much a range of data as possible, the following

methodswere usedin
this project:

(1) Pen-and-paper work with group discussion sessions

Three kinds of papers were given to pupils in turn: the problem sheets
which included
spaces for notes and working, the answer sheets, and the questionnaires (the
"Endpiece"). For distinguishing these three papers easily they were printed in different
,
colours. Pupils were asked to read the problem sheetsfirst, and then group discussion
was encouraged strongly. When they were engaging in solving the problem, one of the
group members had to fill their agreed answers on the answer sheet. After pupils
finished the task, the questionnaire sheet entitled " Endpiece" was given to eachpupil to
complete on an individual basis.

In the Answer sheet, the answers for the chemistry problem derived from each group
discussion might be correct or incorrect. It became clear that it could provide some
evidence about what prior knowledge and chemistry misconceptions the group might
have. However, there is a weakness in that these correct or incorrect answerswere not
always sufficiently detailed to allow for a plausible interpretations about the way they
solved the problem in groups. Bloom and Broder (1950) have argued the assumption
that the mental processesof students can be inferred from their written answerspapers.
They claimed that this kind of research was "inappropriate, superficial". Moreover,
Cowan (1977) also stressedthe dangersof making inferencesfrom written answersalone,
even where students have been to
asked show their "working". In the light of this, it was
thought important to ask pupils to reflect their opinions and thoughts on the Endpiece
sheet, becauseit could give the researcher useful insights into the pupils' to
approaches
solving problems.

(2) Classroom observations

is
The process of problem solving complex and some behaviours be
might not verbalised

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 ChapterFive
and noted on the various sheets.. By looking only at the problem
sheet and answer
sheet, it is not always sufficient to provide entirely clear and definite information.
Therefore, the researcher observed and took
notes to document actions that were
performed but not verbalised by pupils when they were engaged in solving
problem.
The following list was used :

(a) Did they discuss well?

(b) Did a leader appear?
(C) Were there by-standers?
(d) What were difficulties?
(e) What questions were asked of teacher?
09 Wasprevious knowledge misleading or unhelpful?
(g) Any evidence relating to long term memory and working
memory space?

(3) Teacher comments

The fourteen chemistry problems were conducted in various schools. It is

obvious that
pupils' background knowledge and characteristicsvary among theseschools. According
to Tingle and Good (1990), it has been found that successful problem solvers in
chemistry demonstrate confidence and persistence in addition to strong background
knowledge. Many studies have shown that problem solving would be influenced by the
background knowledge that pupils already have as well as pupils' characteristics,hence
it might be helpful if the teacher can provide these kind of information. When pupils
finished the problem-solving task and left the classroom, the researcherthen tried to talk
to teachersto obtain some comments about their pupils
.

(4) Tape recordings:

Although the above three methods could provide much useful information, it was
thought that it might not be sufficient to lead the researcherto make clear conclusion for
some units. Therefore, many group discussionswere recorded in order to provide greater
evidence and additional information. Pupils were informed that their discussionwould
be tape-recorded, and again, they were encouraged to talk while solving problems.
Although there was some evidence that the presence of tape recorders made pupils a
little nervous, in most casesit was clear that the groups ignored the recordersand carried
on their in
conversations an uninhibited way. The actual recording time varied from unit
to unit but was often 30 minutes or more. Tapes were only transcribed when there was
some evidence that potentially revealing insights might be gained.

5.8 The Experimental Procedure

The experiments were administered in eight schools from February 1999 to February

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 ChapterFive
2000. At the beginning, with each class, in order to
put the pupils at ease,they were
told: the experiment was not to be marked at all, that answers
were analysedonly by the
researcher and would not be shown to your teacher.

Many units took about 30-35 minutes including the Endpiece. Others
were slightly
shorter or slightly longer. Typically, a class undertook one unit. If the period length
was long enough, two units were attempted,an 'easier' one followed by a 'harder' one.

There were three sequential data collection stages,the total number

of schools, pupils
and units used are shown in the Table 5.1. Choice of units to be used was largely
determined by ther syllabus coveragein a particular school.

Table 5.1 The Sample Pupils and the Units

Data Collection School Pupil Unit Tape

Year
Recording

School A 226 4,5,8,9,12,13 S3, S4 no

First Data School B 78 1,16 S3, S4 no
Collection
School C 14 16 S3 no
School D 25 18 S3 no

School E 66 2,6,8,9 S4, S5 yes

Second Data
School F 98 1,2,10,13 S3,S4,S5 yes
Collection
School G 52 8,9 S4 yes

School H 39 5,15 S4, S5 yes

Third Data School 1 34 14,15 S4, S5 yes
Collection School F yes
36 13,15 S4, S5
*Taiwan 63 2 S5 no

* Taiwan: sampleswere from one of Taiwan's vocational secondaryschools

5.8.1 The First Data Collection Stage

Four schools were involved at this stage. School A provided several classes which
consisted of 226 pupils. Because the number of pupils was large and they were placed
in two laboratories, it was difficult for the researcherto manage the experiment in two
different rooms simultaneously. Therefore, an extra researcher was invited to help

the in this The experiment proceeded for a whole day. Six

managing experiment school.
units were used: units 4,5,8,9,12, and 13. During the process of the experiment, some
the teachers stayed at the to
room observe their pupils while others left the room and
of

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 ChapterFive

were not involved in the experiment. The second school provided two classeswhich
consisted of 78 pupils. Two units were used which are unit I and 16. The other two
schools only provided small number of pupils to participate the task, each school used
one unit only. There was no tape recording at this stage.

5.8.2 The Second Data Collection Stage

After the first data collection, the researcherreviewed and analysed these data. It
was
found that the evidence from paper work, teacher comments, and observation seemed
insufficient to draw any conclusions. Since the experiment was undertaken by at least
four or five groups at the same class, it is difficult for the researcherto observe every
group carefully at the same time and thus some useful information might be missed.
Therefore, it was decided to use the tape recording at the seconddata collection session.
In addition, some units and evaluation sheetsalso have been slightly revised to remove
pupils' confusion and obstaclesthey encounteredduring the experiment.

There were three schools and 216 pupils including S3, S4 and S5 grade involved at this
stage. The teachersand pupils were enthusiasticto undertakethe experiment,one school
even promised to participating in the third experimental stage.

5.8.3 The Third Data Collection Stage

Three schools in Scotland and one school in Taiwan were involved in this stage of the
experiment. All the Scottish pupils were studying in S4 and S5 grade chemistry course.
The total number of pupils was 172. Tape recordings and other method such as Hints
and Word Association Tests in
were used this session.

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 ChapterSix
Chapter Six

The Type 4 Problem

According to Johnstone (1993), the type 4 problem is described as: data

incomplete,
method unfamiliar, and goal given. Pupils have to weigh up possible methodsand select
or acquire the data required in order to solve such problems successfully. The following
units were classified as the type 4 problems:

Unit 3: The chewing gum problem (not used in this project)

Unit 6: Heatpacksfor mountaineers
Unit 9: Theformulafor ozone
Unit 14: The swimming pool problem
Unit 15: Trees and cars

6.1 Unit 6: Heat Packs for Mountaineers

The unit was used at the seconddata collection stagewith 7 groups (21 S5 pupils) taking
part in solving it. These pupils had been taught the concepts of oxidation and the
reactivity of metals. A Word Association Test was conducted before they did the unit
to test their understanding of the concept of oxidation. The unit was in two parts (the
full unit is shown in Appendix A):

(1) Work out how the heat packs works and explain where the heat
energy comes ftom?
(2) Why is iron powder used as the main material for the heat packs?
Suggest any other powdered metal that might be used, giving
reasonsfor your choice.

Word Association Test Results

The main concept in this unit is Oxidation and pupils only made strong connectionswith
four stimulus words: reduction, electron, redox and oxygen- They did not link oxidation
to energy, metal, burning and oxides. The lack of direct connections between oxidation
burning, is surprising. In fact, the heat packs releases heat
and and oxidation and energy
that from the oxidation of iron. Despite this lack of direction
energy stemmed
connection, most pupils were able to reach answers.

tend to be
The impression from the concept map is that pupils' understandings
both the being heavily linked- The full
somewhat theoretical, with redox and electron
concept map is presented in Figure 6.1 (overleaf).

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 ChapterSix

Unit 6 Heat Packs for Mountaineers

Reduction
Electron 6
Charge shell / clouds 12
9
3 Atom 3 Elemr,ent
4,8
Proton
7

I 3\ (rox idn 3 Reacting

Electron 3
10 5
99
75
Neutron 10 Redox
3
7 /5
Negative Ions J3 i
Nucleus 3 5
CompoUnd Acid
Solid Hard
Hydrogen 12 Chem
Chemicals
3
4143
8\ rOxygen Non-metal
35
6 Periodic
Periodic
Metal le
12
Breal
Breathing
r
/3 4
Oxides 5 5
A
Air
TIM 4N -
Iron 481\ Life
13 Combustion
3\ Atm sphen
Ste/ 13
Conductor
33
C02 ----
Silver Burning
Alka i3
Gas
12
8 3
6

3 Energy
nergy

foo 9 77/ \3
d9
Fuel
z
Movement
74 3711
Kinetic
47 7/ 12 Exothermic

Potential
Light
Heat

Figure 6.1 Concept Map I (Unit 6)

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 ChapterSix
6.1.2 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

For part 1, although the key data of "oxygen

and air" did not appear in the working
sheet, most of the groups were able to spot this hidden information to
reach a correct
solution. They stated that the heat energy comes from the reaction of oxygen the
in air
with fine iron powder. One group even mentioned that the iron reactswith air
producing
Fe203 is an exothermic reaction and is self-sustaining. In
addition, some groups
considered the functions of the other constituents. For example, one group wrote "the
moist cellulose acts as a conductor to draw the heat awayftom the core"; anothergroup
thought that "the cellulose can moisten the salt and speed up the reaction
allowing
electron movement". One group mentioned that the "other three components (fine
carbon powder, salt and moist cellulose) are catalysts". Two groups said that the heat is
travelling through the porous fabric onto the hand which then keepsthe personwarm. It
seemsto be clear that the S5 pupils have enough prior knowledge to solve the problem.
In general, they did not mention the concept of Oxidation but their answerswere usually
correct.

Only one group produced an unclear answer. To quote from the answer sheet,they said
"when rub hands together, the particles collide with each other and moveftom positive
ions to negative ions which produces the heat energy. The oxygen comes through the
porous so when you rub your hands it producesfabrics heat energy which kick starts the
reaction". They seemedto think that the heat energy came from the collision of particles
but they did not clearly refer to oxygen and iron.

For part 2 (why is iron powder used as the main material?), most pupils understoodthat
iron is a cheap metal, a good reactant with oxygen, a heat conductor, not poisonousand
not a finite resource. Only one group wrote a slightly misleading answer: because iron
is by
rusts quickly and speededup salt. It is obvious that most of pupils firm
possessed
previous knowledge about iron.

However, when they were asked to "suggest any other metal might be used in the heat
packs ", most of groups could not provide a reasonable choice. Considering the
reactivity of metals and their price, manganese is the best choice. Only one group chose
manganese because it has similar chemical properties to iron. Four other groups chose
zinc because it is cheap and reasonably reactive. Two groups did not make a reasonable
The iron is
rusts quickly and speededup by salt also failed
choice. group who thought
in this part: they chose aluminium or lead becausethey "corrode quickly". In fact, the
idea of "iron rusts quickly" and "aluminium or lead corrode quickly" are not necessarily
totally wrong. They seemed unaware of the conditions that metals to corrode at the

correct rate.

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 ChapterSix
Another group chosethree kinds of elementsto substitute for iron which
were:
(a) copper:becauseit is a "radiator" and cheap;
(b) aluminium: becauseit keepseverythingwarm and very light;
(c) carbon:becauseit stopsbuildings from corroding.

6.1.3 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the second version of the Endpiece which included thirteen closed
questions and six open questions. The pupils' responses to these two types of
questions are summarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed responseto closed
in
questions is shown Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece (Unit 6)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 6 10 4 1 0

The problem was difficult. 3 10 5 3 0
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 6 12 2 0 1
The problem was completely new to me. 6 12 2 0 0
1 learnednothing from the problem. 0 0 6 12 2
1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 2 10 5 1 3
I prefer solving problems on my own. 1 4 6 8 1
We worked well together as a group. 8 10 3 0 0

We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 1 0 7 6 6

1 found the group discussionhelpful. 6 11 3 1 0

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 2 6 5 7 1

1 could not have solved the problem by myself 5 3 9 4 0

I needed the other group membersto help me 5 5 5 4 2

rememberbackgroundinformation II I II

is
Although the samples were small, the evidence clear that the problem was difficult,

completely new but enjoyable to pupils. They also found that solving the problem was
satisfying. They thought they had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem.
This is consistent with the way they revealed appropriate answersto the problem.

As the responses to six open questions in the second version of the Endplece, pupils

expressedtheir opinions:

Question 1: After reading the problem, what didyour group discussfirst?

Typical responseswere:
(a) whetherthe iron is a catalystin the reaction;
(b) how thefour ingredientsreactedwith other;
(C) why thefabric wasporous;
(d) why the bag was suspendedand rubbed,-
(e) what a heatpack was and usedfor;
(0 how the pack workedand what the reactantswere.

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 ChapterSix
It is clear that different groups approached the
procedure in very different ways.

Question 2: What was the secondstep your

group took to solve theproblem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) debated what the product of the reaction
was;
(b) read through instructions or main point over and over again;
(C) figured out why the fabric was porous
and why the other
compounds were needed;
(d) worked out what each substance would do;
(e) discussed why iron was used as the main
material;
(/) what the other components did;
(g) what are the conductors.

This again illustrate the diversity of approachesused.

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) how iron reacts with air / oxygen;
(b) similar chemical properties;
(C) why the compounds were in the bag;
(d) if iron was a heat conductor;
(e) if iron reacts quickly when in connection with salt;
(/) general information on the elements;
(g) the properties of iron and how catalysts work in a chemical reaction;
(h) basic chemistry.

They seemedto see that the properties of iron were important.

Question 4: nat made it difficultfor you to solve theproblem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) disagreement and controversial issues in the group;
(b) finding out what is the other reactant with iron;
(C) we thought that it was near impossible with only one way to solve it;
(d) we had to find out what caused the reaction;
(e) we did not know why the compounds were there;
(f) we could notfigure out how the heat would get out and be
produced;
(g) we didn't know why carbon was used;
(h) to find another suitable element in place of iron;
(i) how to get the information;
(J) not being sure whether we were on the right tracks or completely of
the issue.

The diversity of answers seems to suggest that there was a wide range of approaches
adopted.

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Question 5: How didyou overcome obstaclesin the

problem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) debated each of the possible answers/ opinions to
see which was most likelj,,.
(b) discussed different answers within the group;
(C) working together and remembered things from our previous knowledge;
(d) shared ideas and gave our opinions;
(e) reread through the passage and gave some suggestions;
(1) using other examples and seeing what the significance of the componentsit,ere.

Question 6: What do you think you learnedfrom trying to solve it?

Typical responseswere:
(a) remembering previous chemistry is importantfor solving harder questions;
(b) we have to take into account other Possibilities than the ones which are in ftont
of us;
(C) we need to look at other aspects of information rather than information given;
(d) iron would react with oxygen and it could speed up by heat (or heat
would be a catalyst);
(e) to think about different ways in which reactions could take place;
how a heat pack really works;
(g) to know what types ofproblems may come up in the exam;
(h) I learned to work my mind more extensively rather than coming up
with a simple idea;
(i) chemistry is around us all the time;
6) it is helpful working in a group so that each of the members can help out.

Although these comments reveal areas of chemistry which the pupils have learned,the
more interesting comments [(b) and (c)] suggestthat they have widened their ideasabout
approachesto problem solving.

6.1.4 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded, little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.
Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

6.1.5 Analysis Summary

It appears that pupils had a fairly competent understanding of the concepts related to

oxidation and reactivity of metals. From observation, they seemed to move quickly
through an unsure phase in their discussion until they appreciated that the major
iron that, therefore, this component must the key one in the
constituent was and
There was another move in their thinking when they appreciated that nothing
reaction.
in bag iron to produce and that it was oxygen from the air
else the reacted easily with
involved. Once these key information were understood (and this
which was pieces of

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seemedto happen fairly quickly), by diverse routes they moved towards ansýý'ers.

6.2 Unit 9: The Formula for Ozone

The unit was used twice. At the first data collection stage, 8 groups
consistedof 24 (S4)
pupils took part in solving it. The unit is in two parts. In part 1, a series of balanced
equations were given and pupils were askedto establish a rule basedon theseequations.
In part 2, they had to apply the rule to work out the likely formula for
ozone. The
equation given to pupils is shown

Ozone (?) No Oxygen ( 02)

(20 ml) (30 ml)

All groups were able to obtain the correct volumes of formaldehyde (CH20) and carbon
dioxide (COD in part 1. Nevertheless,most pupils could not establisha rule relating gas
volumes to balanced equations. As a result, only two groups of pupils obtained the
correct formula of ozone (03). It seemed likely there might be some specific barriers
preventing the development of a rule and its application.

Looking again at this unit, it was found that those four given equations in part I were in
the same style: every molecular formula was given and the volume of product was
unknown. But in part 2, the equation in the problem was set in the reversedirection: the
volume of product was given while the formula of ozone was unknown. It is important
to explore whether this change in the direction of thinking resulted in pupils' failure to
solve the problem. To test this, the unit was modified. In part 1, an question was
to
replaced give an example (as question 2) in the opposite direction:

At about 450 * C, phosphorus gas breaks up according to thefollowing equation:

P4 (g) --Oo- ?
(20 ml) (40 ml)

What is theformula ofphosphorus gas above 450 'C ?

The old part 1 question 2 was replaced as question 1. After this minor modification the
at the second data collection stage. 14 groups consisting of 37 pupils (S4)
unit was used
took part in this stage of test.

6.2.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

To work out the likely formula for ozone, pupils first have to establish a rule: gas
to balanced By using the rule, they were likely to obtain
volumes are related equations.
(03). At the first data stage, it has been noted that all
the formula of ozone collection

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groups obtained the correct volumes of formaldehyde (CH20) and carbon dioxide (CO, )
but rarely establishedthe rule. Only two groups obtained the
correct formula of ozone.
At the second data collection stage, almost all pupils obtained the
correct volume of
carbon dioxide (except one group which did not seriously engagein solving the problem).
Most groups were also able to reach the formula of phosphorus (P2),
only four groups
failing in this part. For the formula of ozone, this time ten of the fourteen
groups pupils
reached the answer successfully. It seems that the introduction of the phosphorus
equation (given volumes, unknown formula) has enabled many groups to develop and
apply the rule. This suggeststhat knowing a processin one direction doesnot guarantee
the successful application of the processin the reverse direction.

6.2.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used two versions of the Endpiece. The first version of the Endpiece which
included thirteen closed questions and eight open questions. The secondversion of the
Endpiece which retained the same thirteen closed questions but revised the eight open
questions to six. The pupils' responsesto the Endpiece are summarisedbelow. Firstly,
the summary of fixed responseto closed questionsis shown in Tables 6.2 and 6.3.

Table 6.2 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece

(Unit 9 First Data Collection)
Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly
Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 0 2 6 10 6

The problem was difficult. 13 6 2 3 0

1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 0 4 9 to I

The problem was completely new to me. 10 9 3 2 0

I learnednothing from the problem. 1 1 5 16 1

I had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 0 4 2 14 4

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 0 1 2 11 10

6 14 3 0 1
We worked well together as a group.
3 3 4 9 5
We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group.
5 15 1 1 1
1 found the group discussionhelpfill.
9 9 1 4 1
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer.
11 6 3 3 1
1could not have solved the problem by myself
8 6 3 4 3
1 needed the other group membersto help me
I I I II
rememberbackgroundinformation

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Table 6.3 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece
(Unit 9 Second Data Collection)

Strongly Neither agree

Agree Disagree Strongly
agree nor disagree disagree
The problem was enjoyable. 5 14 10 5 3
The problem was difficult. 9 22 5 1 0
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 3 13 13 7 1
The problem was completely new to me. 12 22 1 2 0

1 learned nothing from the problem. 1 1 8 19 8

1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem. 1 9 10 11 4

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 1 4 6 16 9
We worked well together as a group. 9 20 4 1 2

We did not share the work out evenly in our group. 0 4 10 18 4

1 found the group discussion helpful. 6 22 4 3 2
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 6 17 6 8 0
1 could not have solved the problem by myself. 11 15 6 4 0

1 needed the other group members to help me 1 22 7 6 1

remember background information I I I

As can be seenfrom these two tables, only 2 pupils (of 24) enjoyed doing the problem in
its first version. They also found that solving this problem was not satisfying (20 of
24). On the contrary, almost half of pupils who attempted the second version felt the
problem was enjoyable (19 of 37) and satisfying (16 of 37). Comparisonsindicate that
these patterns are significantly different ("Enjoyable": X2=15.4, M, sig. at 1%);
"Satisfying": X2=5.9, df2. sig. at 5%). In addition to referring to whether they have
enough previous knowledge to solve the problem, the pupils in the secondversion (10 of
37) were a little more confident than the pupils in the first test (4 of 24). Indeed, it has
emerged that both of them did not have quite enough previous knowledge about chemical
formula and balanced equation. However, pupils found both versions were difficult and
completely new.

As the responsesto eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece,
pupils expressedtheir opinions which are listed as the following.

Question]: What didyou dofirst to solve theproblem?

Most pupils wrote "read the problems or sheetfirst", only two pupils
wrote meaningful opinions: "lookfor the patterns in the equation" and
"compare the equations". Thus it was considered that the problem had to
be revised in order to avoid unhelpful responses.

Question2: nat wasthesecondstep?

The opinions pupils wrote were "discuss theproblem orpossible
"try to out theformula". Obviously, it also has to be
answers" or work
revised as well.

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 ChapterSix
Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) numbers of molecules in the formula;
(b) what the formula meant;
(C) what the letters in the equation standfor;
(d) knowledge of equations;
()9 amounts of molecules compared to volume;
(g) things about ozone.

Clearly, they appreciatedthe importance of knowing about equations

and molecules.

Question 4: What was the easiestpart in theproblem?

The unit has two parts and part I was obviously easier than part 2. Some
pupils just directly spotted that "part P was the easierpart. Others
reflected that "nothing in this problem was easy". This question was
deleted in the secondversion of Endpiece.

Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing youftom reaching a solution?

Typical responseswere:
(a) did not have enough knowledge;
(b) did not understand what to do;
(C) missed most of the lesson;
(d) other group members' interference;
(e) it was hard.

From questions raised by several pupils, it was clear that the meaning of the word
"hindrance" was unfamiliar to some. It was necessaryto slightly adjust the questionto
be more clear and understandablefor pupils.

Question 6: How didyou overcomeobstaclesin theproblem?

Most pupils wrote they overcame obstaclesby "discussed the problem"

or "guessed". They did not write a reasonabledescription.

Ques-tion7: In what waYs did working in a group help to solve the problem?

The general responsesfrom pupils were "had more ideas to solve the
"
problem" or we could discuss any possible answers". A few pupils did

not have answers to the question. Some pupils even replied that they did

not solve the problem becausenone of them knew anything.

Question 8: What haveyou learnedfrom the problem?

Some pupils expressedthat they learned how to work out equationsand

knew the formula of ozone is 03. There were still many pupils did not
answer the question or felt they learned "nothing"

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 ChapterSix

As the responsesto six open questions in the second version of the Endpiece,
pupils
expressedtheir opinions which are listed as the following.

Question 1: After reading theproblem, what didyour group discussfirst?

Typical responseswere:
(a) the breakdownof moleculesand the balanceof molecules;
(b) the volumesof molecules;
(C) if there was another elementin ozone;
(d) the ratios of theformula;
(e) how to found out the pattern from the exampleequations.
(f) talked about the part I problem.
These comments illustrate the way conversation focussedon the mechanicsof molecular
understandings- essentialas a basis for solving this problem.

Question 2: What was the secondstepyour group took to solve theproblem?

Some pupils simply answeredto "work outpart 2 of the problem". Only a

few of pupils were able to describea meaningful approach:

(a) looked at the number of moles in the compounds;

(b) looked at the volumes of ozone and oxygen;
(C) tried to relate the molecules to each other;
(d) comparing the volume in each molecule;
()9 used the example equations to work out whether number of
molecules was involved

Parallel to their responses to question 1, these comments show how the pupils were
moving from to
the molecular understandings explore the concept of number as it applied
in this problem.

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

by
It was often mentioned pupils that they needed to know "how to balance

the equations". Others, referred to "the to

correspondenceof volume mole ",
"moles', "the symbols of elementsor com ounds" and "how tofind number
ofmolecules ".

Question 4: nat made it difficultfor you to solve the problem?

Many pupils stated that the difficulties they were meeting were "did not
know how to solve part 2" or "did not know it was to do with moles".
because they did not know the
Amazingly, some pupils even thought
formula of ozone also hindered them from reaching the solution.

Question 5: How didyou overcomeobstacles in the problem?

similar reply: discussed the

Not surprisingly, most pupils expressed a
problem or work together.

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 Chapter Six
Question 6: What do you thinkyou learnedfrom trying to
solve it?
The things they learned were "more about ozone", "group
work is better
than working alone" and "how to work out volumes from balancing
equations".

6.2.3 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded,little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.

Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

6.2.4 Analysis Summary

It is clear that most pupils can manage to handle formulae and equations although it is
not so clear that they really understand what a formula in an equation can represent.
This is a source of immense confusion in that such a formula can represent a single
molecule and, in this particular problem, it was representing a very large number of
molecules. At this stage, the concept of the mole would not be clearly established
(indeed, can it ever be said that it is clearly establishedat school level ?) although some
appreciated that the concept might be useful. The major observation to be made is that
by learning a procedure on one direction is no guarantee that it can be applied in the
opposite direction. This suggests that links in long term memory need to be made in
both directions in order for the linkage to be soundly made.

6.3 Unit 14: The Swimming Pool Problem

The unit is in three parts. First, pupils were asked to list the desirable properties of
water for a swimming pool. This was not the main task but was meant to encourage
pupils to discuss in groups. In part 2, an equation showing the reaction of chlorine with
below and pupils had to write down the ionisation equation for each
water was given as
acid, the latter acid being totally unfamiliar.

C12(9) + H200) --f> HCI(aq) HOCI(aq)

Finally, pupils had to use the given information and a graph to judge the best pH value of
for the 17 groups, consisting of 48 pupils, took part in solving
water swimming pool.
this unit. During the process of problem solving, many pupils were confused about the

term "ionisation" and asked for help.

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 ChapterSix
6.3.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

For the desirable properties of water,

all pupils obtained sensible ideas. The water has
to be warm, clean, smells nice, colourless, no germs
and a sufficient amount of chlorine.
In part 2, at the outset many groups did
not know how to write the ionisation equations.
Becausethese groups were unable to proceed further, they
were shown another example
of writing an ionisation equation. With this help, they seemedconfident to proceedand
they managedto write reasonableequationsas required.

To answer the question : when the water in swimming

pool is chlorinated, what will
happen to the pH of the water, most pupils understood that the
pH of the water
decreasesand turns more acidic. However, three groups answered it incorrectly. One
group wrote "the pH will increase becausechlorine is an alkali"; another group wrote
"the pH would increase becauseof the positive hydrogen ions"; the third group wrote "
the pH drops becauseit is acidic and goes towards 0".

6.3.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the third version of the Endpiece which included thirteen closed questions
and two open questions. The pupils' responses to these two types of questions are
summarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed responseto closed questionsis shown
in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece (Unit 14)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 3 11 20 7 7

The problem was difficult. 9 23 11 4 1

1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 7 11 18 8 4

The problem new to me. 12 20 11 5 0

was completely

I learned nothing from the problem. 3 7 14 15 9

I had enough knowledge to solve the problem. 0 11 17 16 3

previous

1 prefer solving 1 5 6 22 14
problems on my own.

We worked together 23 16 5 4 0
well as a group.

We did not share the work in our group. 0 5 9 21 13

out evenly

1 found the group discussion helpful. 15 16 11 2 2

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct 8 18 14 4 4

answer.

1 could not have solved the problem by myself 18 9 14 6 0

to help me 11 22 11 2 1
1 needed the other group members
remember background information I I I II

The evidence from the above table indicates that most pupils felt the unit was difficult

and completely new to them. Roughly, equal numbers were positive and negative in
indicating enjoyment and satisfaction.

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 ChapterSix
As responses to two
open questions In the third version of the Endplece, pupils
expressed their opinions as listed:

Question 1: What didyou

need to know beforeyou began?
Typical responseswere:
(a) how to write chemicalequation ion
or equation;
(b) understandthe meaningof ionisation;
(C) how chlorine affectswater;
(d) pH valuesor thepH table;
(e) acids and alkalis;
(f) elementsymbolsand valences;
(g) how to read the graph and interpret it.
Most of the comments were to do with equations and their
interpretation.

Question 2: nat made it difficultfor you to solve theproblem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) questions were worded in each away that they were not easy to read
and understand;
(b) they had never done a problem like this before (no experience);
(C) it was completely new to them;
(d) too many chemicals;
(e) the problem was complicated;
they have never heard of hypochlorous acid and some compounds
before;
(g) they were not sure about ionisation equation;
(h) information on graph was confusing;
(i) hard to understand as some of the aspects they did not know, like
compounds mixing with other ones;
did not know a lot about pH.

Here there is evidence of a wide diversity of responses. This reflects the nature of the
problem which, although set in a context which was 'friendly', involved considerable
amount of data and new ideas. In fact the problem is not really complicated but the
pupils have to work through many ideas before they can see the key points.

6.3.3 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded, little of significance emerged from the recordings.
Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

6.3.4 Analysis Summary

In this problem, the lack of confidence in a key procedure (the writing of lonisation
probably, a lack of understanding of the meaning of such equation, was
equations) and,
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 Chapter Six

major hurdle in seeking to solve the problem. Another feature that

was very apparent
was that, when faced with an amount of unfamiliar information, the inexperienced
tend to
be very unsure how to tackle the
problem and how to pick out the key points.

6.4 Unit 15: Trees and Cars

The unit was used at the third data collection

stage. Pupils were offered hints during the
process of problem solving and discussionswere tape recorded. In all, the total sample
consisted of 33 (11 groups) S5 pupils. The main task of this unit is to check the quoted
statement about trees and carbon dioxide which was emitted from a car. However,
before starting it they were asking to write down a plan. It
was also stressedto them
that they could ask for hints if they are unsure what to do at any stage.

6.4.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

There are several ways to tackle the problem. To solve the problem, they have to
complete a balanced combustion equation of octaneand use it into the problem.

2 C8H18 + 2502 16 C02 18 H20

By observation and checking pupil answer sheets,almost all pupils did not make a plan
prior to solve the problem. They just directly went straight into solving the problem.
They appeared to start with what was familiar and move on, seeming to hope that the
way forward would emerge. Only one group wrote a plan in the answer sheet. Because
a sequenceof hints was provided to them, most groups finally were able to gain correct
answers. Only two groups failed to solve it. However, there were still some groups
which did not ask for hints but reacheda correct solution.

6.4.2 Hints Given to Pupils

Seven hints were provided to pupils and are shown in page 52. The most frequently
used hint was Hint 2, given to 4 groups. Two other hints (Hint 4 and 5) were given to
two groups. Hint 3 7 to
and were given one group individually.

6.4.3 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the third version of the Endpiece which included thirteen closed questions
and two open questions. The pupils' responses to these two types of questions are

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 Chapter Six

summarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed response to closed questions are
shown in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece (Unit 15)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 0 17 15 1 0

The problem was difficult. 7 23 3 0 0
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 8 12 10 3 0
The problem was completely new to me. 6 13 5 9 0
1 learnednothing from the problem. 1 0 7 25 0
1 had enoughprevious knowledgeto solve the problem. 3 18 6 5 1
1 prefer solving problemson my own. 3 3 7 13 7
We worked well together as a group. 6 13 12 1 1

We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 5 5 14 7 2

1 found the group discussionhelpful. 6 18 7 1 1
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 4 9 8 7 5
I could not have solved the problem by myself 11 7 6 7 2
1 needed the other group membersto help me 5 12 7 8 1
rememberbackgroundinformation I I II

Looking at this table, half of pupils (17 of 33) enjoyed solving the problem and felt that
solving the problem was satisfying (20 of 33). Most pupils consideredthat the problem
was difficult (30 of 33) but only half of them thought the problem was completely new
to them (19 of 33) and said they had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem
(21 of 33).

As the responsesto the two open questions, pupils expressedtheir opinions which are
listed:
Question 1: What didyou needto know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) how to write and balancechemicalequationfor combustionof octane(17)
(b) basic chemistryknowledgesuch as moles
(C) basicproportional skills to work out massesof substances
(d) how to do mole calculation and conversion
(e) how to unite balancedequationsand mole calculations
()9 theformula massesof elements: hydrogen,oxygenand carbon
(g) the formula massesof octaneand carbon dioxide
(h) basic arithmetic

Obviously, most pupils understood that they needed to write a balanced combustion
to the solution. They also pointed out that
equation for the combustion of octane reach
to do were essentialto successin solving the problem.
mole calculations and conversions

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 Chapter Six
Question 2: What made it difficultfor you to
solve theproblem?
Typical responseswere:
(a) did not know where to begin
(b) the statementat the beginningwas quite confusing
(C) the extractfrom the newspapermadeit difficult as the
actual
answerwas very different to that statedin the newspaper
(d) bringing variousparts of information and knowledgetogether
(e) having to work out all the different itemssuchas how much
petrol a car takes
()9 having to go through different stagesand paths to find the
solution, answershiddenin other answers
(g) too manyproblems to solve beforestarting andfindingfinal
solution
(h) converting all of the information and being able to link each
part to another
(i) all the different information to use at one time
6) the arithmetic involved was very tricky to grasp
(k) putting litres into mass (kg)
(1) we did not feel confident enough to solve the problem
(M) to find the number of moles Of C02.

The most difficulty pupils frequently encountered is to bring various parts of

information and knowledge together, it has been shown at the above comments(d, e, f, g,
h, i). In addition, they also felt the arithmetic was hard to grasp and manage. Some
pupils were particularly confused about the answer when it involved a figure which was
very different to the figure stated in the newspaper. In general, it was frequently
observed that they did not know how to start off the problem. This must be seen
alongside the in
apparent unwillingness almost every group to consider planning before
they started.

6.4.4 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded, little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.
Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

6.4.5 Analysis Summary

One of the most interesting features to emerge from this unit was the unwillingness or
inability of the pupils to discuss a plan despite the strong emphasis that this is what
they should do. This is in
perhaps reflected some of the difficulties that they listed as
four for hint 2 which gave a key direction in
well as the observation that groups asked
order to make some progress in the unit. Tape recordings, their answer sheets and
that planning had not taken place. They just
problem sheets all provided evidence
do then hoped that the way ahead would become
started with what they could and
apparent.
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 ChapterSe%
en
Chapter Seven

The Type 6 Problem

In this chapter, the data derived from type 6 problems are outlined and discussed. In
such problems, the data are given, the method is unfamiliar and the goal is open, using
Johnstone'sclassification (1993). Pupils have to make a decision about goals and choose
an appropriate method in order to solve problem successfully. The following units were
classified as the type 6 problem:

Unit 1: Argon and Electric Welding

Unit 4.- Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay?
Unit 5: The Glowing Splint Problem
Unit 8: Moving Gases
Unit 10: The PhosphorusProblem
Unit I I. - TheLeaking Pipe (not usedin this project)
Unit 13: Solubility
Unit 16: Bonding
Unit 17: Chemicalsfrom Salt (not used in this Project)

7.1 Unit 1: Argon and Electric Welding

This unit was used twice. Pupils were askedto find the chemical mistakes and look for a
reasonableexplanation from a newspaperreport about a tragic industrial accident when
electrical-welding was taking place. At the first data collection stage, 12 groups
consisted of 36 (S3) pupils took in
part solving it. In the light of their answers, it was
found that the term "electrical-welding" was an obstacle for them. A clearer illustration
about the nature of "electrical-welding" was addedand used in the seconddata collection
stage. The added information was "welding where the heat to melt metal comesftom an
electrical spark". 12 groups consisted of 35 pupils (early S3) participated in this stage
and their discussionswere tape recorded.

The main chemical mistake relates to argon which cannot be burned nor does it aid
combustion. In addition, electric welding does not involve oxygen and the reason for
using argon is to keep oxygen (from the air) away from very hot metal and reduce
possibilities of metal oxidation. To avoid an accident, the workmen should wear the
breathing apparatusin a closed container.

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 Chapter Seven

7.1.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

At the first data collection stage,almost all pupils (10 of 12 groups) were able to find the
error that argon is a noble, unreactive gas and cannot be burned. Nevertheless, they
thought there must be a hydrocarbon gas such as methane or butane being burned in the
torch. These gasesare good ftiels and used up all the oxygen in the tank. Apparently,
they did not understand the nature of "electrical-welding " and this led them to made a
wrong connection with "hydrocarbon". As the hydrocarbon idea led them done a wrong
approach,an extra illustration about "electrical-welding " was added.

7 (of 12) groups indicated that carbon dioxide is a poisonous gas and killed the
workmen. It is true that when a hydrocarbon fuel is burned it will produce carbon
dioxide (C02) but it is the lack of oxygen that is a more serious problem. A few groups
have a more clear conception that if "there lack of oxygen in tank, carbon monoxide was
possibly produced which is even more poisonous than carbon dioxide". Othergroups'
explanations also showed some misleading ideas. For instance, one group wrote "the
oxygen is used up by theflame, and the air is displaced by argon; the men could not take
in argon and had no air to breathe, therefore suffocating". They thought there was a
flame since the welding was proceeding. Another group wrote " it could not be argon as
argon is unreactive and it is coloured, so the men would see it and escape". In fact, argon
gas is not coloured. Only one group noticed safety in the tank; they said: "the workmen
diedfrom lack of oxygen because they did not use efficient breathing apparatus in an
unventilated tank". Only two groups stated that "argon gas filled up the tank and took
away (or pushed out) the oxygen".

Looking at the working sheets,the following notes are found:

(a) oxygen supports combustion;
(b) argon has a full outer shell, and so the oxygen is attracted to the
element in order to get a completed outer shell;
(C) hydrocarbons (C I to C 4) are gases: must be methane, ethane,
propane or butane;
(d) argon may burn but does not react with oxygen;
(e) argon has full outer shell and so it is unreactive;
()9 fuel, oxygen and heat are neededfor flame;
(g) argon does not burn, it is poisonous;
(h) workmen overcome by argon.

It is clear that most pupils have a basic knowledge about argon and hydrocarbons, even
although hydrocarbons play no part in the actual problem. However, pupils did not
seem to have a clear understandingabout argon's behaviour. For example, while argon's
lack of reactivity was noted by some, the possibility of burning or linking in some way
to oxygen was not ruled out.

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At the second data collection stage, it was found that pupils had not studied argon gas
yet (the school had followed a different syllabus order) and most of them lacked
knowledge of argon and understanding of elements and compounds. This was noted by
observation and the comments from their teacher. Therefore, it was unlikely that they
could see that argon would not bum with oxygen. The answers they made most were
related to the flame (6 of 12 groups), such as " theflame neededoxygen to burn and used
up all the oxygen", "the flame and the sparks for the electrical-welding need oxygen to
burn and so used up all the oxygen". Only one group reached a correct answer. In
addition, only one group mentioned that "the workmen should not have been enclosedin
the tank without an air vent or oxygenpacks". However, significantly, no one referred to
"hydrocarbon" in their answers. The minor re-wording of the question might have
helped but, again, they did not appear to have met hydrocarbons in their syllabus
coverage.

Three groups thought that argon can be burned. A group pointed out that "burning
argon gas ftom the welders torch apparently used up all the oxygen". Another group
thought that "a chemical reaction tookplace and the argonjoined to make argon oxide
compound and the men could not breath so they were suffocated'. Another group clearly
did not understand: "if the oxygen helps the argon gas burn, it acts as a catalyst and
therefore is not used up". This group understood "pure is
oxygen needed" to bum and
"air has only 20% oxygen ", but they made an unclear and contradictory conclusion that
"when the argon burn in the air, the gas producedfilled the tank and killed them". One

group simply pointed that "the two men died offumes because a smallfire".

Overall, the importance of previous knowledge, is

correctly grasped, very apparent. In
14, lead to
addition, previous knowledge inappropriately applied, can wrong conclusions.

7.1.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the first and the third versions of the Endpiece. The first version of the

Endpiece included thirteen closed questions and eight open questions; the third version
included thirteen questions and two open questions. The pupils'
of the Endpiece closed
types are summarised below. Firstly, the summary
responsesto these two of questions
fixed to is shown in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2
of responses closed questions

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Table 7.1 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece
(Unit 1 First Data Collection)
Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly
Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 0 9 18 4 5

The problem was difficult. 6 16 7 7 0

I found that solving this problem was satisfying. 1 21 5 5 4

The problem was completely new to me. 10 13 7 4 2

1 learned nothing from the problem. 4 1 14 12 5

1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem. 3 17 6 6 3

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 2 3 9 11 11

We worked well together as a group. 13 9 4 5 5

We did not share the work out evenly in our group. 2 6 8 11 8

1 found the group discussion helpful. 7 20 4 4 1

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 6 13 9 6 2

1 could not have solved the problem by myself 10 8 12 4 2

1 needed the other group members to help me 8 17 6 1 4

remember background information I I

Table 7.2 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece

(Unit 1 Second Data Collection)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 3 15 16 1 0

The problem was difficult. 10 17 2 6 0

1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 5 15 13 2 0

The problem was completely new to me. 11 15 5 4 0

1 learned nothing from the problem. 0 5 8 15 6

1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem. 6 12 10 6 1

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 3 6 11 9 6

We worked well together as a group. 14 19 1 1 0

We did not share the work out evenly in our group. 3 0 2 17 13

1 found the group discussion helpful. 13 15 6 0 1

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 5 18 6 4 1

1 could not have solved the problem by myself 10 9 6 9 1

1 needed the other group members to help me 5 16 9 4 1

remember background information I 1 1

The sizes of the samples used in these two data collection stageswere almost the same
(36,35). The two different groups views on enjoyment are statistically different (X2 =
9.5, df2, sig. at 1%). It is difficult to seewhy this difference could have occurred. Pupils
in the first stage tended to be rather neutral while in the second stage, the pupils seemed
to enjoy doing the problem (18 of 35) although they did not really understand much
about argon gas. The difference may simply reflect the general attitudes of pupils in
different schools, in the latter of which there appearedto be a very positive atmosphere.

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In most other areas,there were no differences between the two groups in pupils views.
However, fewer pupils in the second stage found the problem to be unsatisfying (2 of
35). This is consistent with their higher enjoyment and is perhaps related to the opinion
that groups worked better in that stage (X2 = 8.1, M, sig. at 5%). Overall, pupils found
the problem was difficult and new to them but felt they had enough knowledge to solve
it. Groups worked well and they considered they needed each other to reach answers.

As the responsesto eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressedtheir opinions are listed:

For the following problems, there were no useful comments arising from them:
Question 1: What didyou dofirst to solve theproblem?
Question 2: nat was the secondstep?
Question4: Whatwasthe easiestpartin theproblem?
Question7: In what waysdid working in a group help to solvetheproblem?
Question8: Whathaveyou learnedfrom theproblem?

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) what does burning methanedo;
(b) hydrocarbons information (6);
(C) hydrocarbonsproducing carbon monoxidewhen burned without
lots of oxygen;
(d) Fuels (4);
(e) argon is a noble gas and is very unreactive(13);
(/) argon doesnot burn, so it could not have causedthe problem (4);
(g) The burningflame needsoxygen;
(h) the gasesand their products and how they burned;
(i) general chemistryknowledge.

Most pupils understood the properties of argon are important. Despite the complete
absence of any mention of hydrocarbons, they also mentioned hydrocarbons and fuels
that because they were not aware of the nature of "electrical-welding" and they
developeda misleading linkage to their previous knowledge about combustion.

Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing youfrom reaching a solution?

Typical responseswere:
(a) thefact that argon did not burn or react with anything, this put us back (5);
(b) what the argon did;
(C) where the argon camefrom;
(d) we were not sure which hydrocarbonit was (3);
(e) we were not sure which gas had beenburned;
(/) which gas killed the men;
(g) whetheror not the mensuffocatedor inhaled the gas;
(h) confusion (3);
(i) did not have enoughusefulknowledgeto work with (5).
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It has been mentioned at section 6.2.2 that the question was slightly adjusted becauseof
the word "hindrance". Indeed, pupils were aware that argon did not bum but were
confused about what factor caused the men to die. The factor is that there was not
enough oxygen in the closed tank and thus the workmen should use efficient breathing
apparatus.

Question 6: How didyou overcomeobstacles in the problem?

In general, most pupils stated that they overcame obstaclesthrough

"group discussion" or "askedfor help". Only two groups mentioned
that they "used the Periodic Table" to overcome obstacles.

As the responsesto two open questions in the third version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressedtheir opinions are listed:

Question 1: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) what happenedif the gases(argon and oxygen)chemicallyjoin;
(b) fire needsoxygento burn;
(C) gasesusedup oxygenin the air (3);
(d) flames need oxygento burn (3);
(e) if argon could react easily with other chemicalsor oxygen(4);
(/) if argon was a flammable chemical (3);
(g) oxygenhelps things to burn (5);
(h) argon doesnot burn with oxygen(2);
(i) we needoxygento breath (4);
6) what gaseswhere being usedor involved(3)

They generally focused on the role of oxygen but did not address that the key factor is
the property of argon. This was almost certainly because this topic had not yet been
in
covered normal teaching.

Question2: nat madeit difficultfor you to solvetheproblem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) did not have enough information (7);
(b) did not know a lot about argon (3);
(C) the way the report was set out madeit difficult to understand(3);
(d) had a limit time (3);
(e) it is difficult to concentratewith the microphonethere;

It is understandablethat most pupils were puzzled by their lack of knowledge of argon.

7.1.3 Information fromTape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded,little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.

Almost all could handle the problem wIthout too much difficulty.
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7.1.4 Analysis Summary

Evidently, if Pupils are not aware of the nature of the electrical-welding, they cannot
make an reasonableexplanation for the tragedy. In looking at the overall pattern of data
gathered, it is clear that absenceof key knowledge greatly hinders successful problem
solving. However, it is also evident that correct knowledge can be a hindrance if linked
inappropriately. Although hydrocarbons are not mentioned in the problem, many
groups in the first stage (where they had covered both noble gas chemistry and basic
hydrocarbon chemistry) linked welding to the burning of hydrocarbons, putting the
pupils down a line of thinking that was incorrect. In the second stage, neither topic had
been covered and the wrong linkage was not made. This suggest an important pair of
principles: for successful key knowledge is vital but knowledge linked inappropriately
can be a hindrance.

7.2 Unit 4: Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay?

The unit was used at the first data collection stage with 15 groups (42 S3 pupils) taking
part in solving it. Pupils were ask to find out as many errors as possible in a statement
about tooth decay. The statement is "Fluoride strengthens teeth by bonding with
calcium, the main ingredient in enamel, toform calcium fluoride. Calciumfluoride is a
harder, denser material than calcium alone, making teeth more resistant to the bacteria
that cause decay". Calcium, which not being the main ingredient (in terms of % of
element present) is the main metallic element and can thus bond with fluorine to give a
hard, ionic compound.

7.2.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

The possible errors existing in the statementare:

(a) fluoride is a compound, it cannot bond with calcium again;

(b) fluoride does help reduce tooth decay, but not because itforms
calcium fluoride but because it replaces the hydroxide ion
in tooth enamel making the enamel less soluble and more
resistant to bacteria. In fact, the main ingredient in tooth enamel
(Ca3(PO4)6(OH)2) is not calcium but oxygen.

However, pupils would not be expected to know any of this part (b).

Most groups (10 of 15) were able to differentiate between fluoride and fluorine. They
pointed that it was fluorine strengthening teeth by bonding with calcium, not fluoride.
However, there were still five groups which could not point out this error and made
some incorrect answers. For example, one group said "calcium andfluorine are both

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contained in liquid therefore can not be hard and can not be dense,calciumfluoride is not
an anti-bacterial liquid so this can not prevent decay". They seem misunderstood the
reaction of calcium with fluorine and its function related to tooth decay. Others stated
that: "fluorine is a gas and calcium is a metal, calcium fluoride is denser so it could not
prevent bacteria" or "forfluoride is a compound and could not bond with anything else
so it would only mix with the element calcium, fluoride mixing with calcium would not
make teeth more resistant to bacteriafor calcium is not the main ingredient in enamer'.
These comments illustrate some good ideas mixed with areasof confusion.

7.2.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the first version of the Endpiece which included thirteen closed questions
and eight open questions. The pupils' responses to these two types of questions are
summarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed responses to closed questions is
shown in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece (Unit 4)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 0 7 25 8 2

The problem was difficult. 11 25 6 0 0

1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 2 13 19 5 3

The problem was completely new to me. 18 19 1 4 0

1 learned nothing from the problem. 4 9 11 16 1

1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem. 1 7 17 13 4

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 1 1 3 24 13

We worked well together as a group. 18 20 4 0 0

We did not share the work out evenly in our group. 1 2 6 22 11

I found the group discussion helpftil. 8 26 6 0 1

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 16 19 4 2 1

1 could not have solved the problem by myself 8 18 13 1 2

1 needed the other group members to help me 7 24 8 3 0

remember background information I I
-J

The evidence from the above table indicates that most pupils felt the problem was
difficult and completely new to them. Over half of pupils (25 of 42) have a neutral
response to the question about the problem being enjoyable. Only a few pupils (8 of 42)
thought they have enough previous knowledge to solve the problem.

As the responsesto eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressed their opinions are listed:

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For the following problems, there were no useful comments arising from them:
Question]: What did you dofirst to solve the problem?
Question 2: What was the secondstep?
Question4: What was the easiestpart in the problem?
Question7: Inwhatwa did working in a group help to solve theproblem?
Question8: What haveyou learnedfrom the problem?

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) bonding and teeth (12);
(b) things about chemical elements(12);
(C) the difference betweenelementsand compounds;
(d) what the separateelementswere (3);
(e) basicproblem solving skill;
(1) what calcium andfluoride were (3).

It is clear that the properties of elements and compounds is the most important areaof
knowledge neededto solve the problem.

Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing you from reaching a solution?

Typical responseswere:
(a) did not have the backgroundknowledge,such as calcium and
fluoride (8);
(b) did not know about teeth (3);
(C) all the different words or names(3);
(d) the words I never understand(5);
(e) not enough information (10);
09 the part about calciumfluoride densitythrew us off track;
(g) did not know a lot about the issue(3);
(h) arguing on answers(5);
(i) did not know what to do.

Obviously, the big hindrance is that they were not given enough information about teeth.

Question 6: How didyou overcome obstacles in the problem?

Similar to other units, the common methods were "group discussion",

"shared knowledge among the group" or "askedfor help".

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7.2.3 Analysis Summary

Areas of unfamiliarity causedconfusion, including less familiar terminology (like density)

and their lack of knowledge about teeth and their constitution. The issue of bacterial
attack of teeth sometimes side-tracked the discussion. However, the most important
observation is that, where there is a lack of a clear grasp of the concepts of elements,
compounds and bonding, then pupils started to generateexplanations which mixed error
with truth. This, perhaps, points to an important aspect of problem solving: where key
concepts are partially grasped,then approachesto problem solving will be confused and
the problem solver will not even be aware of the confusion.

7.3 Unit 5: The Glowing Splint Problem

The unit was used twice. At the first data collection stage, 10 groups consisting of 30
(S3) pupils took part in solving it. The unit at this stage was in two parts. In part 1,
pupils were asked to solve 4 questions about nitrogen dioxide (NOD which is formed in
a car engine. Thesequestionsare listed below:

(a) Explain how the gas nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is formed in a car engine.
(b) What problems can N02 cause?
(C) How can the problem of N02 be solved in a car?
(d) When the N02 is removedftom the car exhaust, what gases are formed?

The reason for the inclusion of these questions is to foster in pupils an associationwith
the idea of "catalyst" and apply it to solve the part 2 problem. In part 2, results of
experiments were provided showing that a glowing splint could be re-kindled by pure
oxygen not by N02 or air. On the other hand, in another experiment, a glowing splint
could be re-kindled by the mixture of N02 and 02 (the proportion of oxygen is 20%,
same as the air) which was generatedfrom breaking up copper (11)nitrate. The full unit
is shown in Appendix A. Pupils have to try to explain this unexpected result.

The initial objective is that pupils should be able to use the idea of "catalyst" to make a
reasonable explanation. The evidence of results showed that many groups understood
that using a catalytic converter can reduce the problem of N02 but did not know N02
can be decomposed into N2 and 02 by the catalyst. Not surprisingly, they were also not
able to provide a reasonableexplanation about the unexpected result. Therefore, it was
considered that the unit had to be slightly adjusted to provide a more clear illustration in
order to lead pupils to apply the concept of "catalyst' effectively. Thus the four
questions in part I were removed and replaced by another simplified question:

When the N02 is broken up in the exhaust, what gases are formed?

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This focussed the attention of pupils on the products formed. The part 2
problem
remained unchanged and was used at the third data collection stage. 10 groups consisting
of 27 (S4) pupils took part in this stage of test, their discussion were tape recorded. In
the first stage, S3 pupils were used late in the year while, in the second stage, S4
pupils
were used early the following session. It was thought that this would provide a fair
comparison.

7.3.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

For S3 pupils (at the first data collection stage), almost all pupils obtained quite correct
answers to the part I questions (a), (b) and (c). They knew that nitrogen reacts with
oxygen in a car engine to form nitrogen dioxide. In addition, they were also aware that
nitrogen dioxide can cause acid rain and pollution which will damage environment and
harm human beings. To reduce the problem of N02 in a car, they statedthat it could be
solved by using catalytic converter or using a different petrol like diesel fuel.
Nevertheless, astonishingly, several groups (5 of 10) mentioned that "carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide or sulphur dioxide" are formed when N02 is removed. One group
thought that "lead vapour isformed when N02 is removed". Although they knew the
function of "catalytic converter" in the car engine, they seem did not understandthat
nitrogen dioxide (N02) can be decomposedto N2 and 02 and this led them to draw the
incorrect solutions. Only two groups clearly pointed that nitrogen and oxygen are
formed when N02 is removed.

In part 2, most pupils were able to point out that the experimental result is unexpected
becausethe products have the sameamount of oxygen (20%) as in air but will re-kindle a
glowing splint. Referring to a possible explanation for the result, only one group
reached the solution that "a catalyst breaks up the nitrogen dioxide into nitrogen and
oxygen which gives more oxY9en to relight the glowing splint". Although five groups
gave a plausible explanation that "nitrogen dioxide contains oxygen, there is more than
20% oxygenpresented", they just simply added the oxygen from nitrogen dioxide to the
20% oxygen but did not appearto appreciatethat N02 gas has to be decomposed.

For S4 pupils (at the third data collection stage), most of them correctly answered the
modified question that "when N02 is broken up it breaks up into nitrogen and oxygen".
Similarly, most pupils were also able to explain why the the experimental result is
unexpected. However, two groups focused on "nitrogen dioxide" instead of "oxygen".
They said "in experiment 1, it shows that nitrogen dioxide does not rekindle a glowing
splint but in experiment 2, it does rekindle a glowing splint so the is
result unexpected ".
They seem to forget that the main influential factor is the percentageof oxygen although
nitrogen dioxide is still involved in it. This time almost all pupils could make more clear

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explanation about the unexpected result. They mentioned the " hear' or "catalyst" will
help breaking up nitrogen dioxide into N2 and 02. Some of the explanations
were
accurate such as "the heatftom the glowing splint breaks down nitrogen dioxide into
nitrogen and oxygen producing enough oxygen to relight the glowing splint" or "the
glowing splint acts as a catalyst and to break up nitrogen dioxide to release more oxygen
to relight the glowing splint ". It seemsthat removal of irrelevant information and adding
a pertinent question to the problem is more helpful. Making the specific link between
catalysis and the formula of the gasesseemsto be critical.

7.3.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the first and the third version of the Endpiece. The first version of the
Endpiece included thirteen closed questions and eight open questions; the third version
of the Endpiece included thirteen closed questions and two open questions. The pupils'
responsesto these two types of questions are surnmarised below. Firstly, the summary
of fixed responsesto closed questions is shown in Table 7.4 and Table 7.5

Table 7.4 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece

(Unit 5 First Data Collection)
Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly
Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 0 6 4 16 4

The problem was difficult. 13 11 3 2 1

1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 0 10 10 8 2

The problem was completely new to me. 4 5 5 13 3

1 learnednothing from the problem. 1 3 8 16 2

1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 2 12 12 3 1
I prefer solving problems on my own. 1 2 2 10 15
We worked well together as a group. 8 14 2 4 1

We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 4 4 10 6 6

1 found the group discussionhelpful. 5 16 7 1 0
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 15 9 1 3 2
1 could not have solved the problem by myself 9 8 2 8 3
1 needed the other group membersto help me 8 8 9 3 2
rememberbackground information I I I

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Table 7.5 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece
(Unit 5 Third Data Collection)
Strongly Agree Neithe agree Strongly
Disagree
agree nor disagree
.r disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 3 17 6 1 0

The problem was difficult. 7 11 4 4 1
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 9 11 6 0 1
The problem was completely new to me. 3 15 8 1 0
1 learnednothing from the problem. 2 0 2 20 2
1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 3 12 8 2 2
1 prefer solving problems on my own. 1 0 7 13 6
We worked well together as a group. 11 14 2 0 0

We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 0 1 9 8 9

1 found the group discussionhelpful. 8 17 1 1 0
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 3 8 3 8 5
1 could not have solved the problem by myself 6 7 9 3 2
1 needed the other group membersto help me 3 14 6 3 1
rememberbackground information I I I I I

In comparing the two groups, it is interesting to note that the second group found the
problem was more enjoyable (X2 = 16.7, dfl, sig. at 0.1%) and more satisfying (72 = 9.5,
dfl, sig. at I%) despite finding the material less familiar (X2 = 7.7, dfl, sig. at 0.1%) than
the first group. The last observation may reflect on different coverage of the syllabus
but it does appear that the modification of the unit to specifically link catalysis to the
products formed enabled the pupils to respond to the unit in a more positive way. In
most other areas, there is no different between the groups although, interestingly, the
first group were more sure that they had the right answer (X2 = 9.2, dfl, sig. at 1%) even
though, in fact, less of them did achieve the correct answer.

As the responsesto eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressed their opinions are listed:

For the following problems, there were no useful comments arising from them:
Question]: didyou dofirst to solvetheproblem?
"at
Question2: Whatwasthesecondstep?
Question4: nat wasthe easiestpartin theproblem?
Question 7: In what ways did working in a group help to solvetheproblem?
Question 8: What have you learnedftom the problem?

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) about N02: the effectsOfN02 on the environmentand how N02 is formed (H);
(b) about car engines:how an engineworked, what happensin a car engine (10);
(C) about catalystsandfuels (3);
(d) acid rain;
(e) car exhaustfumes.

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It seemsto be easy to focus on the main concept of "NOY' and "car engines" but
no one
seemedto associatethe catalyst with N02.

Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing youfrom reaching a solution?

Typical responseswere:
(a) did not have enoughknowledge(4);
(b) the problem was too difficult (7)
(C) not understoodthe answersto the questions;
(d) conflicting ideas;
(e) lack of time;
(f) concluding how the engine worked;
(g) working out N02 involvementwith cars.

The most serious hindrances they suggestedwere: the problem was too difficult and they
did not have enough knowledge. They seemedto have an understanding of the idea of
a
catalyst but failed to apply this to the problem.

Question 6: How didyou overcome obstacles in the problem?

Some pupils (7 of 30) said they did not overcome obstaclesand

"guessed" it. Most pupils (15) have the same responses:"discussed
the possible answers".

As the responsesto two open questions in the third version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressedtheir opinions as listed:

Question 1: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) what a catalyst is and how catalystworks; how catalyst can speed
of reactions (9);
(b) about converteror catalyst in car exhaust(4);
(C) how to break up compounds(4);
(d) basic chemistryknowledge(5);
(e) the symbolsof different elements;
(f) how equation works.

The basic knowledge is the properties of catalyst and how compounds will be broken up
by it.

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Question 2: "at made it difficultforyou to solve theproblem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) where the extra oxygencamefrom;
(b) did not know much about cracking and the experiment(3);
(C) did not realise a catalyst was involved in the experiment;
(d) the way the questionwas set up;
(e) not being totally confidentwe knew the answer;
(f) had never done a problem like this before;
(g) finding out what could be the catalyst in the reaction (3);
(h) not rememberingabout car exhaustsand the breaking-upof substances(3);
(i) not knowing about the catalyst (3);
0) it was difficult to put all the information into an answerpaper.

The range of issues raised by pupils illustrates that the number of ways the approached
the problem are very varied. It is consistent with the observation that pupils do not plan
how to solve problems. They seem to start with whatever is familiar,
- content,
procedures, concepts. They try approaches in several directions, hoping for some
insight to emerge that will point them to the way forward.

7.3.3 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded, little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.
Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

7.3.4 Analysis Summary

It is clear that the revised version produced much greater successin solving the problem
and that the specific linking of the catalysis with the breakdown of nitrogen dioxide was
the key element in allowing success. In some way, the first group were unable to make
this linkage and were seriously hindered in solving the problem. This is consistent with
the hypothesis that, usually, learners cannot make linkages between key concepts: the
links must be suggestedor supplied by the teacher in some way.

7.4 Unit 8: Moving Gases

The unit was used twice. The experimental data about five gases and the distance
travelled are given in a table (Table 7.6, overleaf), pupils were asked to spot any pattern
in these results and test whether their pattern was correct or not. In addition, under the
same conditions they are also asked to predict the distance a sixth gas (C12)would travel.
At the first data collection, 12 groups, consisting of 35 (S4) pupils, took part in solving
it. It was expected that pupils could relate the distance travelled with the formula mass.

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As a result, most pupils were able to

Table 7.6 Table 7.7
point out the pattern that the heavier Gas Distance Gas Distance
the molecule is, the less distance it (CM) (CM)
S02 50 S02 50
would travel but no group was able to CH4 100
HCI 66
spot the pattern exactly: that the HCI 66
CH4 100
distance travelled has the inverse S03 44
S03 44
square relationship with the formula NH3 94 NH3 94
in ass. I herelore, a hint (an
extra thing tothink
about .....can you find a more exact relationship between the mass of the molecule
and the distance moved?) was provided and the unit was revised by changing the order of
the gasestravelled distance (Table 7.7), where the order of the distancesof S02 and CH4
were changed, to test whether pupils can reach a more exact answer. Afterwards, it was
used at the second data collection stage, 14 groups consisted of 38 (S4) pupils
participated in this stage of test, their discussion were tape recorded.

7.4.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

Most pupils in the first data collection stage understood that the lighter the gas is the
further it travels. By checking the notes on their working sheets, these groups did
calculate the formula mass of gasesbut did not write it into the answer. However, some
groups referred to the term "mass" but did not precisely link it to '!formula mass".
They often connected it to "atomic mass". This can be seen from the selectedexcerpts:
"the higher the atomic mass,the less distance the gas travels" and "the lower the relative
the
atomic masses more distance travelled". The answers were not completely incorrect
but it just appearsthat pupils were not thorough in their analysis of the problem. Only
one group clearly stated that "we tried to relate gram formula mass to distance
travelled'. In addition, one group linked the presence of Oxygen atoms with shorter
distance. They said: "sulphur plus oxygen compounds travel between 44 and 50; the
more oxygen contained in the compound the less distance travelled'.

For the question "how would you test to see ifyour pattern is correct? ", half (6 of 12)
groups suggested that they can use other different gases and measure the travelled
distances to examine their idea. The other six groups did not answer this question or
they gave an incorrect suggestion. Referring to the question "howfar the chlorine gas
would travel", the most accurate answer is 48 cm. Three groups employed the massesof
S02 and S03 and compared with chlorine to obtain a correct answer. One group wrote
"the atomic mass of chlorine is 71 which higher than S02 and lower than S03, so it had
to be in the middle becausethe difference is 16. Chlorine travels at 47 cm". Two other
groups had a similar answer that "C12 will travel between 50 cm and 44 cm, because it

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was lighter than S03 (80) which travelled 44 cm and heavier than S02 (64) which
travelled 50 cm". However, only one group drew a rough graph to obtain their answer
(47.4 cm).

At the second stage, almost all pupils obtained similar patterns: "the lighter the gas the
further the distance it may travel" or "as the molecular mass increases the distance
travelled decreases". Only one group particularly considered that the different kinds of
atoms (H, 0 and S) would influence the gas travelled distance. They statedthat "the gas
with hydrogen travels thefurthest because it is the lightest; the gases with sulphur and
oxygen in them travel the least becausethey are two of the heaviest ". Disappointingly,
no group could find a further definite conclusion through the comparison between S02
and CH4 although these two gases have been moved to be adjacent. Only one group
noticed the relationship between the travelled distances Of S02 and CH4 but they were
still unable to draw a conclusion clearly. Their answer was "if there is a di-oxygen in the
formula (they meant S02) then it would be haýf in methane".

To test whether the pattern they made is correct, half (7 of 14) of groups knew that they
can examine their ideas by using different gases. Two groups' methods were
unreasonablebecausethey forgot the given gasesare poisonous (like S02) which cannot
be used directly in an openedroom. These methods were:

(a) "the gases are perfumed (presumably they meant a smell) so ifyou put a

gas at one end of the room and timed how long it takesfor you to smell
it, then you couldfind out which gas travels the quickest";

(b) "line people at 40 cm, 50 cm, 60 cm, 70 cm, 80 cm, 90cm and 100 cm
away ftom the gas, let off each gas after each other wait until the
last about 25cm "

Only one group thought that the oxygen and hydrogen might be the main factors which
would result in the difference of travelled distance. Their description was: "the
experiment would be done again with oxygen and hydrogen to see if 02 and H2 are the
causes of the distance travelled". For the travelled distance Of C12, only 4 groups
obtained an approximately accurate answer. In this part, pupils' performances were
worse than those in the first stage.

7.4.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used two versions of the Endpiece. The first version of the Endpiece included
thirteen closed questions and eight open questions; the second version of the Endpiece
included thirteen closed questions and six open questions. The pupils' responses to
these two types of questions are surnmarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed

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responsesto closed questions is shown in Table 7.8 and Table 7.9

Table 7.8 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece

(Unit 8 First Data Collection)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree
The problem was enjoyable, -3 8 -72- -6 -6
The problem was difficult. 11 16 6 2 0
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. I 11 12 6 5
The problem was completely new to me. 6 20 6 3 0
1 learned nothing from the problem. 5 1 10 12 6
1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 2 6 10 9 8
1 prefer solving problems on my own. 0 2 7 13 13
We worked well together as a group. 12 16 4 2 1
We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 2 3 4 18 8
1 found the group discussionhelpful. 3 19 7 4 1
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 7 10 8 8 2
1 could not have solved the problem by myself 7 12 8 5 2
1 needed the other group membersto help me 5 13 11 3 2
1rememberbackground information I I I I I

Table 7.9 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece

(Unit 8 Second Data Collection)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 1 23 11 2 1

The problem was difficult. 8 17 11 2 0
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 1 18 12 7 0
The problem was completely new to me. 18 17 1 2 0
1 learnednothing from the problem. 1 5 9 18 5
1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 0 11 17 9 1
1 prefer solving problems on my own. 2 3 8 19 6
We worked well together as a group. 11 19 7 1 0

We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 0 4 5 22 7

1 found the group discussionhelpful. 8 23 4 3 0
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 4 17 9 7 1
1 could not have solved the problem by myself 10 12 9 7 0
1 needed the other group membersto help me 3 15 12 5 3
rememberbackground information I I I I I

The only difference between the two versions of the unit was in the layout of the table
and, as might be expected, there were few differences between the two groups. The
second group found the problem was more enjoyable (X2 = 7.3, dfl, sig. at 1%) and also
were more definite that the problem was new to them (X2 = 4.2, dfl, sig. at 5%), this
latter difference probably being a reflection of the syllabus coverage in the school.

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As the responsesto eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressedtheir opinions are listed:

For the following problems, there were no useful comments arising from them:
Question 1: What didyou d6first to solve theproblem?
Question 2: What was the secondstep?
Question 4: What was the easiestpart in the problem?
Question 7: In what ways did working in a group help to solvetheproblem?
Question8: What haveyou learnedftom the problem?

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) how to find the relative atomic mass(9);
(b) how to calculate the masses(9);
(C) about someknowledgeof gases;
(d) moleculeformula;
(e) little about particle movement;
(f) the lighter the gas, thefurther it will travel.

Apparently, pupils seem to understand that the relative atomic mass is an important
factor.

Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing youfrom reaching a solution?

Typical responseswere:
(a) did not explain clearly how to makea conclusionand no
exampleswere given (3);
(b) could notfigure out thepatterns atfirst (3);
(C) finding the link betweenformula and distance;
(d) comparingthe gasesdid not alwaysgive us the answerwe were
looking for;
(e) lack of resourcesto workfrom;
(t) trying to work out what to do;
(g) how to test our theory;
(h) it was quite difficult and hard;
(i) the math calculation at the end.

It showed that they did not know how to start out the problem and the lack of a familiar
method seems to have puzzled them. These responses suggest that they were very
uncertain how to tackle the problem. This in
entirely understandable that the problem
was totally new to them and there as no clear goal.

Question 6: How didyou overcomeobstacles in theproblem?

The general responseswere: "did not overcome", "helpfrom other

members or teacher" and "by team work". Only a few pupils pointed
that they looked at information carefully.

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As the responsesto six open questions in the second version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressedtheir opinions as listed:
Question 1: After reading theproblem, what didyour group discussfirst?
Typical responseswere:
(a) the gas and distancetablefirst (3);
(b) the relative atomic massand the distance(4);
(C) trying to find out what the pattern would be (11);
(d) have to find out the GFM (gramformula mass)for eachgas (3);
(e) the distancethe different gasestravelled;
()9 the number of hydrogenand oxygenin each gas;
(g) the connectionof the weight of the moleculeswith the distance
they travelled;
(h) the adding up of relative atomic mass.

To find out what the pattern would be, the underlying point is the relationship of the
formula massesof gaseswith the travelled distance.

Question 2: What was the secondstep your group took to solve the problem?
Typical responseswere:
(a) look for a pattern (5);
(b) worked out the relative atomic massesof the different gases(7)
(C) to checkwhetherthepattern was correct which we had chosen(5);
(d) work out the molecular massIformula weight (5);
(e) did the GFM and comparedthem with the distancethe gas
travelled at;
try to work out the pattern by looking at the distanceand gasformula.

The approachesthey took are similar as those in question I-

Question 3: nat didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) knowledgeabout how to find out one mole of a gas (3);
(b) relative atomic massesor gramformula masses(GFM of the
gases (15);
(C) what the problem was;
(d) how to work outfOrmula weight (4);
(e) the namesof the different atoms;
(f) the symbolsfor the elementsor compounds;
(g) what the problem was about;
(h) the weight of the moleculesand the distancethey travelled

There are two messages:one is the relevanceof GFM; another is how to calculate GFM.

Question 4: What made it difficultfor you to solve the problem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) we could not seethe connectionatfirst (3);
(b) there was no introduction of what you were trying to find;
(C) we were not told evena little about what to do;
(d) we did not know exactlywhereto lookfor the answer;
(e) I had neverseenit before;

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69 it wasunexpected
to me;
(g) it was difficult to spot the pattern (4);
(h) not being able to work out the main problem straight away
0) we were not sure what experiment we could do to see if the pattern
was correct;
the distance were in no particular order
(k) there was no obvious pattern before beginning.

Obviously, becausethe method is unfamiliar to them and goal was open they felt this
problem was difficult and neededa clear instruction to help them solve it.

Question 5: How didyou overcome obstacles in theproblem?

The most frequent comments they made were: "discuss with the group
or "worked together and combined all ideas".

Question 6: What do you think you learnedftom trying to solve it?

Typical responseswere:
(a) the lighter the moleculethe more distanceit travels;
(b) wefound out that gaseswith higher GFM went less in distance
and the oneswith lower GFM it wentfurther in distance(4);
(C) working in a group is a lot more helpful than trying to do it by
myself (3);
(d) it is alwaysgood to havesomebodyto discusswith;
(e) the other two people in my group are better at this kind of thing
than I am;
()9 1 was able to work in a group to solve different typesofproblems,-
(g) I learned it is easiersolvingproblems in a group (6);
(h) I learned that not everythingcan be solved individually sometimes
you need help;
(i) I have learned lookfor other ways of doing it thanjust one way.

By solving the problem, they have learned two things. One is about the chemistry
knowledge; another is about the advantagesof working in group.

7.4.3 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded,little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.

Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

7.4.4 Analysis Summary

Although the methods required to reach solutions were well within the grasp of all
pupils, there is clear evidence that the uncertain goal left most groups in an uncertain
situation at the outset. Nonetheless, they tended to start with familiar territory by
looking at formula massesand they recognisedthe great advantagein working with others

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in seeking to find a solution. The modification of the unit was introduced to test if, by
bringing together two key pieces of information (where the formula massesrelated easily
to each other in a simple way), pupils would find answers more readily. This was not
observed. Surprisingly, the juxtaposition of the information that pointed to the pattern
made no difference to the perfon-nance.

7.5 Unit 10: The Phosphorus Problem

The main task of this unit is to obtain pure phosphorus from rock phosphate
[3Ca3(PO4)2-CaF2]. It links to the pre-Standard Grade curriculum: separation of
mixtures. Pupils are given tabulated information about the four products (CaSi03, CO,
P2 and SiF4) from the industrial process. It is assumed that pupils would be able to
separate the mixtures by taking advantage of the different physical and chemical
properties. Therefore, the unit was used for S3 pupils at the second data collection
stage. 12 groups consisted of 35 pupils took part in solving it and their discussionswere
tape recorded.

Unfortunately, it was observedthat there were six barriers prevented them from reaching
a solution. These barriers were:
(a) not sure what to do at outset, needed hints;
(b) unfamiliar molecules;
(C) not understand the symbol of
(d) neglect sign for temperature;
(e) not sure how to use the table of information;
0 lack of confidence.

Despite the very simple basis of the problem, only three groups obtained partly correct
answers. In fact, the unit is not easy to solve in that four unfamiliar compounds are
involved with the actual method of separation being quite subtle. In the light of
observation and their written answers, the unit seems to be too difficult for S3 pupils,
thus it is considered that the unit might be more suitable for S4 or S5 pupils.

7.5.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

To obtain the pure phosphorus solid, pupils have to look at the given information
careftilly. Looking at the melting and boiling points shows clearly that, with very slight
cooling, the calcium silicate (CaSi03) solidifies leaving the others as gases. The

subsequent step is to cool these three gases in water at a temperature above 44 'C (in
fact at 70 OC). At this temperature, the phosphorus stays as a liquid and can be
separated readily from the solid silicon dioxide and the CO gas which passesthrough.
After the silicon dioxide is removed, the water is allowed to cool and the solid
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phosphorus forms under the water. Although the water contains dissolved hydrogen
fluoride, which derives from the reaction of SiF4 with water, this does not contaminate
the solid phosphorus.

Only three groups of pupils were able to draw out a seemingly reasonable approach.
Their answerswere partly correct and are listed below:

to get pure phosphorus we would cool the three gases to 44 OC,

the other two gases would escape into the atmosphere. We would
then cool the phosphorus under water about 30 'C degrees and put
a small jar under the water to scoop up the solid, ftom here you
would put this in a glove box, open the jar and let the phosphorus
and the water out to let the solid dry off
(2) Mixfour compounds with water, then
SiF4: Reacts in water,
CO: Escapes as a gas in water,
P2: Changes to a liquid, lies in bottom of melt. Cool water under
44 'C. (it turns to crystals, lies at bottom of water. )
Keep P2 under water as when it is taken out of water it will explode.
CaSi03: no reaction.

(3) Put it under water and you would get rid of SiF4 and left with two
compounds (CO + P2). When CO escapes,then you cool down
P2 as a liquid and it turns into a solid

Other pupils were unable to discover the significantly useful data and use them to solve
the problem. They tended to see the items of information as discrete entities and were
unable to bring together several items to It
make a coherent pattern. seems to be difficult
for them to bring pieces of information together and employ them logically. For
instance, one group wrote a note: "put SiF4 in water to make it disappear" then they
separateother compounds by "melt at -90 'C, then boil at 280 'C, then boil at -19]'C,
then melt at -1540 'C ". Another group's answer was "to separate CaSi03 ftom the
gasesyou would use the method offiltration; P2 by using centrifuge". Inpractice, they
have learned the methods of separation such as 'Yilter" or "using centrifuge" but just
could not manage to operate these methods in a meaningful way. The other 7 groups
have similar mistakes and confusions.

7.5.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the third version of the Endpiece which included thirteen closed questions
and two open questions. The pupils' responses to these two types of questions are
summarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed responses to closed questions is
shown in Table 7.10.
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Table 7.10 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece (Unit 10)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree
The problem was enjoyable. 4 11 8 10 2

The problem was difficult. 21 9 4 0 1

1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 5 12 11 5 2

The problem was completely new to me. 19 11 3 2 0

1 learned nothing from the problem. 1 4 5 13 12

1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem. 2 11 4 13 5
1 prefer solving problems on my own. 1 5 11 8 10

We worked well together as a group. 15 14 4 2 0

We did not share the work out evenly in our group. 0 3 0 21 9

1 found the group discussion helpful. 11 16 6 2 0

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 14 13 2 2 4

1 could not have solved the problem by myself 17 11 3 1 3

1 needed the other group members to help me 12 13 7 3 0

remember background information I I I I I

It can be seen from the table that most pupils (30 of 35) felt the problem was difficult
and completely new to them although many seemedto enjoy it and found it satisfying.
The successof group work was particularly marked. According to their responses,it is
understandable that there was no group could reach a completely correct solution
becausethe problem was difficult and unfamiliar.

As the responses to two open questions in the third version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressedtheir opinions are listed:

Question 1: "at didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) methodsof separation (11);
(b) what each symbol means(3);
(C) knowledgeon phosphorusand other chemicals (4)
(d) namesof chemicalslike SiF4 is silicon fluoride;
(e) what the chemicalformulas were;
(/) the givenfour physical and chemicalproperties;
(g) fteezing point of water.

The methods of separation was addressed that it was essential. The knowledge on
phosphorus and other chemicals also play an important role.
Question 2: "at made it difificultfor you to solve the problem?
Typical responseswere:
(a) I could not rememberthe methodsof separation (3);
(b) they all had different meltingpoints, boiling points and reactions;
(C) how to separateP2 and CaSi03 and gases(4);
(d) it is difficult to separategases;
(e) we had never done anything as complicatedbefore (6);
(g) it had a lot information to take it;

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(h) compounds and information were new to me;
0) all the scientific elements and chemicals (3);
0) not enough information.

It is very difficult for them to solve the problem becausethey were unfamiliar with the
method and the chemicals. This seemsto reflect working memory spaceoverload.

7.5.3 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded,little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.

Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

7.5.4 Analysis Summary

On the surface, this unit appears to rely on very simple ideas. However, there is
considerable amount of data and it is necessary to being this data together to reach
meaningful conclusions. There is also a difficulty that, in all their experience of
separating mixtures, they have never faced a mixture at high temperature where the
answer involves controlled cooling, use of a solvent (water) within a temperaturerange,
along with filtration and further cooling. The problem also involves materials in gas,
liquid and solid states. Many ideas have to be brought together from long term memory
and, at the same time, the amount of data to be considered is large. It is not perhaps
surprising that successwas limited.

7.6 Unit 13: Solubility

The unit was used twice. At the first data collection stage, 12 groups consisting of 34
(S4) pupils took part in solving it. The unit at this stage was in four parts. The
solubility of a large number of compounds are shown a in table (see Appendix A). A
definition of solubility is also provided. Firstly, pupils had to draw out the patterns of
solubility. Secondly, they had to predict what might happen when a solution of
magnesiumchloride (MgC12) was mixed with a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH).
The third part was to work out a way to obtain a solution containing only sodium nitrate
from a solution which contains a mixture of lead nitrate (Pb(N03)2) and sodium nitrate
(NaN03). Finally, by using the given information, they had to predict the approximately
solubility for strontium hydroxide and strontium sulphate. Pupils had not met solubility
rules before.

It was expected that pupils could group pieces of information and make a definite
pattern which could be applied. However, the evidence from their answers revealed that
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most pupils were able to draw simple solubility rules but could not apply these to
answer the other three parts successfully. It was considered that too many tasks were
being required of pupils (pupils said they did not have enough time) and the
unit was
revised: part 3 was removed and the orders of the remaining part 2 and 4 were
rearranged. Afterwards, the revised version was used at the second data collection stage.
5 groups consisting of 14 pupils participated in this stage of test and their discussions
were tape recorded.

7.6.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

Most pupils (10 of 12 groups) were able to draw out the solubility rules. Some rules
they established were clear and organised such as "sodium andpotassium are always
soluble", "the in
alkali metals are soluble all compounds", "C03 2- is insoluble except
with alkali metals" or "all nitrate are soluble". Nevertheless, a few groups still did not
develop the rules on a wide basis. They drew the solubility patterns simply stemmed
from a single piece of data: "top two lines are soluble ", "Na+ is always soluble", "all
K+ are soluble " or "every sodium is soluble ". In fact, sodium and potassium can be
grouped together as they are alkali metals. In part 2, when the solution of magnesium
chloride (MgC12) is mixed with the potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution, the solid
magnesium hydroxide [Mg (OH)21 will be formed. Only one group obtained the correct
answer and offered a reaction equation. Three groups made incorrect answerswhile the
other eight groups did not answer the problem at all.

In part 3, only three groups developed an appropriate method to obtain sodium nitrate.
One group stated that they would add "hydroxide solution" into the mixture of solution
so that the sodium would dissolve; another two groups pointed out that they would add
"sodium carbonate" into the solution and "carbonate would react with lead andform a
solid". The other groups did not answer this problem but it is possible that this might
be due to the lack of sufficient time. In part 4, several groups' responses were
"strontium hydroxide is slightly soluble, strontium sulphate is slightly insoluble".
Apparently, they did not look at the problem carefully or might not know how to solve
the problem which led them to a vague answer. In addition, three groups who tried to
work out an approximately solubility also failed.
At the second data collection stage, it was found that pupils demonstrated similar
characteristics in solving the part 1. Three groups drew the solubility patterns which
also stemmed from a single piece of data. One group even wrote an unclear solution:
"gradually moving down the graph, there are more insoluble elements/ ions than at the
top". They seemed to lack the ability to organise all the data logically. Only one group
described the rule more comprehensively as "Na+ and K+ are both alkali metals, both
have one outer electron and are very reactive and are soluble. Mg2+, Ba2+ and Ca2+
.....

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are in column 2 and are very similar in their reactions with each compounds. Pb2+,
Zn2+, Ag+ and Fe2l are all transition metals and their properties
vary in each
compound, their solubilities are vary".

To predict the solubilities of strontium hydroxide and strontium sulphate,

only one
group reachedan approximate answer. The other four groups did not succeed. Although
they explained that the strontium is between calcium and barium in the Periodic Table
and expected its solubility is to be between them, they still could not suggest a
reasonable answer. In part 3 ("mix a solution of magnesiumchloride with a solution of
potassium hydroxide, what might happen?"), similarly, no one could produce a definite
answer. Only one group mentioned "the magnesiumwould not dissolve completely in the
mixture as it is very insoluble in OH-; the K+ would be soluble in the mixture as it is
soluble in both OH'--and Cl-".

7.6.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the first and the third version of the Endpiece. The first version of the
Endpiece included thirteen closed questions and eight open questions; the third version
of the Endpiece included thirteen closed questions and two open questions. The pupils'
responsesto these two types of questions are summarised below. Firstly, the summary
of fixed responsesto closed questions is shown in Table 7.11. As the numbers of pupils
participated in the second stage of test is few (14), their responsesto closed questions
has not been summarised.

Table 7.11 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece

(Unit 13 First Data Collection)
Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly
Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 0 3 6 18 7

The problem was difficult. 18 8 2 5 1

I found that solving this problem was satisfying. 0 8 15 6 5

The problem was completely new to me. 9 8 6 8 3

1 learned nothing from the problem. 4 6 10 14 0

1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem. 2 6 11 12 3

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 0 0 6 12 15

We worked well together as a group. 11 15 5 1 2

We did not share the work out evenly in our group. 2 5 6 14 7

1 found the group discussion helpful. 8 18 5 2 1

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 5 12 7 8 2

1 could not have solved the problem by myself 10 8 8 6 2

1 needed the other group members to help me 9 15 2 6 2

information
remember background I

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The problem seemsto be difficult for most pupils (26 of 34). A majority
of pupils also
did not enjoy solving the problem (25 of 34). They tended to find the
problem
unsatisfying and they felt they lacked knowledge.

As the responses to eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece,
pupils
expressedtheir opinions are listed:

For the following problems, there were no useful comments arising from them:
Question 1: What didyou dofirst to solve theproblem?
Question 2: Mhat was the second step?
Question 4: What was the easiestpart in theproblem?
Question 7: In what waYS did working in a group help to solve the
problem?
Question 8: What have you learnedfrom the problem?

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) about solubility of salts (8);
(h) Ions and bonding (3);
(C) the Periodic Table, the symbolsfor each elementand molecular
formula (5);
(d) identified elementsin table

Obviously, they neededto identify the symbols of elements and the solubility of each
compound.

Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing youfrom reaching a solution?

Typical responseswere:
(a) the table was quite complicated and to understand (5);
(b) it took a long time to find the pattern (4);
(C) not all the patterns went through all the solubility;
(d) the patterns were not complete (3);
(e) we did not know how to do it,-
(/) confusing and not being sure;
(g) the question is hard and difficult;
(h) looking at all the different numbers;
(i) strontium was not on the table.

They appearedto be confused by the given table which contains complicated data, and
also felt did not have enough time to figure out the solubility pattern.

Question 6: How didyou overcome obstacles in the problem?

Some pupils (5 of 34) replied that they did not overcome obstacles.
Most pupils (11) have the sameresponses:"discussed it, or shared all
knowledge". Others' comments were "used the Periodic Table", "looked
for elementsin the samegroup on the table" or "helpedfrom teacher".

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As the responsesto two open questions in the third version of the Endpiece,
pupils
expressedtheir opinions as listed:

Question 1: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) about solubility (4);
(b) we neededto know symbolsand the namesof the compound(3);
(C) about the elements'valencies(3);
(d) we neededto know what all the columnswere; i.e. halogens,alkali
metals,and if they were reactive or not (3).
These groups of pupils searchedfurther information on the Periodic Table, the elements'
valencies and the properties of various columns of the Periodic Table were indicated as
the important factors.

Question 2: What made it difficultfor you to solve the problem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) we had never done a question like this before;
(b) lack of knowledge of chemistry (4);
(C) the numbers being so varied and information we never knew before;
(d) the patterns were not immediately apparent but working together
made it easier to remember similar properties and the columns'
numbers (3);
(e) the amount of information I had to take in which became irrelevant at
the end.

7.6.3 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded,little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.

Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

7.6.4 Analysis Summary

There is clear evidence of confusion, despite the process of pattern seeking being
relatively straightforward. This suggeststhat there are problems deriving from working
memory space overload where the pupils simply could not take in so much information
and discern any patterns. There is no evidence from the second data collection stagethat
the removal of one part made things any easier. It looks like the pupils were so
swamped with data that they were unable to sort things out to grasp the key principles
and then apply them.

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7.7 Unit 16: Bonding

The unit was used at the first data collection stage with 20 groups (56 S3
pupils) taking
part in solving it. The main task is to work out a way to find out what type of bonding
exists in aluminium chloride (AIC13). The information of four types of chemical bonds
(covalent, polar covalent, ionic and metallic) was provided. Pupils have to decidehow
to
spend the flOO budget to select the useful experiments' results to solve the problem.
During the process of problem solving, the researcher had to provide the
results of
various experiments to pupils. The information to be given is:

Melting point: does not melt, sublimes at 193 ' C.

Boiling point: sublimes.
Solubility in water: extremely soluble.
Electrical conductivity as dissolved solution conducts very well.
Electrical conductivity as melt: does not melt.
React with water: dissolves rapidly, sometimeswith a sight 'fizz".

The unit worked quite well with pupils, the element of financial competitivenessbeing
appreciated.

7.7.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

The bonding in pure aluminium chloride is polar covalent in all phases. But when it
reacts with water, hydrated aluminium ions and chloride ions will be released. In this
phase, the bonding is ionic. Among these 20 groups, only three groups found out
aluminium chloride has polar covalent bonding. The experiments they choseto buy were
(a) melting point, (d) electrical conductivity as dissolved or (f) reaction with water. Four
groups concluded that the type of aluminium chloride was covalent and other five groups
chose ionic bonds. The remaining groups did not finish the task and thus had no answer.
The experiments they decided to purchase was very varied. Although they seriously
engaged in solving the problem, it seems to be difficult for them to make clear out
decisions.

7.7.2 Responses from Endpiece

This unit used the first version of the Endpiece which included thirteen closed questions
and eight open questions. The pupils' responses to these two types of questions are
summarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed responses to closed questions is
shown in Table 7.12.

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Table 7.12 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece (Unit 16)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly
Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 6 26 16 6 2

The problem was difficult. 2 19 19 15 1
I found that solving this problem was satisfying. 10 18 20 5 3
The problem was completely new to me. 12 17 9 14 4
1 learnednothing from the problem. 3 8 18 19 8
1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 5 28 13 9 1
I prefer solving problems on my own. 4 5 8 23 16
We worked well together as a group. 20 24 9 2 0

We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 3 2 11 30 10

I found the group discussionhelpful. 15 27 9 3 1
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 5 21 15 12 3
1 could not have solved the problem by myself 10 17 13 9 7
1 needed the other group membersto help me 9 19 16 10 2
rememberbackground information I I I I I

The pattern of responses indicates that the problem was seen as difficult and new
although they felt that they had enough knowledge to tackle it. They seemedto enjoy
the experience and found it satisfying. Groups clearly went well. Observation certainly
confirmed the very positive attitudes, perhaps caused by the slightly competitive nature
of the problem where they had to spend a limited budget effectively.
As the responses to eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressedtheir opinions are listed:

For the following problems, there were no useful comments arising from them:
Question1: Whatdidyou dofirst to solvetheproblem?
Question2: Whatwasthesecondstep?
Question4: "at wasthe easiestpartin theproblem?
Question7 Jn what waYSdid working in a group help to solvetheproblem?
Question8: Whathaveyou learnedftomtheproblem?

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) knowledgeof covalent, ionic and metallic elements/ compounds(9);
(b) the difference betweenionic and covalent compounds(4);
(C) if metallic or non-metallic (4);
(d) all type of bonding (13);
(e) the reactivity series(3);
()9 what we were lookingfor (4);
(g) the Periodic Table;
(h) AIC13turns straight to a gas.

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Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing youfrom reaching a
solution?
Typical responseswere:
(a) the compoundchangedto a gas when melted (3);
(b) only have 100 pounds to spend (12);
(C) we did not knowfrom previous knowledge(3);
(d) gaining the wording of the problem (3);
(e) ionic and covalent bond had similar properties / compounds(3);
(f) the solution is not melting (3);
(g) agreeing on what we should buy (3);
(h) the different results;
(i) chosewrong experiment.

Question 6: How didyou overcomeobstacles in theproblem?

Most pupils (23) have the sameresponses:"discussed it, or helped each

other". Others' comments were "by buying test results" or "tried other
ways of testing".

7.7.3 Analysis Summary

Although this problem went really well with pupils (there was a buzz of involvement
and clear enjoyment), one clear impression left from all the evidence is pupil uneaseand
uncertainty (almost intellectual insecurity) when faced with ambiguous data. This is not
surprising in that so much teaching tends to leave pupils with a "right-wrong" view of
knowledge. This unit challenged this and also raised the difficulty when an experiment
could not give an unequivocal answer.

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Chapter Eight

Other Types of Problems

Three types of problems are discussed in this chapter. For type 2

a problem such as
unit 7, the data and the goal are given but the method is unfamiliar. Pupils have to look
for parallels to known methods. For a type 3 problem such the
as unit 2, the data are
incomplete, the method is familiar and the goal is open. Pupils have to analyse the
problem to decide what further data are required in order to solve problem successftilly.
For a type 5 problem such as units 12 and 18, the data are given, the method is familiar
but the goal is open. Pupils have to make a decision about goals. These
units are listed:

Unit 2: ff'hich is the Best Fuel?

Unit 7.- Iron: How can we obtain it? (not used in this project)
Unit 12: Salt, Salts, andpH
Unit 18: RatesofReaction

8.1 Unit 2: Which is the Best Fuel?

This unit was used twice, once in Scotland, once in Taiwan. At the second data
collection stage, 12 groups consisting of 35 (S5) Scottish pupils which drawn from two
schools took part in solving it. These pupils had been taught the concepts of
combustion and how to balance equation in their normal teaching. A Word Association
Test was conducted before they attempted the unit to check their understanding of the
concept of combustion. Their discussions were tape recorded. At the third data
collection stage, 22 groups consisting of 63 Taiwanese pupils participated in solving it.
They did not complete a Word Association Test and their discussions were not tape
recorded due to these pupils being organised in a large room where it was difficult to
conduct tape recording.

The unit was in four parts. The main task of this unit was "Suppose you were given I
kg (1000g) of eachfuel, whichfuel would give you most energy?" In part I and part 2,
pupils were asked to balance the combustion equations of these three different fuels
(coal, oil and gas) and calculate the fon-nulamassesof each fuel. In part 3, an assumption
that "the energy released is related to the number of molecules formed" was given.
Pupils had to employ the assumption to determine which fuel would provide the most
energy. Afterwards, they had to consider if the assumption is reasonable.

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8.1.1 Word Association Test Results

The main concept in this unit is Combustion. Pupils were given a seriesof related words
and were asked to note as many related ideas as possible in a fixed time. The concept
map is presentedin Figure 8.1.

The evidence from the Word Association Test indicates that pupils have a sound
understanding of the concepts of combustion. This is consistent with the fact that most
pupils were able to complete the combustion equation. However, the results from the
Word Association Test do not throw any light on the observation that most pupils were
unable to solve part 3.

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Unit 2 Which is the Best Fuel

Tree
Petrol
n Oil
Coal
Fire /I
13

Temperature 4
17 9
8\
Gas
17/

17 7

Warmth Flame
Fire 9

Wood

10 Hydrogen
. 00--ol
/I I
Potential 7
%,,
energy

energy

Movement

Metal
Compound

Figure 8.1 Concept Map 11(Unit 2)

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8.1.2 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

It is not difficult for pupils to write the combustion equations of fuels

and calculate their
formula masses, because the Scottish S5 pupils and the Taiwanese
pupils have been
taught this topic and regularly practised it. The combustion equations are:

c+ 02 C02
Cil H24 + 1702 11 C02 + 12 H20
CH4 + 202 10 C02 +2 H20

According to the given assumption, the relative number of molecules formed

in each
equation can be estimatedby dividing 1000 g each fuel by its formula mass. It showsthe
gas (methane) gives the greatestnumber of product molecules and is likely to provide the
most energy for each 10OOgfuel burned. The relationship between the equation
coefficients and the number of molecules formed is an important factor. If pupils did not
notice it then they would not be able to reach a correct answer.

If the various bonds are similar in energy, then the energy released is approximately
proportional to the number of molecules formed. In fact, the assumption is good enough
to show that methane will releasemost energy.

8.1.3 Scottish Pupils' Answers

Not surprisingly, most groups (9 of 12) of pupils were able to write the combustion
equations. Two groups made a mistake about the products Of C02 and H20 from oil
and gas: one group wrote "C + H20" and another group wrote "C02 + 1-12".They seem
to forget that completely burning hydrocarbon will produce C02 and H20. Only one
group was totally confused about the combustion. The equations they wrote were:
02 +cc

02 + 11 c+ 24 H CIIH24

02 +c+4H CH4

Obviously, they did not understand the combustion reaction and lacked chemistry
knowledge. Therefore, they also failed to calculate the formula massesof each fuel while
the other II groups all obtained correct answers.

In part 3, most of pupils were unable to reach a correct solution except one group which
had been given a hint were successful in solving this part. By looking at their tape
transcript, the given hint is obvious, as the following tape transcript reveals:

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T (teacher): So you think which one?
A (pupil) : Coal.
T Why do you think it is coal?
A: Because it gives the more moleculesformed
T Why don't you think the part I? you the is
.......... see energy released
related to the number of moleculesformed, so there are two factors.
One is the grams, another is the equation, you have to put them
together
................
Do you get it?
A: No
...........
T All right, you see, one carbon gets one C02. One oil gets 12 C02
and 11 H20, the total molecules is 23. Here isjust one oil, butftom
your data, the oil is 7.
A: Well, that would be multiple with 23?
TI. You quite reach that
......
A: One molecule there, 23 there, and 3 there. So we just multiple
by (they finally got the numbers of molecules formed: 83,161
.......
and 187.5)

One group thought that "the oil gives out the most energy because there are more
moleculesformed in the balanced equation". They simply seemedto use the equationto
deduce their answer and did not know they have to consider the factor of the 1000 g
weight of fuel. The other groups understood that they have to divide the 1000 g of each
fuel by its formula mass but directly concluded that "coal would give most energy"
However, they were unable to link the part I and part 2 information to the part 3 and
this led them to be unsuccessfulin solving this problem.

To justify whether the assumption is fair, the key knowledge is the overall energy
changes depend on bonds broken in reactants and bonds made in products. It was
expected that through discussion pupils might be able to share ideas which would lead
towards these ideas. In fact, only two group were able to reach this answer. Their
conclusions were "this is not a fair assumption because such factors on the bonding,
structure and intermolecular forces have to be taken into account " and "bonds need
energy to be broken andformed". Four groups pointed out the is
assumption not fair
but had some unclear reasons such as "the molecular size could vary giving different
amounts o energy", "one of the fuels is only one element and the other two contain
hydrogen" or "because each substance has its own strength, no matter how many
molecules the weaker substance has, the stronger would still release a lot energy more
than the weaker". The other groups could not make a reasonablejustification although
some of them had the seemingly accurate idea about "bonding". For instance, one group
wrote "Yes, the smaller the molecules the more energy is released; becausethe less bond
to break"; another group expressed"it is afair assumption becausewith more molecules
there is more energy available to react with".
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8.1.4 Taiwanese Pupils' Answers

In a similar way, all Taiwanese pupils obtained the correct combustion equation
of each
fuel and their formula masses. Only two groups made a slight mistake in the
calculation
of formula masses.

In part 3, almost half of groups (10 of 22) were able to obtain the correct answer. They
first converted the 1000 g weight of each fuel into moles, then multiplied the moles by
the sum of the coefficients of products to gain the overall numbers of products formed.
Eventually, they understood that gas is the best fuel which would give out the most
energy. A typical calculations is shown as below:

Coal is 1000112 =83.33 moles, it produces 83.33 mole Of C02

Oil is 1000/156 = 6.4 moles, it produces (6.4 x H) C02 and (6.4 x 12)H2 0.
The total is 147.2 moles.
Gas is 1000/16 = 62.5 mole, it produces (62.5 x 11) C02 and (62.5 x 12) H2 0.
The total is 187.5 moles.
Therefore, gas would give out the most energy.

The other 12 groups failed in solving this part problem. There is an interesting finding
that some groups selected oil as the best fuel that becauseit "contains the most amount
of carbon atoms". They explained that "burning one more carbon or methyl, thefuel will
give out an extra 13 kcal / mole energy". One group even stated that "oil has 11
it
carbons, will release 143 kcal; coal only has it
one carbon, will release 13 kcal; CH4
has one carbon, it will also release 13 kcal. " Obviously, they seemed simply to recall
the prior knowledge about the combustion energy and linked it to the number of carbons,
then directly jumped into the answer without deliberation. Another group considered
the % of C in each ftiel and selectedcoal as the best fuel, their reasonwas: "coal contains
100% C, oil contains 132 / 176 = 75% of C, gas contains 12 116 = 75% of C Because
burning carbon atom will give out more energy than burning hydrogen atom, so coal
release the most energy". They did not understand at all how to put the information
together to solve the problem.

In addition to the above errors, the Taiwanese pupils also made other mistakes. One
group did the mole calculation accurately but made a wrong linkage although they finally
obtained a correct answer. They linked the combustion equation with the used moles of
oxygen and pointed out that "coal needed 83.3 moles of oxygen, oil needed 1.069 moles
of oxygen and gas needed 125 moles of oxygen; therefore it is gas which would give out
the most energy". By checking the calculations in their notes, oil should need 6.41 x 17 =
108.9 moles of oxygen. Apparently, they made a calculation mistake and also drew a
wrong conclusion: "the more used moles of oxygen, the more energy released'. In a
similar way to the Scottish pupils, three groups only considered the moles of products

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which were converted from the 1000 g weight but were unable to combine it with the
combustion equation. They thought that "the lessformula mass of molecule the more
moles it has; when the mole increased the energy released also increased'. That is the
reason why they chose coal as the best fuel.

Simply by recall, one group referred to the oil is the best fuel for a century becausemany
previous experiments have proved it. They obviously did not understand what the
meaning of the part 3 problem was. Other two groups also confused at this part.
Looking at their answers, one group said: "oil has the biggestformula mass than coal
and gas, so oil wouldprovide the most energy"; another group expressedthat "based on
n= WIM, the numbers of moles is equal to the weight, so theirformula massesare the
same, they all released the same amount of energy". Evidently, they seem had a
misleading knowledge about the concept of mole and formula mass.

In part 4, to justify whether the assumption is fair, II groups agreed that the assumption
is fair. Their explanations were vary and listed as the follows:
(a) because the carbon atoms increased, the more energy released.
(b) the more moleculesformed, the collision of molecules increased and
this lead to release more energy.
(C) because the energy released is related to the Enthalpy Change (AH). It
will be an exothermic reaction when the Heat of Formation is bigger
than the Heat of Reaction . In addition to the number of molecules, the
types of molecules also have to be considered
(d) when afuel is burning, the biggerformula mass thefuel has the more
energy it releases.
(e) if oil releases the most energy, it also produces the most moles Of C02
and H20.
it is based on the Hess's Law.
it
when the energy released would cause the energy level (En)
decreased andformed new molecules.

Because these pupils have been taught some thermochemistry, they were able to use
some of the terms in an attempt to explain what was happening. However, these pupils
did not clearly link this knowledge to the main issue of the assumption although not one
of them ever mentioned that the types of molecules have to be considered.

The other II groups disagreed with the assumption for various reasons. Only two

groups were able to draw the reasonable conclusions. The first group had a wide view:
"the energy released is related to the structure of thefuels, theirformula massesand the
balanced equations"; the second group also noticed that "when different compoundsare
formed, the demanded energy are various; moreover, the amount ofproducts may also
be different ". With respect to the other groups' explanations, two groups had a
misconception about the moles; they disagreed because "the energy released is not

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related to the number of moleculesformed but related to the mole of moleculesformed'.

In addition, if pupils did not associatethe concept of mole with the combustion
equation
logically, they also could not make a plausible conclusion. For instance,
one group
noticed that oil produces II C02 and 12 H20, and thought it must be oil which would
release the most energy if the energy released is related to the number of molecules
formed. On the other hand, they also found out that coal would give out the
most energy
becauseit has the largest moles (83.3 mole). Obviously, they were unable to link these
two parts of information together.

Interestingly, there were two reasons appeared which seem to be irrelevant to the
problem. One group highlighted the influence of C=C bond on the released energy.
Their idea was: "because the pi bond in C=C bond is more stable than the sigma bond in
C-H bond, the molecules which contain C=C bond would release more energy than those
molecules which contain C-H bond ". In fact, these three fuels did not have C=C bond
and the comments reveal some confusion in understanding. Another group made the
conclusion that "the energy released and the new moleculesformed are related to the
three states of substance: solid, liquid and gas. Coal is made up ofpure carbon, so it
contains the most carbon and does not have the three states'problem, therefore coal
would release the most energy, not gas". To solve the problem, the key point is the
various bonds and the structure of compounds not the three states of substance.
Regrettably, pupils seemedto remember fragments of knowledge but did not understand
its real meaning at all. It can be seen from one group's statement: "in many chemistry
research reports, they addressed that the energy released should based on the
If
experimental result. we use the to
assumption calculate the energy, the outcomewill be
lesSaccurate".

8.1.5 Responses from the Endpiece

This unit used the second and the third versions of the Endpiece. The secondversion of
the Endpiece included thirteen closed questions and six open questions; the third version
of the Endpiece included thirteen closed questions and two open questions. The pupils'
responses to these two types of questions are summarised below. Firstly, the summary
of fixed to is
responses closed questions shown overleaf in Table 8. land Table 8.2.

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Table 8.1 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece
(Unit 2 The Scottish Pupils)
Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly
Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 6 17 12 0 0

The problem was difficult. 9 18 5 3 0
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 2 25 7 0 0
The problem was completely new to me. 16 7 5 5 1

1 learned nothing from the problem. 1 2 7 16 8

I had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem. 2 15 8 8 2

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 1 9 10 10 5

We worked well together as a group. 11 17 4 2 0

We did not share the work out evenly in our group. 1 7 8 12 7

1 found the group discussion helpful. 7 19 8 1 0

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 10 9 7 8 1

1 could not have solved the problem by myself. 7 10 7 10 0

1 needed the other group members to help me 8 11 7 6 3

remember background information I

Table 8.2 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece

(Unit 2 The Taiwanese Pupils)
Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly
Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 4 36 14 8 1

The problem was difficult. 2 14 32 14 1
I found that solving this problem was satisfying. 0 33 21 6 1
The problem was completely new to me. 8 27 11 14 3

1 learnednothing from the problem. 1 2 13 41 6

1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 1 14 32 14 1

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 4 17 19 21 2
We worked well together as a group. 8 34 13 8 0

We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 0 6 19 29 9

1 found the group discussionhelpful. 10 38 12 1 2

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 5 22 25 9 2

1 could not have solved the problem by myself 5 20 20 13 5

1 needed the other group membersto help me 7 43 8 2 3

Irememberbackground information I I I II

Looking at these two tables, it is obvious that most of the Scottish and the Taiwanese
pupils both have a positive pattern in "enjoyable", "satisfying" and "the problem was
new". Referring to the difficulty of the problem and whether they have enough
knowledge, most Taiwanese pupils (32 of 63) have a neutral answer while the Scottish
pupils seem to see the problem as more difficult, perhaps reflecting the fact that their
syllabus had not yet covered any topics relating to thermochemistry.

As the responsesto six open questions in the second version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressed their opinions are listed:

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(Two Scottish schools participated in solving this unit andfilled in the second and the third
version of the Endpiece, their responses were added together. The Taiwanese pupils only
filled in the third version.)

Question 1: After reading the problem, what didyour group discussfirst?

Typical responseswere:
(a) whether water is formed in the combustion of coal (3);
(b) talk about how we would tackle it (4);
(C) what about the substanceswere (3);
(d) we discussed about which fuel is the best (4);
(e) how to figure out how many molecules were used in a balanced
equation (3);
(f) we discussed how to balance the equations (3).

By observation, the S5 pupils were more confident in group discussion and this led them
to be able to go straight towards the key point.

Question 2: nat was the secondstep your group took to solve the problem?
Typical responseswere:
(a) we balanced the chemical equations andfound their formula masses (9);
(b) calculate how much of each fuel we have (3);
(C) how many molecules 1000 g produced.

Practically, the approachesthey took focussed on part 2 of the problem.

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responsesby the Scottish pupils were:

(a) we needed to know how to balance equations and how to calculate
formula masses (21);
(b) basic maths and chemistry knowledge (3);
(C) we needed to know different types of formula (3);
(d) we needed to know what combustion was and what was the products
of burning fuels (6);
(e) how to work out how many molecules / moles were formedftom each
Jue1 (3).
69 how compoundsjoin to form others.

Significantly, how to write a balanced equation and work out the formula massesis the

main comments from pupils.

Typical responsesby the Taiwanese pupils were:

(a) have strong knowledge about "Thermochemistry" (36);
(b) basic chemical calculations such as calculate formula mass and
mole (38);
(C) how to write the balanced combustion equations (42);
(d) we needed to know what the influence of chemical equation by moles was;
(e) how to work out the Energy of Reaction and the variety of energy
released;

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(f) about mole and how to apply it (10);
(g) we needed the basic concept of thermochemistry to work out the
demanded energy;
(h) we needed to know the atoms are reserved;
burning organic compound will produce C02 and H20;
we needed to know the coefficient of chemical equation is equal to the
mole ratio of each compound;
(k) general chemistry knowledge (13);
(1) the organic chemistry knowledge;
(M) the energy level (En).

Theseresponsesindicated a much wider range of knowledge which was seenas relevant.

This might reflect the greater coverageof chemistry by thesepupils at this stage.

Question 4: What made it difficultfor you to solve theproblem?

Typical responsesby the Scottish pupils were:

(a) when we had different answers, our group had difficulty in agreeing in
the solution (4);
(b) it was difficult because of the calculations (8);
(C) we were not sure of the product of reactions;
(d) we did not know whether we were on the right tracks or not (3);
(e) we were not sure that our equations orformula masseswere correct;
(t) had not done anything like the equation given before;
(g) not knowing how to relate the first two parts;
(h) I did not understand some questions until explained;
(i) the large numbers we had to work with and the way multiple formula
were required to find the correct answer.

The calculations seemsto be the main difficulty for pupils. In addition, the conflicts of
different opinions between group members and the uncertainty that whether their
thinking was correct also blocked them.

Typical responsesby the Taiwanese pupils were:

(a) we had difficulty in discussion and agreeing in the same solution (6);
(b) thermochemistry (2);
(C) part 3, because we needed to know what the products was and had to
calculate the released energy (19);
(d) part 3, first we used E=MC2 but then thought the combustion
equation is related to the "thermochemistry"
(e) part 4, because we had to write our opinions / needed the profound
concepts and thinking carefully / did not know how to answer it / did
not have clear ideas / we had never done this kind ofproblem before
so we needed more time (16);
it is difficultfor us to decide which fuel was the best (3);
(g) part 3 and part 4, because we did not have clear ideas / the problem
was abstract / we knew what the answer was but could not provide a
reasonable explanation / the problem was unusual, we had to think it
very long (7);
(h) we had never paced a problem like it before, so we did not know
where to start;
(j) to construct our ideas.

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Question 5: How didyou overcomeobstacles in theproblem?

Typical responseswere:
(a) we went through all the methods to find the most likely answer (3);
(b) we rememberedftom the past work, form which we had done (3);
(C) we discussed our opinions and came to a calculation for the problem (10);
(d) did long sums, long multiplication and long division (3).

They overcame the obstaclesby retrieving the knowledge from their long term memory
or group discussions.

Question 6: What do You think you learnedftom trying to solve it?

Most pupils found out the advantages of working in groups such as "it is
easier to tackle the problems", "I learned to compromise and discuss things
in group" or "taking otherpeople opinions into account can logically solve a
problem". A few of them pointed that they" improved their maths". Only
one pupil mentioned that he learned that "molecules are not related to the
energy released'.

8.1.6 Information from Tape Recordings

Although most groups were recorded,little of significance emergedfrom the recordings.

Almost all could handle the problem without too much difficulty.

8.1.7 Analysis Summary

For all pupils, this unit was new and this was reflected in their comments. Overall,
to
pupils managed use balanced equations and worked out formula masses. Many could
in
make a good attempt relating the 10OOg to the formula masses. However, few pupils
were able to bring these two ideas together to obtain a correct answer. These
observations are consistent with the suggestion that the creation of a pathway between
"islands" of knowledge or skills is extremely difficult. This may be one of the critical
aspects in seeking to solve open-ended problems successfully. It raises the question:
can the skill of linking ideas be developed, does it develop naturally with age, or do the
links have to suggestedby the teacher ?

8.2 Unit 12: Salt, Salts and pH

The unit was used at the first data collection stage with 20 groups (58 S3 pupils) taking
part in solving it. The main task of this unit is to draw many conclusions from a table
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(Table 8.3) which provided various salts and the pH of their solution in water. Because
the goal is open, an example (salts containing potassium always seem to have a pH
of 7
or more) is given as a hint to help pupils drawing conclusion.

Table 8.3 The Salts and the pH of Their Solution

Salt pH
Iron (11) sulphate
Aluminium chloride 3
Zinc (11) sulphate 3
Copper (11) nitrate 3
Sodium chloride 7
Potassium sulphate 7
Calcium chloride 7
Sodium nitrate 7
Sodium carbonate 10
Potassium carbonate 11

8.2.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

It would be more successfulto solve the problem if pupils begin doing it from comparing
the similarity between the salts with their pH. In fact, most pupils were able to draw
simple conclusions such as "all salts containing iron have a pH of I" or "all salts
containing aluminium, zinc and copper have a pH of 3". On the other hand, some groups
merely copied the given example to wrote their conclusion. For instance, "salt contains
chlorides have 3
a pH of or more" or "salts containing sodium have a pH more than 7"
was found in many groups. Only a few of groups understood to draw their conclusions
based on the Periodic Table, like "all the alkali metals in the table produce a neutral or
alkali solution but transition metalsproduce acidic solutions ", or "all group 1 metals will
make an alkali solution". However, all the pupils almost were able to reach some correct
conclusions of varying degreesof generalisability.

Astonishingly, some unexpected conclusions emerged which, in some cases,are partly

correct. Four groups mentioned that "the salts containing the sign of (II) are acidic".
They seemednot to be able to use the term of "valency". Others conclusions were: "the
acidic salts have no alkali metals in them", "anything with carbon in it is an alkali" or
"double bonding metals seemto have a low pI-F' etc.

8.2.2 Responses from the Endpiece

This unit used the first version of the Endpiece which included thirteen closed questions
and eight open questions. The pupils, responses to these two types of questions are
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summarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed responses to closed questions is

shown in Table 8.4

Table 8.4 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece (Unit 12)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 1 14 35 2 6

The problem was difficult. 0 15 18 21 4
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 1 15 23 13 5
The problem was completely new to me. 15 20 6 10 5
1 learnednothing from the problem. 5 2 16 34 1
1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 4 17 14 14 9
1 prefer solving problems on my own. 2 4 6 18 27
We worked well together as a group. 30 21 3 1 2
We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 2 8 5 24 18
1 found the group discussionhelpful. 8 38 9 1 1
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 10 14 21 13 0
1 could not have solved the problem by myself. 11 8 12 20 6
1 needed the other group membersto help me 0 19 18 12 8
rememberbackgroundinformation II I II I

Although the problem was developed from examination paper questions, most pupils
(35 of 58) still felt the problem was new to them. Referring to enjoyment, most of them
(35 of 58) have no strong agreement in it while views about difficulty were indicated
neutral views.

As the responsesto eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressedtheir opinions are listed:

For the following problems, there were no useful comments arising from them:

Question 1: What didyou dofirst to solve theproblem?

Question 2: What was the secondstep?
Question 4: What was the easiestpart in theproblem?
Question 7: In what waYSdid working in a group help to solvetheproblem?
Question 8: What have you learnedftom the problem?

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) what pH is (17);
(b) the pH table and the Periodic Table (5);
(C) what "ate " on the end of an elementmeans(3);
(d) about naming compounds;
(e) what were alkalies and acids (6)
(/) I neededto know about acidic and alkali metals (5);
(9) which substanceswere metalsand which were not;

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what elements the salts contained (5);
a knowledge of what to do and how to get answersfrom information (3).

Undoubtedly, it appears that most pupils regarded the pH as an

essential knowledge.
The basic information about alkali and acid also play an important role.

Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing youfrom reaching

a solution?
Typical responseswere:
(a) we did not understandthe questionatfirst (6);
(b) someelementsonly appearedonce (3);
(C) lack of enough information (4);
(d) could notfind reasonablesimilarities (3);
(e) lack sufficient time to discussconclusions(5);
(f) working out all the differentparts of the salt solutions (3);
(g) too many different results we could have had longer.

It is astonishing that pupils thought the failure of finding reasonable similarities was a
hindrance even though an example has been given to them as a hint.

Question 6: How didyou overcomeobstacles in the problem?

Similar as other units, the typical responseswere "discussed the problems

in group and wrote down the notes", "asked the teacher" and "we read the
question over and over".

8.2.3 Analysis Summary

Pupils tended not to look for patterns based on the Periodic Table but treated the metals
separately. This may be a feature specific to this unit and may reflect on the way the
Periodic Table is being used (or not being used) as a unifying theme in chemistry

However, the observation is consistent with the suggestion that the ability to generalise
is not one which comes easily. As a feature of solving problems successfully, it is
possible that it needs development or, indeed, encouragement from the teacher. It is
possible that the is
skill of generalisation a specific example of the skill of being able to
link related concepts together. It has been noted that this does not happen easily.

8.3 Unit 18: Rates of Reaction

The unit was used at the first data collection stage with 9 groups (25 S3 pupils, at the
start of their course) taking part in solving it. The reaction of zinc with dilute
hydrochloride acid and its four experiments' results were provided which the reaction

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time and the volume of hydrogen were tabulated. Firstly, pupils were asked to plot
graphs (graph paper was provided), sharing this out to save time. After completing the
graphs, they have to work out the factors that influence the speed of the reaction by
comparing a pair of experimental graphs. The full unit is shown in Appendix A.

8.3.1 Pupils' Answers to The Unit

These early S3 pupils have studied little chemistry course at this stage when they were
asked to solve the problem. It is not surprisingly that they needed hints and general
encouragement. By observation, it revealed that they did not know the technical term of
"I M" (standing for "I Molar" and meaning the concentration of solution) although the
explanation about IM (I mole per litre) has been given in the problem. In addition, some
groups did not even know how to start to plot the graphs. As a result, although they
finally completed the graph, many still were unable to find out that the catalyst and the
size of reactant would influence the rate of reaction. However, overall, most groups
managedto make sensible deductions from the discussion of the graphs they had drawn.

In part (1) all the pupils obtained correct answers like, "there is less zinc used in the
2,
experiment so there was not a lot of hydrogen produced". In part (2), most groups (6
of 9) were able to spot that the increased temperature resulted in the hydrogen being
released quicker in experiment 3 but no group mentioned the catalyst; only one group
linked it to the concentration of dilute hydrochloric acid. Their answer was "there was a
larger amount of dilute hydrochloride acid in experiment 3". In part (3), seven groups
to
were able spot that "there is less hydrochloric acid or there is a lower temperature in
experiment 4 than in experiment P. Only one group still stuck on the amount of zinc,
they statedthat "there is more zinc in experiment I than in experiment 4". In fact, one of
the factors to affect the experiment 4 is the size of zinc (the zinc was in a larger lumps,
not powdered) not the amount of zinc.

8.3.2 Responses from the Endpiece

This unit used the first version of the Endpiece which included thirteen closed questions
and eight open questions. The pupils' responses to these two types of questions are
summarised below. Firstly, the summary of fixed responses to closed questions is

shown in Table 8.5

.

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Table 8.5 Summary of Fixed Response Questions in Endpiece (Unit 18)

Strongly Agree Neither agree Strongly

Disagree
agree nor disagree disagree

The problem was enjoyable. 1 14 35 2 6

The problem was difficult. 0 15 18 21 4
1 found that solving this problem was satisfying. 1 15 23 13 5
The problem was completely new to me. 15 20 6 10 5

1 learnednothing from the problem. 5 2 16 34 1

1 had enoughprevious knowledge to solve the problem. 4 17 14 14 9

1 prefer solving problems on my own. 2 4 6 18 27
We worked well together as a group. 30 21 3 1 2

We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group. 2 8 5 24 18

1 found the group discussionhelpful. 8 38 9 1 1

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer. 10 14 21 13 0

1 could not have solved the problem by myself. 11 8 12 20 6

1 needed the other group membersto help me 0 19 18 12 8

rememberbackgroundinformation I I I I II

Most pupils (17 of 25) seemto enjoy solving the problem although they felt the
problem was new to them (20 of 25).

As the responsesto eight open questions in the first version of the Endpiece, pupils
expressed their opinions are listed:

For the following problems, there were no useful comments arising from them:

Question1: Whatdidyou dofirst to solvetheproblem?

Question2: Whatwasthesecondstep?
Question4: Whatwasthe easiestpartin theproblem?
Question7: In what waYsdid working in a group help to solvetheproblem?
Question8: Whathaveyou learnedftomtheproblem?

Question 3: What didyou need to know beforeyou began?

Typical responseswere:
(a) how many chemicalswere usedin the experiment(8);
(b) I neededto know thefacts of the experiment(3);
(C) how to makea graph and read the questions(5).

They put much attention on the chemicals used in the experiment but they seemed

unaware of anything about the chemical reaction.

Question 5: What was a hindrance in preventing youfrom reaching a solution?

Typical responseswere:
(a) we did not read all the informationproperly;
(b) we all disagreedthe answers(3);
(C) trying to find out wi.at the differencewas;
(d) we were not sure if it was the amountof zinc or temperaturethat
making the difference;
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(e) we could notfigure out what is was;
69 thinking of the wrong answer;
(g) understanding the graphs (3).

Question 6: How didyou overcomeobstacles in theproblem?

Most pupils replied that they "askedfor helpftom the teachers". Others
overcame obstaclesby discussion.

8.3.3 Analysis Summary

Although pupils found some difficulties with unfamiliar terminology, they coped
reasonably well with this problem. They managed to draw some conclusions but seemed
to have an incomplete grasp of what was involved. Observation suggestedthat they
found the concept of a chemical reaction an unfamiliar one: the idea that there were
factors influencing rate seemedto be strange. This probably reflects the fact that almost
no chemistry is studied by pupils before the beginning of S3 when they met the hint.

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Chapter Nine

Statistical Results and Interpretation

In this chapter, an attempt will be made to bring together data from all the units used to
establish patterns and draw conclusions.

The Endpiece in each unit included thirteen fixed questions. The results gathered from
those fixed questions will be divided into two sections. Firstly, the overall pattern of
responses from each question among the fourteen used units will be compared and
summarised. Secondly, correlations between the thirteen questions of each unit will be
presented and discussed. Finally, other evidence derived from observation and recorded
tapes will be combined with the statistical results and interpreted further.

9.1 A Comparison of the Thirteen Fixed Questions

This section compares the responses of each question. In order to summarise the
patterns of results, the responsesfor each unit are summarised graphically. A typical
graph from question I in Unit I is given. The unit's title (unit 1) and the item of
question (question 1) are placed on the top, the scale of responsesis placed on the x-axis
and the number of pupils is placed in y-axis (Figure 9.1). In the Endpiece, although the
responses were placed in five categories, ranging from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly
disagree', it is decided to group the pupils' responsesinto three categories becauseof
sample sizes: (a) "agree" which summed by strongly agree and agree; (b) "disagree"
by
which summed strongly disagree and disagree; (c) "neither agree nor disagree". The
full detailed thirteen questions' graphs for the fourteen units are given in Appendix G.

Unit 1
I-Ql
24
20
16
12
8
4

agree neither'agree disagree

& nor
disagree

( "agree" - 9, "neither agree nor disagree" - 18, "disagree" - 9.)

Figure 9.1. A Typical Grapb from Responses to Question 1 in Unit 1

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For some questions, all (or nearly all) the units produced graphs of similar
shapewhile,
for others, a variety of shapeswas obtained. The first group are discussed
under the title
"common trends" while the latter group are referred to as "specific trends".

9.1.1 The Common Trend of Responses

The following six questions have a common trend of responses. These various trends
and the rough shapeof their graphs are presentedas below.

(1) Question 4: The problem was completely new tome

Pattern 1: almost all units were regarded as completely new except unit 5 (first
version).

Discussion: In unit 5, the number of pupils who chose "disagree" is larger than other
two scales. It is surprising that unit 5 was not regarded as new by pupils. As mentioned
earlier, unit 5 has two versions. In the first version, it contained four questions about
N02 which are related to the car engine in part 1. It is likely that the opposite pattern
might have been causedby the pupils (S3) being familiar with the ideas behind thesefour
questions. Nevertheless, these pupils could not propose reasonable explanations for
part 2 problem (only one group reached the correct solution). On the contrary, by
removing the four familiar questionsand adding another simplified question in the second
version, most of pupils succeeded in proposing a reasonable explanation but now
regarded the problem as new. The difference in responsesbetween these two versions of
unit 5 is significant and was shown in page 89.

The common rough graph and the graph of unit 5 are shown as below (Figure 9.2):

agree disagree agree disagree

neither agree neither agree
& nor disagree & nor disagree

(a) The common graph (b) The graph of Unit 5

Figure 9.2 Question 4: The Common Graph and the Specific Graph of Unit 5

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(H) Question 5: 1 learned nothingfrom the problem

Pattern 2: pupilsfelt they had learned something.

Discussion: At the first and secondversions of the Endpiece, pupils have been askedto
write the outcome which they thought they have gained from solving a problem. In the
third version, this open question was deleted becausethe outcome they indicated seemto
be unrelated to the main purpose of this project. However, they still have some useful
information that is consistent with the pattern 2. The thing pupils thought they have
learrit generally focuses on three aspects. Firstly, they gave a rather positive attitude to
group work. The opinions they frequently expressed are: "group work is better than
working alone"; "it is easier to tackle the in
problems groups"; "it is helpful working in a
group so that each o)f the members can help out". The second one is about the specific
chemical knowledge. For example, for unit 9, their opinion is "we learnt how to work out
volumesftom balancing equations". For unit 6, their opinion is "we learnt how a heat
pack really works" or "chemistry is around us all the time". The third is about the idea
of solving problems. They revealed some opinions such as:
(a) I learnt to work my mind more extensively rather than coming up
with a simple idea;
(b) remembering previous chemistry knowledge is important for solving
harder questions;
(C) I learned to compromise and discuss things in group;
(d) we have to take into account other possibilities than the ones which
are in front of us.

These quotations obviously supported the pattern 2.

The common rough graph is shown as below (Figure 9.3):

agree disagree
neither agree
& nor disagree

Figure 9.3 Question 5: The Common Graph

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(IH) Question 7: 1prefer solving problems on my own

Pattern 3: pupils did not prefer to work on their own (it is not obvious in unit 2
Taiwan).

Discussion: This pattern also can be supported by the opinions that pupils wrote in the
open questions. One typical opinion (quoted from unit 8) is "working in a group is a lot
more helpful than oying to do it by myseýf'. However, the Taiwanese pupils did not
have a clear cut opinion about unit 2, the numbers of "agree", "neither agree nor
disagree" and "disagree" are almost equal. This might be due to the different culture
which seldom encouragespupils to work together (except working in laboratory).

The common rough graph is shown as below (Figure 9.4):

23
21
19

agree neither agree disagree agree neither agree disagree

& nor disagree & nor disagree

(a) The common graph (b) The graph of Unit 2 Taiwan

Figure 9.4 Question 7: The Common Graph and the Specific Graph of Unit 2 Taiwan

(M Question 8: We worked well together as a group

Pattern 4: pupilsfelt they had worked well as a group

Discussion: By observation, it is obvious that almost all pupils were engaged and
involved in the group work and discussedwell.

The common rough graph is shown as below (Figure 9.5).

agree disagree
neither agree
& nor disagree

Figure 9.5 Question 8: The Common Graph

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(V) Question 9: We did not share the work out evenly in our group
Pattern 5: pupilsfelt they had shared the work out evenly (except unit 15).

Discussion: Similar to the question 8, this pattern also can be supported by observation.
However, in unit 15, a different pattern emerged:the number of "disagree" Is smaller (9)
than the other two views (10 for agree, 14 for neutral). It meansthe pupils seemto think
that they did not share the work out evenly. By reviewing the content of the unit 15, its
main task involved much calculation work. It is possible that pupils could do the
calculation individually, and this led them to communicate with their group membersless
than other units.

The common rough graph is shown as below (Figure 9.6):

14

10
9

agree disagree agree disagree

neither agree neither agree
& nor disagree & nor disagree

(a) The common graph (b) The graph of Unit 15

Figure 9.6 Question 9: The Common Graph and the Specific Graph of Unit 15

(VI) Question 10: Ifound the group discussion helpful

Pattern 6: pupilsfound that the group discussion helpful.

Discussion: Clearly pupils found group discussion helpful and this is consistent with
observations of the groups as they worked. There was a high level of involvement and
pupils talked freely about the problems. Again, some of the opinions expressedin the
open questions also indicated that group discussionswere much liked.

The common rough graph is shown as below (Figure 9.7):

agree disagree
neither agree
& nor disagree

Figure 9.7 Question 10: The Common Graph

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9.1.2 Specific Trends of Responses

In the following areas,there is a variety of patterns of responses,depending on the unit.

While no common trends emerged among these questions, it is possible to relate the
trends observed for the various units to features of the units and the way the pupils
completed them. Each of these questions is discussedin turn.

(1) Question 1: The problem was enjoyable

La The types of responses: There are 8 types of responses to this question, but they
can be simplified and grouped into four patterns (Figure 9.8). The first pattern revealed
that most units were regarded as enjoyable [new unit 1,2,2 (Taiwan), new 5,6,8, new
8, new 9,10,15,16]. Secondly, pupils did not enjoy solving the problem in units 5,9,
13. The third pattern is that pupils have a neutral response(roughly equal in expressing
positive and negative views): this happened in units 1,4,12,14. The final pattern is
that pupils could not make a clear decision about "enjoyable": this only appearedin unit
8.

(a) Enjoyable patterns

10 2 2 Taiwan, new 5,6,

new 1,15
new8, new 9,16,8

(b) Other patterns

9
HHH 5,13

Figure 9.8 Question 1: The various Graphs

1,4,12,14 8

Lb Discussion: It is not surprising that responsesto this question vary widely in that
the units varied in content, difficulty and structure.

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(H) Question 2: The problem was difficult

H. a The types of responses: There are 4 types of responses to this question, but they
can be simplified and grouped into three patterns (Figure 9.9). The first pattern revealed
that most units were regarded as difficult (except units 12 and unit 2 Taiwan). In unit
12, it was regarded as easy while, in unit 2 Taiwan, pupils gave a more neutral response.

Difficult patterns Other patterns

H1, new 1,2,4,

5, new 5,6,8, new 8,
9, new 9,10,
13,14,15,18
16 12
H 2 Taiwan

Figure 9.9 Question 2: The Various Graphs

ILb Discussion: In a similar way to enjoyment variations, difficulty levels are likely to
vary widely. However, it is interesting to note that most units were regarded as difficult,
and this is consistent with the intention of the project where, by using difficult
problems, insights were sought into the character of these difficulties. It is also
important to note that there is no relationship between perceived difficulty and the type
of problem (following the Johnstone 8 type model). This is consistent with his original
ideas where he never saw his eight types of problem as in any way hierarchical - they
were merely different.

(" Question 3: Ifound that solving this problem was satisfying

III. a The types of responses: There are 6 types of responsesto this question, but they
be
can simplified and grouped into four patterns (Figure 9.10). The first pattern revealed
that pupils were satisfied with solving most units (except unit 4,5,9,12,13,14).
Secondly, pupils did not agree that solving the unit 9 problem was satisfying. The third
pattern is that pupils have a neutral response: this happened in units 4,12,13,14. The
final pattern is that pupils could not make any clear decision about "satisfying": this
only appeared in unit 5.

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(a) Satisfying patterns

1,2, new 5,6 new 1,2 Taiwan,

new 8,15,8, new 9,10,16,
18
(b) Otber patterns

Pýý
-----------

9 4,14 12,13 5

Figure 9.10 Question 3: The Various Graphs

III. b Discussion: It is to be expectedthat perceived satisfaction will vary from unit to

unit.

(M Question 6: 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem

IV. a The typesof responses: There are 7 types of responsesto this question, but they
can be simplified and grouped into three patterns (Figure 9.11). The first pattern
revealed that pupils felt they had enough previous knowledge to solve the following
units: 1, new 1,2,5, new 5,6,15,16,18. Secondly, they did not think they had enough
previous knowledge to solve the units: 4,8,9, new 9,10,12,13,14. The final pattern
is that pupils have a neutral responsewhich only happened in 2 Taiwan and new unit 8.

(a) Had enough previous knowledge patterns

1,2 new 1, new 5,

6,15,16,18

(b) Other patterns

10,12 8,9, new 9,13 4,14 2 Taiwan, new 8

Figure 9.11 Question 6: The Various Graphs

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IV. b Discussion:One of the main areas to be explored was the way previously held
knowledge influenced problem solving success. In many units, pupils felt they had
enough knowledge while, in others, they felt they did not know enough. However,
success in the units does not seem to be related in any way to the pupils' perceptions
about their previous knowledge.

(V) Question]]: At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer

Va The types of responses: There are 4 types of responses to this question, but they
can be simplified and grouped into two patterns (Figure 9.12). The first pattern revealed
that pupils were not sure about the answer in most units except the unit new 5 and unit
6. For these two units, pupils seemto be more confident about the answer.

(a) Not sure they have the right answer patterns (b) Other patterns

HHH
2,5,8,9, new
9,10,13,15
1, new 1,4,2
new 8,14,16,18

Figure 9.12 Question 11: The Various Graphs

Taiwan, 12, new 5,6,

Vb Discussion: In most units, pupils were not confident that they had the right
answer. Perhaps this reflects the way chemistry is taught: there are "right" and
46wrong"answers. In these units, such a view was difficult for pupils.

(VI) Question 12: 1 could not have solved the problem by myself

VI a The types of responses: There are 5 types of responses to this question, but they
can be simplified and grouped into three patterns (Figure 9.13). The first pattern
revealed that pupils could not solve most of the problems individually except unit 6 and
unit 12. For unit 12, they thought they could solve the problem individually. The final
pattern is that pupils have a neutral responsewhich only happened in unit 6.

(a) Could not solve problems individually patterns (b) Other patterns

HHHHH
new 1,2,5,9
10,13,15,16,18

Figure 9.13
2 Taiwan, 4,8,1,
new 8, new 9,14
new 5

Question 12: The Various Graphs

12 6

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VIb Discussion: This supports the observation that group work was I Iked. It also
reveals that pupils appreciated that they needed each other in order to solve such
problems.

(VU) Question 13: 1 neededthe other group membersto help me remember

background information

VII. a The types of responses: There are 4 types of responsesto this question, but they
can be simplified and grouped into two patterns (Figure 9.14). The first pattern revealed
that pupils neededhelp from group members when they solved almost all units except
unit 12. Another pattern is that pupils could not make clear decision in unit 12.

(a) Needed help from group members patterns (b) Other patterns

2,6,9, new9,13 1,new 1,2 Taiwan, 12

4,5, new5, new8, 8
15
10,14,16,18

Figure 9.14 Question 13: The Various Graphs

VII. b Discussion: These patterns of results confirm the findings from question 12.

9.2 Correlations between Responses from the Thirteen Fixed Questions

In this project, each unit was attempted by a variable number of groups of pupils. It is
possible to compare the responsesfrom the thirteen fixed questions to see if there are
correlations which might suggestuseful insights. For example, using frequencieson the
five point scale, questions I and 2, for unit 1, show the following patterns of responses.

Question 1: Response pattern: 09 18 45

Question 2: Response pattern: 6 16 770

The data are frequency data and distributions are not likely to be close to normal. In
such circumstances, Kendal's Tau (,r) was employed. This statistic can handle very
small samplessizes and makes no assumptionsabout distribution (Siegel, 1956).

The significance of these correlation coefficients (at 5% and I%) for each unit is shown
in Appendix H. A summary of the significant results is also listed in Appendix 1.

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The amount of data obtained is enormous (78 correlations for each unit,
making over
1000 correlations overall). To simplify this and to seek clear patterns, the data for
significant correlations is shown in Appendix H5. These significant correlations will be
analysed and divided into three categories which are based on the number of units
involved.

Category I In this category, 10 or more units show significant correlations betweena

pair of questions.

Category 2 In this category, 6 to 9 or more units show significant correlations

between a pair of questions. As it reads, Category 2 would subsume
Category 1 !!!

Category 3 Here, there are significant correlations between pairs of questions where
there is inconsistency between various units.

The following sections discussthe findings.

9.2.1 Analysis of the Category 1

In this section, correlations between pairs of questions occur for at least 10 units. It is
safe to assumethat the correlations reflect a general characteristic of the units as a whole.
All the observed correlations in this category confirm patterns which are totally to be
expected. However, the expected results provide evidence of the validity of the
responses.

Where units are enjoyable, then solving the problem is also satisfying. Lack of previous
knowledge is a source of difficulty. Where the problem is new, the pupils feel they
cannot solve it by themselves. Pupils with enough previous knowledge are more
confident about the answer. Where a pupil does not have enough previous knowledge,
he feels he cannot solve the problem by himself Where pupils work well together, they
will share the work out evenly. Where pupils cannot solve the problem by themselves,
they will need the other group membersto help him remember background information.

9.2.2 Analysis of the Category 2

In this section, correlations between pairs of questions occur commonly, noted for
between 6 and 9 units. Again, most of the results are completely unsurprising.

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Where pupils feel they are learning new things and work well together, their
enjoyment
tends to rise. Where problems are new, they feel that they cannot solve them
on their
own and that they are difficult. Learning new things tends to increase levels of
satisfaction and feeling that they have enough knowledge to solve a problem also
generates satisfaction. A problem's "newness" seems to be related to lack of
knowledge in being able to solve it and this makes the pupils feel they
need help from
their peers.

Learning new things seems to be related to the way the group worked while lack
of
knowledge makes the individual more dependent on the group for help. Those
who
prefer solving problems on their own are less receptive to group work. Successfulgroup
work is related to the way the group shared out the work and pupils felt that they
neededothers , especially when they were unsure if they had a right answer.

9.2.3 Analysis of the Category 3

In quite a number of areas, contradictions were observed. In these cases, pairs of

questions produced positive correlations for some units but negative correlations for
others. In most cases,it is likely that this reflected specific features of the units but in
one or two cases,it is possible that the inconsistency reflected something of of broader
significance. This latter groups is now discussed.

It is interesting to note that when comparing perceived difficulty and enjoyment, most
units show no correlations while some show negative correlations and one shows a
positive correlation. It seemslikely that enjoyment and difficulty are not neatly related,
an observation made by Reid (1978) in a different context. There is a tendency to think
that making things easy generatesenjoyment but this is not a neat relationship.

A new problem is not always unenjoyable. This is probably linked to the observations
about difficulty and enjoyment. Sometimes,the challenge of something new can produce
enjoyment. It is similarly observed that enjoyment is not neatly linked to pupils
preferences in seeking to solve problems on their own. Overall, enjoyment in an
intellectual task such as this kind of open-endedproblem solving is a complex perception
is
and easily linked to characteristics of the problem. However, in observing classes, one
unit clearly showed very high levels of enjoyment. In this unit (16), there was a slight
competive edge as they had to decide how to spend an imaginary f 100. Again, this
relates to previous work (Reid, 1978) which showed that enjoyment was highest with an
edge of competitiveness.

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 ChapterNine

In general, when pupils are unsure of they have a "right" answer, they tend to think of
the problem as difficult. In one unit (15), this pattern was not observed and here, the
problem was highly arithmetical and, thus, confidence in a "right" answer is increased.

When faced with situations where they felt that they had inadequate knowledge, the
desire to work in a group was not always apparent. Usually, there was no relationship
between interest in group working and knowledge inadequacy although in three units (8,
12,16), the relationship did exist while in one unit (9), there was an inverse relationship.
Group working cannot be seen, from the pupils' perspective, as a neat way to solve
problems where the knowledge base is inadequate. Perhaps, in group work, there is a
danger for some pupils that their weaknessesmight be more apparent.

9.2.4 Overall Conclusions

Looking at the correlations obtained gives encouragementthat pupils have respondedto

the questions in the way intended, suggesting that the measurements are valid. Few
correlations gave useful insights. However, a few conclusions can be drawn:

While there was a strong tendency for pupils to enjoy the units, the basis for that
is
enjoyment not clear. Neither unit difficulty nor the fact that they were unfamiliar are
related to enjoyment. In addition, there is no clear pattern suggesting that any type
(using the eight types proposed by Johnstone) of unit is producing a higher level of
enjoyment. However, the element of competitiveness does seem to raise enjoyment
levels.

Pupils tended to perceive problems as difficult becausethe problems were unfamiliar and
they felt they did not have enough knowledge. In fact, all the units were based

specifically on the syllabus content and, therefore, pupils should have had enough
knowledge. Nonetheless, they felt a knowledge inadequacy. This could be real or it
might simply be that pupils were using the unfamiliar nature of the problems to suggest
for difficulty in terms of lack of knowledge. However, this observation by the
an excuse
pupils might be linked to the lack of long term memory connections between islands of
knowledge: while they should have known the key facts, perhaps the way they were
required to link them to solve the problem was itself a major source of difficulty.

In many units, the difficulty is clearly related to the feeling of pupils that they were
unsure that they had the "right" answer. This probably reflects the fact that the units
were very different in character from their previous experiences where "right" answers
may have been encouraged. Nonetheless, insecurity seems to be related to perceived
diff iculty.
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 ChapterTen

Chapter Ten

Conclusions, Limitations and Recommendations

In this chapter, the results of this project will be reviewed and concluded briefly. As
mentioned previously, problem solving is complex and influenced by many factors.
Therefore, this project could not explore all the factors which might causethe problem
solver failure or success. Some limitations of this project will be described. Finally, it is
important to put emphasis on four important issues which are related to the future
work
and the implication for teaching problem solving.

10.1 Conclusions

This project involved 668 secondary pupils which ranging from S3 to S5 grade. The
results obtained from observation, pupils' working answers, questionnaires, word
association tests and tape recordings. The conclusions which including general and
specific are shown as the following.

10.1.1 General Conclusions

It is clear that the units worked well with pupils and that most of pupils really enjoyed
them. Some units were difficult (as planned) but pupils still held a positive attitude.
When facing obstacles,very few just gave up. This might be a feature of group problem
solving where they could share their ideas and support each other in groups. It is
consistent with the observation that pupils liked working in groups.

If the goal was open, time demand increased. In addition, sometimes pupils knew less
than expected but often did better than the teachers expected. It was also observed that
clear leadership emerged only occasionally, but when it was present, it seemedto assist
effective problem solving markedly. From the tape transcripts, pupil leaders could be
identified clearly.

Finally, an interesting result was found in that the S5 pupils were very much better in
discussion and had very much greater confidence than the S4 and S3 pupils. However,
they were not much more successful in solving problems. Of course, S5 pupils were
selected from those in S3 and S4, they had a much greater chemistry knowledge
background, perhaps leading to a greater confidence in discussing the given task. Being
older, they were also more socially mature.

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 ChapterTen

10.1.2 Specific Conclusions

The used fourteen units covered four types of problems (types 3,4,5,6). It was
thought at the outset that the problem types might influence the pupils' performance on
problem solving. However, the results show no clear evidence to suggest that the
problems of "higher" categories were either more difficult or more demanding: the
Johnstonemodel of problems does not seemto be hierarchical in any way.

Several specific conclusions are now discussedbriefly.

When solving a problem involving equations (eg. unit 9), it is clear that most
pupils might be able to handle formula and equations but they seemednot really
to understand what a formula in an equation can represent. This raises key
questions about the representational aspects of chemistry. Equations can be
interpreted at several levels and pupils, at this stage, find this difficult to grasp.

(2) Evidence suggests that by learning a procedure on one direction there is no

guaranteethat it can be applied in the opposite direction. This suggeststhat links
in long term memory need to be made in both directions in order for the linkage to
be soundly made.

(3) It has been suggestedby some researcherssuch as Polya (1945) that devising a
is
plan an important skill which can lead to success in solving problem. In fact, it
was found that pupils rarely planned; they just started with what they could do.
Obviously, to organise information to make a plan seemsto be difficult for these
secondarypupils that might be due to unwillingness or inability. Nonetheless,the
lack of planning was very evidence in the way they handled the problems, even
when encouragedto to do so.

(4) When faced with an amount of unfamiliar information, pupils tended to lose
confidence and seemedvery unsure how to tackle a problem. The result has been

addressed by Charles and Lester (1982) when they claimed that one of three
interacting factors which included the familiarity with problem context and
content can deter in
progress or prevent success problem solving. In addition, an
investigation was conducted by Raines (1984), the result also indicated that the
least successfulproblem solvers failed to recogniseproblem similarity accordingto
structure rather than context.

(5) Correct knowledge is vital for successin problem solving and this is consistent
with the modification of Bloom's taxonomy shown on page 7. However,
knowledge can be a hindrance if linked inappropriately. The results of unit I and
unit 4 provided some evidence of knowledge side-tracking progress.

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 ChapterTen
(6) One area of difficulty pupils frequently encountered is to bring various
parts of
information and knowledge together. It shows that the creation of
a pathway
between "islands" of knowledge or skills is extremely difficult. This
was
illustrated in open-endedproblems such as unit 15 and unit 2. In unit 5,
greater
success occurred as a specific linking between catalysis and the breakdown of
nitrogen dioxide was prompted. Therefore, it seems that learners cannot make
linkages between key concepts and the links must be suggestedor supplied by the
teacher in some way.

(7) If the key concepts are partially grasped,then approachesto problem solving will
be confused and the problem solver will not even be aware of the confusion. It
can be seen from unit 4, where there is a lack of a clear grasp of the conceptsof
elements, compounds and bonding, that pupils started to generate explanations
which mixed error with truth.

(8) In unit 8, in the second version, key pieces of data were deliberately brought
together in the table of data. Despite this, pupils were no more successful. The
difficulty in the problem does not appearto be based on perception.

(9) In unit 10, pupils seldom succeededby using the common separation methods
(despite they fact that they had been taught them) to obtain pure phosphorus.
There were four unfamiliar compounds and the separation process is quite subtle,
it demands a large amount of information derived from long term memory and
operated in working memory space.Not surprisingly, the successwas limited. In
unit 13, the same problem happenedagain. A large amount data were provided to
pupils and asked them to deduce a reasonable pattern: although pupils tried to
reach the goal, most of them only made a superficial pattern. It seemsin accord
with one of the findings which were proposed by Johnstone and El-Banna (1986)
that when the demand of the problem exceededthe working memory space,most
pupils were not successful. Although this project tried to expand the limitation of
by
working memory space group work, the problem seemed still occur these
to in
two units.

(10) Pupils' unease and insecurity could occur when they faced with ambiguous data
and with no unequivocal answer or approaches. Confidence is a very important
factor in successin problem solving.

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 ChapterTen

10.2 Limitations

There are two limitations in this project. Firstly, although the fourteen units covered
types of 3,4,5 and 6 problems, most of the units are types 4 and 6. There were not
enough units of types 3 and 5 problems. Therefore, it is difficult to make a clear
comparisons and conclusions based on these four types of problems. Secondly, many
different units had to be used to fit the teaching order in the various schools. Although
this project involved 668 pupils, the numbers attempting each unit was relatively small.
It is difficult to see easy ways to avoid such problems.

10.3 Recommendation

Watts (1994) argued that all problems ought to be difficult. If there is no obstaclesfor
the problem solver to overcome, then the problem is not a real problem. If education
wants to teach our pupils to be better problem solvers, it is important to find out the
difficulty pupils frequently experience when they encounter a real problem and the
strategies to help them overcome obstacles. Therefore, these eighteen units are suitable
for school teachersto apply it in their class as a teaching resource.

Since the evidence from this project revealed that pupils are very positive with the
group work in solving problem, it is suggested that group work should be widely
employed to the field of learning and problem solving. As Wood (1993) claimed, several
minds working jointly on a problem can produce solutions that individuals could not
manageon their own.

There are several questions raised by the project. Can problem solving be taught? Is
problem solving a genuine skill? These have been frequently questioned by many
educators and researchers.Although Reif et al (1976) and Larkin and Reif (1979) have
been developed general strategies for teaching problem solving in physics, they also
agreed that problem solving cannot be taught easily. If the formation of key links
between "islands" of knowledge is a key skill (and this project would support this), then
it seems likely that problem solving is very much context dependent. Can the skill of
linking be taught or is problem solving a skill that develops naturally as knowledge
becomesmore interlinked ? The individual with such links is confident and is willing to
take risks to develop new links.

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 ChapterTen

10.4 Suggestions for Further Research

Related to the limitation of this project and the outcomes of groups work, some
suggestionsfor further researchare offered below:

It could be helpful to develop other types of problem in order to make a clear

comparisons and conclusions between Johnstone's eight types of problem. Does
the same type of problems have the same difficulties with pupils? Or is the
difficulty irrelevant to the types of problem ?

2. When pupils face a new type of problem, how do they make an appropriate linkage
to solve problem shall be explored. Besides observation, it is possible to interview
pupils to explore how the linkage develops when they work in groups.

3. In fact, a leader appearing in a group may influence the group discussion. Can the
leadership of group work help pupils to make an appropriate linkage?

4. By developing teaching experiencesin problem solving where the level of difficulty

steadily rises, is it possible to find strategiesto enhancethe skills of problem solving
in chemistry ?

5. Is there any evidence that the development of problem solving skills in chemistry
allows the learner to solve problems better in other areas or is problem solving
essentially a context-limited skill ?

Page 144
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Wason, P. and Green, D. (1984). Reasoning and mental representation. Quarterly

Journal ofExperimental Psychology, 36A, 597-6 10.

Watts, M. (1994). Problem Solving in Science and Technology Extending Good

Classroom Practice. London: David Fulton Publishers.

West, L. H. T. and Fensham,P. J. (1974). Prior knowledge and the learning of science:a
review of Ausubel's theory of this process.Studies in ScienceEducation, 1,61-8 1.

Wheatley, G. H. (1984). MEPS Technical Report, Mathematics and Science Centre,

Purdue University. (cited from Zoller, U. (1987). The fostering of question-asking
capability. Journal of Chemical Education, 64 (6), 510-512. ).

Wood, D. (1991). Aspects of teaching and leaming. In Light, P., Sheldon, S. and
Woodhead, M. (Eds.) Learning to Think. London: Open University, Routledge.

Wood, C. (1993). Discussion groups. In Wood, C and Sleet, R. (Eds), Creative problem
in
solving chemistry. London: The Royal Society of Chemistry.

PaLye154
 List of Appendices

Appendix A Eighteen Chemistry Units

Appendix B Teacher's Guide of Eighteen Chemistry Units

Appendix C The Exemplary Answer Sheets

Appendix D Evaluation Sheets (Three Versions)

Appendix E Word Association Tests (Two Booklets)

Appendix F Pupils' Answers

Appendix G The Graph of Response to Thirteen Fixed

Questions

Appendix H Kendall's Tau Correlation Coefficient

Appendix IA Summary of the Significant Correlation

Appendix J Chi-Squared Anlysis Results

Appendix K Tape Transcripts

 Appendix A

Eighteen Chemistry Units

 Argon and Electric Welding

Your Name:
.....................................
This report appeared in The Star Ledger.

Two workmen were suffocated in a tragic industrial accident when they were overcome by fumes in a
large tank where electrical-welding was taking place. Afterwards, a detective said that "burning argon
gas in the welders torch apparently used up all the oxygen in the tank".

...........................
You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answerson to the "Answer Sheet".

Discuss this report as a group, looking for chemical mistakes and possible explanations for the tragedy.

Re-write the detective's explanation on your answer sheet so that it is a reasonable explanation for the
tragedy.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc.

I
 Argon and Electric Welding (Revised)

Your Name:
.......................................
This report appeared in The Star Ledger.

Two workmen were suffocated in a tragic industrial accident when they were overcome by fumes in a
large tank where electrical-wel ding (weld ing where the heat to melt metal comes from a electrical spark)
was taking place. Afterwards, a detective said that "burning argon gas in the welders torch apparently
used up all the oxygen in the tank".

..................
You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Discuss this report as a group, looking for chemical mistakes and possible explanations for the tragedy.

Re-write the detective's explanation on your answer sheet so that it is a reasonable explanation for the
tragedy.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc.

A2
[E]
Which is the Best Fuel ?
Your Name:
.......................................
There are three important fuels which can give you energy.

(1) Coal - which contains the element carbon, C

(2) Oil -a hydrocarbon mixture, mainly C111-124
(3) Gas - mainly methane, CH4

Which of these is likely to give you the most energy ?

........ .................
You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Part 1

Write balanced equations for the complete combustion of each fuel. Make sure you agree on the
answers before filling in your answer sheet.

Part 2

Calculate the formula masses of each of the fuels. Write down your agreed answers.

Part 3

Assume that the energy released is related to the number of molecules formed. In other words, the
more molecules formed, the greater the energy released.
Suppose you were given 1 Kg (=1000g) of each fuel, which fuel would give you most energy?

Discuss, as a group, how you might tackle this problem before you start.

You won't need to use a calculator - just carry out rough calculations.

Part 4

You were told to assume that the energy released is related to the number of molecules formed. Is this

a fair assumption ? Write down the thoughts of your group on your answer sheet.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A3
 The Chewing Gum Problem
Your Name:
.....................................
People have chewed gum-like substances to freshen their breath and clean their teeth for
centuries.
Some people think that chewing gum not only freshens the breath but it also cleans the teeth
and
helps to free them from decay.

Let's look at tooth decay. Does gum-chewing really help to keep teeth healthy?

Here's a list of what is in chewing gum:

(1) Chewing gum base: a synthetic rubber-like substances
(2) Sweeteners: sugar (sucrose) or sugar substitutes (like those used in diet coke)
(3) Softeners: vegetable oil products like glycerine (glycerol)
(4) Flavourings: spearmint and peppermint oils

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

(1) What do you think is the difference between ordinary gum and "sugar-free" gum?

(2) After eating, bacteria will attack and break down carbohydrates like starch and sucrose (cane
sugar). Try to write down as much as you can about the process in which carbohydrate is broken
down in the mouth.

(3) We want to find out if the practice of using chewing gum helps to fight tooth decay or not.
Discuss what information you need to reach an answer based on your knowledge of the way
carbohydrates are broken down. Make a list of what you need to know.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A4
 Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay ?

Your Name:
.............................................
The following item appeared in a magazine article on tooth decay.

Fluoride strengthens teeth by bonding with calcium, the main ingredient in enamel, to form
calcium fluoride. Calcium fluoride is a harder, denser material than calcium alone, making teeth
more resistant to the bacteria that cause decay.

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

This statement contains a number of errors.

Discuss the statement and then list as many errors as possible on your group answer sheet.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A5
 Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay ? (Revised)

Your Name:
......................................

The following item appeared in a magazine article on tooth decay.

Fluoride strengthens teeth by bonding with calcium, one of the ingredients in enamel (% of
calcium in enamel is 16.6%) , to form calcium fluoride. Calcium fluoride is a harder, denser material
than calcium alone, making teeth more resistant to the bacteria that cause decay.

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".
.... .......M
.......................... ...M
....

This statement contains a number of errors.

Discuss the statement and then list as many errors as possible on your group answer sheet.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A6
m
The Glowing Splint Problem

Your Name:
222RMIJMMý
.........................

You will be working in a small group. Discuss the possible answers to the
questions below and one member of the group can write in your agreed answers
on to the "Answer Sheet".

Part 1

In a car engine, some nitrogen dioxide is formed and can come out in the exhaust fumes. As a group,
discuss possible answers to the following questions:

(a) Explain how the gas nitrogen dioxide (N02) is formed in a car engine.
(b) What problems can N02 cause ?
(c) How can the problem of N02 be solved in a car ?
(d) When the N02 is removed from the car exhaust, what gases are formed ?

Part 2

Experiments have shown that:

Oxygen re-kindles a glowing splint

Neither air nor N02 will re-kindlea glowing splint.
Air contains approximately 20% oxygen.

Now look at the following experiment:

Copper (11)Nitrate breaks up when heated to give copper (11)oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
The balanced equation is:
heated
2Cu(NC)3)2 2CuO + 4NO2 + 02
--w-

The gases coming out of the test tube contain 80% nitrogen dioxide and 20% oxygen but it is found
that they will re-kindle a glowing spint.

Look at all the information given to you. Working as a group, discuss possible answers to the following
questions:

(1) Why is this an unexpected result ?

(2) Can you suggest a possible explanation for this ?

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A7
 The Glowing Splint Problem (Revised)

Your Name:
------------- HIMM I IN WHiWNi ROMIN loolomimummoff;
.....................................
---

You will be working in a small group. Discuss the possible answers to the
questions below and one member of the group can write in your agreed answers
on to the "Answer Sheet".

Nitrogen dioxide (N02 ) is a gas which can be found in car exhaust fumes. It can be broken up in the
car exhaust.
Question to discuss: When the N02 is broken up in the exhaust, what gases are formed ?

Experiments have shown that:

Air contains approximately 20% oxygen plus 80% nitrogen.

Oxygen re-kindles a glowing splint.
Neither air nor N02 will re-kindle a glowing splint.

Now look at the following experiment:

Copper (11)Nitrate breaks up when heated to give copper (11)oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
The balanced equation is:
heated
2Cu(No3)2 --0- 2CuO + 4NO2 + 02

The gases coming out of the test tube contain 80% nitrogen dioxide and 20% oxygen but it is found
that they will re-kindle a glowing spint.

Look at all the information given to you. Working as a group, discuss possible answers to the following
questions:

(1) Why is this an unexpected result ?

(2) Can you suggest a possible explanation for this ?

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A8
 Heat packs for Mountaineers

Your Name:
.............................................
There is always the possibility of being caught in bad weather when climbing in Scottish hills. Those
who climb mountains often carry heat packs to provide quick heat energy in case of severe cold.
The heat packs consists of a small packet made from porous fabric.
This packet is contained in an outer, airtight plastic bag. Iron powder, carbon powder,
salt, moist cellulose
In the packet, there is:
(a) very fine iron powder (the main material)
(b) Porous fabric
very fine carbon powder
(C) salt
(d) moist cellulose (like damp blotting paper)
airtight plastic bag.
The following directions are given for using the heat packs.

Open the outer plastic bag. Remove the inner packet. Rub it with your hands several times, then hold the
packet in your hand. It will keep at a comfortable temperature (about 60'C) and will last for about 6 hours.

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

The heat pack produces its heat by means of a chemical reaction. Look very carefully at all the
information given. As a group, discuss this information and what it tells you about how the heat pack
might work.

(1) Work out how the heat packs works and explain where the heat energy comes from ?

(2) Why is iron powder used as the main material for the heat packs ?
Suggest any other powdered metal that might be used, giving reasons for your choice.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A9
 Iron: How can we Obtain it ?
Your Name:
.............................................
There is almost no iron metal to be found on the earth. Iron combines with other elements too easily
and is found
in various compounds. These are known as iron ores and there are three common ores: iron pyrites, magnetite,
haematite.

Look at the table below. It shows the percentage of Iron in each ore and the rough cost of each ore.

Iron ores Formula % of Iron in the ore Cost of the ore

Magnetite Fe304 55-65 9-125

Haernatite Fe203 50-65 2105
Iron pyrites FeS2 30-40 2110

You will be working in a small group. Discuss the possible answers to the questions
below and one member of the group can write in your agreed answers on to the
"Answer Sheet".

Imagine you are to manage a factory which converts iron ore into iron metal.

Working as a group, discuss possible answers to the following:

(1) Look at the table above. As a group, discuss which of the three ores listed you prefer to use in your factory.

(2) The process in your factory involves heating the iron ore with carbon (coal) at a very high temperature. This
is done in a blast furnace. There are three main reactions:
(a) The production of carbon monoxide which reacts with iron ore to release iron.
(b) The conversion of iron oxide into iron metal.
(C) The removal of impurities like sand (silicon dioxide) using limestone.
The raw material of the process is a mixture of iron ore, coke, limestone and air.

Here are several chemical equations. Select the equations that describe what is going on in your factory
and re-arrancie them in a sequence that seems reasonable.
C(S) 02 (9) C02(g)
1. +
02 (9) 2CO (g)
2. 2C(s) +
C02(g) C(S) 2CO(g)
3. +

CaC03(S) CaO(s) + C02(g)

4.
Si02 (S) CaSi03(l)
5. CaO(s) +
02 (9)
6. Fe203(S) + C02 (9) 2FeO(s) + CO(g) +

4FeS2(S) 1102(g) 2Fe2O3(S) + 8SO2(g)

7. +
Fe304(S) CO (9) C02(g)
8. + 3FeO(s) +

CO (9) C02(g)
9. Fe203(S) + 2FeO(s) +

C02(g)
10. FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(l) +

(3) List all the gases produced in your factory. Are these safe to release to the atmosphere ?

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 10
 Moving Gases
Your Name:
.............................................
Have you ever smelled the perfume from someone immediately after they entered the
room ? This is
because the particles of perfume are travelling through the air and have reached
your nose. All gases
travel but they do not all travel at the same speed. It has been found that different gases travel different
distances in the same time.

The following data were collected from an experiment. The distances travelled by various gases in a set
amount of time through a horizontal glass tube were observed. This was done at room temperature and
the same pressure for all the gases.

Gas Distance (cm)

S02 50
HCI 66
CH4 100
S03 44
NH3 94

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Working as a group,

(1) Look at the results as a group and see if you can spot any
W
pattern in these results ? H X
C 12
X
(2) How would you test to see if your pattern is correct ? N 14
0 16
(3) Predict how far you would expect chlorine gas (C12) to travel X 32
35.5 X
X
under the same conditions.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

All
E1
Moving Gases (Revised)
Your Name:
.............................................
Have you ever smelled the perfume from someone immediately after they
entered the room ? This is
because the particles of perfume are travelling through the air and have reached
your nose. All gases
travel but they do not all travel at the same speed. It has been found that different gases travel different
distances in the same time.

The following data were collected from an experiment. The distances travelled by various gases in a set
amount of time through a horizontal glass tube were observed. This was done at room temperature and
the same pressure for all the gases.

Gas Distance (cm)

S02 50
CH4 100
HCI 66
S03 44
NH3 94

.................
You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Working as a group,

(1) Look at the results as a group and see if you can spot any
pattern in these results ?

(2) How would you test to see if your pattern is correct ?

(3) Predict how far you would expect chlorine gas (C12) to travel
under the same conditions.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 12
 The Formula for Ozone

Your Name:
.............................................
We hear about ozone gas frequently in the news. To find out what ozone is, we shall first look at several
other gases.

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Part 1

Look at the following reactions:

(a) 2NH3 N2 + 3H2 20ml of ammoniabreaksdownto give40ml

of a mixtureof nitrogenand hydrogen
(20ml) (40ml)

(b) H2 C12 20ml of a 50:50 mixture of hydrogen and

+ 2HCI
chlorine reacts to give 20ml of hydrogen
(20ml) (20ml) chloride gas

(1) If you started with 20ml of a 50: 50 mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, can you work out
what volume (in ml) of formaldehyde (CH20) will be produced in the following reaction ?

Co + H2 : CH20
(20 ml) (? )

(2) Can you work out what volume (in ml) of carbon dioxide will be produced in the following reaction ?

2CO + 02 2CO2
(30ml) M

At this staae, check your answers with your teacher.

Part 2

Ozone is a gas. In a series of experiments, it can be shown that, for every 20ml of ozone that break up,
30 ml of oxygen is formed. Surprisingly, no other element is involved.

Ozone Oxygen
No-
(20ml) (30ml)

Given that the formula for Oxygen is always 02, Canyou work out the likely formula for Ozone ? How did
you find out your answer ? Write down your group's way of finding the answer on your answer sheet.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 13
F9 i The Formula for Ozone (Revised)

Your Name:
.............................................
We hear about ozone gas frequently in the news. To find out what ozone is, we shall first look at several
other gases.

Escu,. You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the

sgsrotL L can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

up

Part 1

Look at the following reactions, shown by balanced equations:

(a) 2NH3 N2 + 3H2 20mlofammonia breaksdownto give40ml

(20ml) (40ml) ofa mixture andhydrogen
of nitrogen

H2 C12 Poo 2HCI 20ml of a 50:50 mixture of hydrogen and

+
chlorine reacts to give 20ml of hydrogen
(20ml) (20ml) chloride gas

Can you work out what volume (in ml) of carbon dioxide will be produced in the following reaction ?

2CO + 02 Poo 2CO2

(30ml) (? MI)

(2) At about 4500 C, phosphorus gas breaks up according to the following equation:
P4(9) No. ?
(20 ml) (40mi)

What is the formula of phosphorus gas above 4500 C?

At this stage, check your answers with your teacher.

Part 2

Ozone is a gas. In a series of experiments, it can be shown that, for every 20ml of ozone that break up,
30 ml of oxygen is formed. Surprisingly, no other element is involved.

Ozone 10- Oxygen

(20ml) (30ml)

Given that the formula for Oxygen is always 02, Can you work out the likely formula for Ozone ? How did

you find out your answer ? Write down your group's way of finding the answer on your answer sheet.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 14
 The Phosphorus Problem
Your Name:
.............................................
Phosphorus is made in industry from rock phosphate which has the following complicated formula:

3Ca3(PO4)2. CaF2

The reaction is:

1500'C
3Ca3(PO4)2. CaF2 (S) CaSi03(S) COW) P2 (9) SiF4(g)
+ + +
Si02

When heated to a temperature of 1500')C with carbon (coke) and silicon dioxide (sand), the following
gases are produced:
CO P2 SiF4

In the reaction furnace, there are four main products and the problem is to separate them in order to
obtain pure phosphorus. The difficulty is that phosphorus catches fire immediately on contact with air.
Here is some information to help you:

Compound Melting Boiling Reaction with Reaction with Density

Point (OC) Point (OC) Water Air (gCM-3)

CaSi03 -1540 Not known Insoluble, no reaction None 2.9

CO Insoluble, no reaction Burns 1.25
-199 -191
P2 44 280 Insoluble, no reaction Burns violently 1.82

SF4 -90 -86 Reacts *I Reacts with dampness in air* 4.69

1

The reaction is: SiF4(g) + H20(l) -00, Si02(S) + HF(aq)

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Try to work out a way to obtain pure phosphorus solid which is uncontaminated by the other three
products. Remember that the phosphorus must always be kept away from air. [You may find out helpful
to use pictures or diagrams. ] Write down your agreed answers on your answer sheet.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 15
 The Leaking Pipe

Your Name:
.........................................

An explosion resulting from a leaking underground pipeline was reported in a local newspaper.

A Department of Public Safety spokeswoman said, "Authorities suspect gas collected in a low-
lying ravine was ignited by a passing vehicle or possibly by a pilot light in a nearby home.
The pipeline carried liquefied propane gas, often called LP gas. Natural gas liquids turn to gas
when they come in contact with air. "

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Look carefully at the statement.

(1) List the errors and misunderstandings that the spokewoman has.

(2) In your own words, re-write the statement so that is correct

.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 16
M12 Salt, Salts, and pH
MMMMMMMMI Your Name:
.............................................
When you use the word "salt",
you probably think of sodium chloride, the white subtsance you put on
your chips. However, sodium chloride is just one of a huge number of compounds that are known
as
11
salts". Salts are usually made up of a metal 'bit' and a 'bit' that comes from an acid. Not all salts will
dissolve in water but here is a list of some salts and the pH of the solutions
obtained by some pupils
when they dissolved them in water.

Salt pH

Iron (11)sulphate 1
Aluminium chloride 3
Zinc (11)sulphate 3
Copper (11)nitrate 3
Sodium chloride 7
Potassium sulphate 7
Calcium chloride 7
Sodium nitrate 7
Sodium carbonate 10
Potassium carbonate 11

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Your Task

It is possible to draw many conclusions from the above table.

For example, salts containing potassium (K) always seem to have a pH of 7 or more.
We say that the pH > 7.

Working as a group, see how many other conclusions you can draw from the table of results. Write
down your agreed answers.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 17
 Solubility
Your Name:
........................................
Different compounds tend to dissolve in water to different extents.

Here is a table of solubility of some salts, expressed in grams per 100 grams of
solution at room temperature.

OH- F Cl- C032- N03- S042-

Na+ 109 4 36 21 87 19

K+ 112 95 35 112 32 11
Mg2+ 0.0009 0.008 54 0.011 70 33
Ca2+ 0.16 0.0016 75 0.002 129 0.21
Ba2+ 14 0.12 36 0.002 9 0.0002
Pb2+ 0.016 0.064 0.99 0.001 55 0.004
Zn2+ 0.85 1.62 420 0.001 184 96
Ag+ decomposes 195 0.0001 0.003 217 0.8

Fe2+ 0.0002 not known 70 0.007 84 20

Compounds can be divided into three groups:

Giving more than 10 g in 100 g of solution are called: "soluble"

Giving less than 1g in 100 g of solution are called: "insoluble"
Giving between 1g and 1Og in 1OOgof solution are called: "slightly soluble"

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the group
can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

(1) Can you see any patterns in these results ? As a group, write down as many patterns as you can.

(2) If you were to mix a solution of magnesium chloride with a solution of potassium hydroxide, predict what
might happen. Write down your agreed answer.
(3) A solution contains a mixture of lead nitrate and sodium nitrate. Try to work out a way to obtain a solution
containing only sodium nitrate. Write a description of your agreed answer.
(4) You have been given the information about compounds of magnesium, calcium and barium. Look at your
periodic table. You can see the element strontium (which is less common but was found first in Scotland).
Using the table of information, predict the approximate solubility that you would expect for strontium
hydroxide and strontium sulphate. Write down your agreed answers.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 18
 Solubility (Revised)
Your Name:
.........................................
Different compounds tend to dissolve in water to different extents.

Here is a table of solubility of some salts, expressed in grams per 100 grams of solution at room temperature.

OH- F Cl- C032- N03- S042-

I
Na+ 109 4 36 21 87 19

K+ 112 95 35 112 32 11
Mg2+ 0.0009 0.008 54 0.011 70 33
Ca2+ 0.16 0.0016 75 0.002 129 0.21
Ba2+ 14 0.12 36 0.002 9 0.0002

Pb2+ 0.016 0.064 0.99 0.001 55 0.004

Zn2+ 0.85 1.62 420 0.001 184 96

Ag+ decomposes 195 0.0001 0.003 217 0.8

Fe2+ 0.0002 not known 70 0.007 84 20

Compounds can be divided into three groups:

Giving more than 10 g in 100 g of solution are called: "soluble"

Giving less than 1g in 100 g of solution are called: "insoluble"
Giving between 1g and IlOg in 100g of solution are called: "slightly soluble"

- -- - ------- -------------------------------------
--------------------- You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the group
can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

(1) Can you see any patterns in these results ? As a group, write down as many patterns as you can.

(2) You have been given the information about compounds of magnesium, calcium and barium. Look at your
periodic table. You can see the element strontium (which is less common but was found first in Scotland).
You have not been given any information about strontium. Using the table of information, predict the
approximate solubility(using numbersj that you would expect for strontium hydroxide and strontium
sulphate. Write down your agreed answers.
(3) If you were to mix a solution of magnesium chloride with a solution of potassium hydroxide, predict what
might happen. Write down your agreed answer.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 19
 The Swimming Pool Problem

Your Name:
......................................
Helen, Paul and James swam in the local swimming pool. They all found the smell of the water to be
unpleasant and, afterwards, they had sore eyes. Helen's father was a doctor and he not only gave them
some soothing eye ointment but he also advised them about what was added to swimming pool water.

He said: "One of the additives in the water is chlorine. When it is added to water, it will produce
hypochlorous acid. The molecules of the acid can penetrate the bacteria in the water and kill them. But
the acid also can react with other substances to give substances with nasty smells. Some of them can
irritate your eyes. "

Helen, Paul and James did not fully understand all that Helen's father had said. As a group, can you
help them to understand what was the problem ?

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Part 1

List what you think might be the desirable properties for swimming pool water so that it is pleasant and
safe for public swimming.

Part 2

Chlorine reacts with water to give two compounds which are hydrochloric acid (HCI) and hypochlorous
acid (HOCI):

C12(g) + H200) --lo- HCI(aq) + HOCI(aq)

0 In addition, hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid form ions in water

(a) Write possible equations for the ionisation of each.

(b) What do you think happens to the pH of the water in the swimming pool when it is chlorinated?

Part 3

Hypochlorous acid solution [HOCI(aq)] is a most effective substance for killing bacteria.

Unfortunately, at lower pH values, HOCI reacts with any compound containing nitrogen to form various
substances. These substances contain the N-Cl bond.

Examples of such compounds are: NC13 and NHC12. It is compounds like these that are causing the
eye soreness.

0 At very high pH values, HOCI does not work to kill bacteria.

A 20
Now look at a graph given below.

100
go
0
80

M 70

60

50
0.
40
0 30
2
L) 20
4-
0
10

12356789
10
pH of water

As a group, discuss and answer the following questions:

(a) What pH is best for human bodies ?

(b) What pH is best to avoid nitrogen-chlorine compound formation ?

(c) Where do the nitrogen compounds come from ?

(d) Looking at the graph and information given at the top of this page, what pH is best to allow the
HOCI to work to kill bacteria ?

(e) Look at your answers to (a), (b) and (d).

What pH would you recommend for the swimming pool water ?

(f) What has gone wrong that caused Helen, Paul and James to have sore eyes ?

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 21
 Trees and Cars
Your Name:
.............................................
The following statement appeared in a well known American newspaper It was concerned with ways
to absorb carbon dioxide from the air.

"One tree can use up about 6 kg of carbon dioxide per year or enough
to offset the pollution produced by driving one car for 42,000km."

Is this really true ?

------------------ You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your acireed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

You are given the following information:

" Petrol is mainly octane IC8H181.
" An average small car gets about 10 krn per litre of petrol.
" Octane weighs 700g per litre.

Is the quotation from the newspaper correct ?

(1) As a group, discuss how you might attempt to answer this question.
(2) Try the calculationyourselves (working as a group) - you will need a calculator.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 22
 Trees and Cars (Revised)
Your Name:

The following statement appeared in a well known American newspaper. It was concerned with ways
to absorb carbon dioxide from the air.

"One tree can use up about 6 kg of carbon dioxide per year or enough
to offset the pollution produced by driving one car for 42,000km."

Is the quotion from the newspaper correct?

.........................
You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".
... ...........
You are given the following information:
" Petrol is mainly octane IC81HI18].
" An average small car gets about 10 km per litre of petrol.
" Octane weighs 700g per litre.

(1) As a group, discuss how you might attempt to answer this question-write down a plan.
If you are completely unusure what to do, ask for a hint.

(2) When you have a plan, if you find difficulty at any stage, ask fora hint.
Remember:you want to find out if one tree in one year can use up the carbon dioxide producedby an
average small car in one year.

(2) You will need a calculator. Work as group, using rough calculations only.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 23
 Bonding
Your Name:
.............................................
The properties of a substance depend on its structure the way its atoms, molecules or ions are
arranged and held together.
The properties of compounds with different types of bonding are summarised below.

Type of Melting Boiling Electrical Solubility

Bonding Point Point Conductivity in Water
Covalent tend to be low low or poor varies
occasionally extremely
very high high
Polar covalent tend to be low low or usually poor, some usually soluble
high react with water to but some react
give conduction
Ionic high very high good - melted often soluble
good - dissolved
poor - as a solid
Metallic usually high very high very good usually insoluble

..............
You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Your problem is to work out a way to find out what type of bonding exists in aluminum chloride for which a possible
formula might be: AIC13
As a group, you have 2100 pounds to spend. You can spend less than El 00 but you may not spend more
You can pay for the results of various experiments.
Here is the price list:
(a) measure melting point: 230
(b) measure boiling point: 220
(c) measure solubility: MO
(d) measure electrical conductivity as dissolved: C30
(e) measure electrical conductivity as melt: 240
(f) reaction with water: 230

Discuss what results you want to buy. You can buy them altogether or you can buy them one at a time. Ask your
teacher for the results that you choose. Now try to work out the type of bonding in aluminum chloride, writing dwon
how you have worked out your answer.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 24
 Bonding (Revised)
Your Name:
The properties of a substance depend on its structure: the way its atoms, molecules or ions are arranged and held
together.
The properties of compounds with different types of bonding are summarised below.

Type of Melting Boiling Electrical Solubility

Bonding Point Point Conductivity in Water
Covalent tend to be low low or poor varies
occasionally extremely
very high high
Polar covalent tend to be low low or usually poor, some usually soluble
high react with water to but some react
give conduction
Ionic high very high good - melted often soluble
good - dissolved
poor - as a solid
Metallic usually high very high very good usually insoluble

..........................
You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Your problem is to work out a way to find out what type of bonding exists in aluminum chloride for which a possible
formula might be: AIC13
As a group, you have 2100 pounds to spend to buy the results of various experiments. You can spend less than
El 00 but you may not spend more !
Here is the price list:
(a) measure melting point: P-30
(b) measure boiling point: E20
(c) measure solubility: 230
(d) measure electrical conductivity as dissolved: E30
(e) measure electrical conductivity as melt: 240
(f) reaction with water: P-30
(1) Discuss what results you want to buy to help you find out the type of bonding in aluminum chloride . You can
buy them altogether or you can buy them one at a time. Ask your teacher for the results that you
choose.
(2) Now try to work out the type of bonding in aluminum chloride, writing down how you have worked out your
answer.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 25
 Chemicals from Salt
Your Name:

There are endless supplies of salt (sodium chloride) in the sea. However, it is more useful to use
rock
salt, formed when ancient seas dried up. Useful chemicals are obtained from salt using electrolysis of
salt solution in water, as electric current is passed through the salt solution.
The electrolysis of sodium chloride solution produces sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen. The
overall equation is:
2NaCl 2H20 electroly2j2_,,, C12(9)
+ + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (9)
These three products are widely used in many important industries.

During the electrolysis process, the products must not be allowed to mix. Three types of electrolysis
cells are used in industry. The table below summarises the main features of three cells, known as the
membrane cell, the diaphragm cell and the mercury cell.

Membrane
Membrane Diaphragm
Diaphragm Mercury
Mercury

Concentration
Concentration 30-35%
30-35% 11-12%
11-12% 50%
50%
formed
NaOH formed
of NaOH
Contamination
Contamination 0.05 g/I
0.05 log/l
log/l 0.03 g/I
0.03 g/I
NaOH by
of NaOH by NaCl
NaCl
Environmental
Environmental no asbestos can
asbestos can mercury vapor
mercury vapor
problems
problems cause lung cancer
cause lung cancer is poisonous
poisonous
Electricity used
Electricity (kWh)
used (kWh) 2200
2200 2500
2500 3100
3100
per tonne
per NaOH
tonne NaOH
Special features
Special features needs very
needs very diaphragms must
diaphragms must mercury is very
mercury very expensive
expensive
brine
pure brine
pure be replaced
be frequently
replaced frequently but little
but little is wasted
wasted

In all three cells, chloride ions (CI-) move to the anode where they give up electrons to become
chlorine gas:
2CI- C12 (9) + 2e-

The Mercury cell

The Mercury enters this vessel at the bottom and acts as the cathode (+ The sodium is released at the
cathode and it dissolves in the mercury. The sodium-mercury mixture reacts with water to form sodium
hydroxide and the mercury is pumped back continuously to be the cathode.

Chlorine Gas

Hydrogen Gas
Sodium
t
Chloride

Mercuryj
bodiumclissolved Sodium
in Mercury is Hydroxide
mixed with water

2H20 2NaOH H2
2Na + +
dissolved
in mercury

A 26
The Membrane cell Chlorine Gas Hydrogen Gas
-A *I.

The membrane is designed so that

only sodium ions can pass through. Sodium
Chloride
Hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions
(OH-) are formed at the cathode:

2H2 0+ 2e- )o H2 20H- (aq) Hydroxide

The Diaphragm cell Chlorine Gas Hydrogen Gas

A AI.
The diaphragm is a sheet of gauze
coated with asbestos which allows Sodium
liquid to pass through. Chloride

Hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions

(OH-) are formed at the cathode:
Sodium
H2 (9)
2H20 + 2e- )0 20H- (aq) Hydroxide

You will be working in a small group.

Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

Before you start answer the questions below, work as a group and discuss each cell in turn. The cells
are quite complicated. Look at the diagrams and the equations and try to work out how each cell
actually works.
Now try discussing the following:
(1) Why do you think that the cell products are not allowed to mix during the process ? Think what
might happen if any two of the products were allowed to mix. Discuss with your group and write
down your answers.

(2) Still working as a group, write down the strengths and weaknesses for each cell as a way to make
the three products. Can you see any problems besides the problems that have been
mentioned? Write down your answers.
(3) Imagine that you are running a company making these three products from salt. Your company is
thinking about building a new factory. Which process do you prefer to choose ? Write down your
choice and give two reasons why you are making that choice.

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 27
 Rates of Reaction
Your Name:
......................................
A group of students were investigating some of the factors that influence the rate of reaction between
zinc and
dilute hydrochloride acid:
Zn + 2HCl No. ZnC12 + H2
They carried out four experiments. In each case, all the zinc reacted.
They collected and recorded the amount of hydrogen gas produced every minute.
Their results are shown in the table below.

Volume of Hydrogen (cm3)

Time expt 1 expt 2 expt 3 expt 4
(mins)

1 25 20 60 15
2 50 40 120 30
3 75 65 150 45
4 100 75 165 60
5 125 85 175 75
6 145 90 180 90
7 160 90 180 105
8 170 90 180 120
9 175 90 180 135
10 180 90 180 145
11 180 90 180 155
12 180 90 180 165
13 180 90 180 175
14 180 90 180 180
15 180 90 180 180

You are working in a small group of three. You will need to plot the results from the four experiments in order to be
able to discuss what they mean. Share out the work as follows, checking with each other that you are plotting the
graphs in the same way:

Person 1 Plot time against volume of hydrogen in experiment 1 and plot time against volume of hydrogen
in experiment 2, both graphs on the same graph paper provided.

Person 2 Plot time against volume of hydrogen in experiment 1 and plot time against volume of hydrogen
in experiment 3, both graphs on the same graph paper provided.

Person 3 Plot time against volume of hydrogen in experiment 1 and plot time against volume of hydrogen
in experiment 4, both graphs on the same graph paper provided.

... ........... .........................

You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".

The first experiment used 1g zinc powder and 1M (1 mole per litre) hydrochloric acid at 200C.

Look at each of the graphs together and discuss answers to the following:

(1) Look at the graph showing experiment 1 and experiment 2. Work out what might have changed to give the
graph from experiment 2. Writedown your agreed answers.

(2) Look at the graph showing experiment 1 and experiment 3. Work out what might have changed to give the
graph from experiment 3. Write down your agreed answers.

(3) Look at the graph showing experiment 1 and experiment 4. Work out what might have changed to give the
graph from experiment 4. Write down your agreed answers.

A 28
 Rates of Reaction

200

180

160

140

120

Volume of
hydrogen 100
(cm3)

80

60

40

20

10 12 14 15
Time
(minutes)

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A29
 Rates of Reaction (Revised)
Your Name:
A group of students were investigating some of the factors that influence the rate of reaction between zinc and
dilute hydrochloride acid:
Zn + 2HCI No. ZnC12 + H2
They carried out four experiments. In each case, all the zinc reacted.
They collected and recorded the amount of hydrogen gas produced every minute.
Their results are shown in the table below.

Volume of Hydrogen (cm3)

Time expt 1 expt 2 expt 3 expt 4
(mins)

1 25 20 60 15
2 50 40 120 30
3 75 65 150 45
4 100 75 165 60
5 125 85 175 75

6 145 90 180 90
7 160 90 180 105
8 170 90 180 120
9 175 90 180 135
10 180 90 180 145

11 180 90 180 155

12 180 90 180 165
13 180 90 180 175
14 180 90 180 180
15 180 90 180 180

Part 1 You are working in a small group of three. You will need to plot the results from the four experiments in
order to be able to discuss what they mean. Share out the work as follows, checking with each other that you are
plotting the graphs in the same way:

Person 1 Plot time against volume of hydrogen in experiment 1 and plot time against volume of hydrogen
in experiment 2, both graphs on the same graph paper provided.

Person 2 Plot time against volume of hydrogen in experiment 1 and plot time against volume of hydrogen
in experiment 3, both graphs on the same graph paper provided.

Person 3 Plot time against volume of hydrogen in experiment 1 and plot time against volume of hydrogen
in experiment 4, both graphs on the same graph paper provided.

----------- -------------- ------ ----------------

You will be working in a small group.
Discuss the possible answers to the questions below and one member of the
group can write in your agreed answers on to the "Answer Sheet".
---------------------- .................. ............................
Part 2 The first experiment used 1g zinc powder and had a concentration of hydrochloric acid (40 gram per liter)

at 200C. Look at each of the graphs together and discuss answers to the following:

Look at the graph showing experiment 1 and experiment 2. Work out what might have changed to give the
graph from experiment 2. Writedown your agreed answers.

(2) Look at the graph showing experiment 1 and experiment 3. Work out what might have changed to give the
graph from experiment 3. Write down your agreed answers.

(3) Look at the graph showing experiment 1 and experiment 4. Work out what might have changed to give the

graph from experiment 4. Writedown your agreed answers.

A 30
 Rates of Reaction

200 ..................................... ............... ..................

............... ................ I ............... I ..................... z
180 .............. ...................... ............... ...... ............... * ...... .......................

................ I ...... ............... ...... ...............

160 ....... ...... ............... ...... ....... ............... ............... * ...... .......................

............... ...... ............... ...... ...............

140 .............. ............... * ...... z............... ...... z............... ...............
............... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...............
120 ....... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...... ............... I ...... ......................

Volume of ................ I ...... ................ I ...... ............... I ................ I

hydrogen 100 ....... ...... ............... *...... ...................... ...................... ...................... z
(CM3)
............... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...... ...............

80 ....... ...... ............... ...... ................ ...................... ...............

............... ...... ...................... ................ I ...... ............... I
60 ....... ...... z...................... z....................... 4....................... z........................
................ I ...... ............... I ...... ............... I ...... ................ I
40 ....... , ...... ................ ...................... ....................... .......................
............... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...... ........
20 ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...................... ............... *...... z
............... ...... ............... ...... ....................... ................ I

10 12 14 15
Time
(minutes)

Use this space for any notes, calculations, working etc

A 31
 Appendix B

Teacher's Guide of Eighteen Chemistry Units

 Chemproblem Number 1

Argon and Electric Welding

Teacher's Guide

Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

0 Topic 3 Atoms and the Periodic Table 0 Key properties of Noble Gases

Learning Outcomes

Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
Begin to develop critical skills in relation to chemistry
Be able to correct the errors of a report in newspaper.
Become more aware of safety issues related to chemistry.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Argon and Electric Welding" to each pupRil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 15-20 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible Conclusions and Answers

Pupils should be aware that argon does not burn and does not support combustion. Therefore, il
cannot use up oxygen. Pupils may not be aware of the nature of electric welding in which the
electrical discharge generates the heat to melt the metal. Electric welding does not involve oxyger
and the reason for using argon is to keep oxygen (from the air) away from very hot metal and reduce
possibilities of metal oxidation.

1
 Chemproblem Number 2

Which is the Best Fuel ?

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

" Topic 5 Fuels 0 Know that a fuel is a chemical which

burns giving out energy
" Balancing equations 0 Be aware that combustion is a reaction
I I of a substance with oxygen

Learning Outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
Gain practice in writing balanced equations for combustion reactions.
Gain practice in calculating and using formula masses.
Become more aware of the use of rough calculations in taking decisions.
Become more able to justify if an assumption is reasonable.

Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Which is the Best Fuel T to each pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.

(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 30-35 minutes.

(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible conclusions and answers

Part 1: The combustion equations are:

02 No C02
c+

Cl 1H24 + 1702 10 11C02 + 12H20

CK + 202 10 C02 + 2H20

B2
Parts 2 and 3: Pupils are not expected to carry out the rough calculations using the concept of the
mole although they may choose to do so. However, the mole is a notoriously difficult concept and
need not be invoked. They can quickly estimate the number of formula masses of each in 1OOOg oi
each and hence work out the relative number of molecules formed in each equation. This shows thai
the methane gives the greatest number of product molecules and is, on the assumption given, likely
to provide the most energy for each 1OOOgburned.
The approximate answers that pupils may reach are given overleaf.

Formula Mass Number of formula masses in 1OOOg 'Molecules' formed

Carbon 12 83 83
-x1 --110-
Cl 1H24 156 6.4 147
x23 --*-
CH4 16 62.5 188
x3 No.

To show how this works, consider methane.

With a formula mass of 16, there are 1000 -16 [= 62.51 formula masses [moles] in 1000g.

The equation gives three product molecules.

Therefore, there are 3x 62.5 [= 188] 'equation molecules' [moles of product molecules] formed.
Because comparisons only are being made, this is sufficient.
The purpose of the exercise is to allow the pupils to work with the data to reach an answer and then be able to
justify why they think their answer is valid.

Part 4: Pupils may see that they are assuming that the formation of H20 and C02 produces similar
energy. At this stage, they will not be aware of ideas like bond energy. They will not aware that
the overall energy changes depend on bonds broken in reactants and bonds made in products,
However, in discussion, they may be able to begin to share ideas that lead towards these ideas,
using their own language.

In summary, they may be able to see that, if the various bonds are similar in energy then the energy
to the formed. In fact, the assumption is
released is approximately proportional number of molecules
good enough to show that methane will release most energy.

B3
 Chemproblem Number 3

The Chewing Gum Problem

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 15 Carbohydrates Hydrolysis of carbohydrates

and related substances

Learning outcomes

Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
" Apply the ideas of hydrolysis of carbohydrates.
" Gain experience in searching for information that they need to reach an answer.
" Gain experience in weighing the significance of evidence.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "The Chewing Gum Problem" to each Pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 25 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible conclusions
Pupils can approach the problem in at least two ways. In one approach, they may consider setting
up a long term experiment with large numbers of people, half of whom use sugar free chewing gum
and half using ordinary gum. Using appropriate controls to match the two groups, they could seek to
study the long term effects on teeth decay.
However, the more likely approach is to gather chemical evidence about what is happening in thE
to the chemistry of tofth decay and the effects of the
mouth during gum chewing and seek understand
two types of gum on this. The is
chemical evidence provided overleaf as background information for
yourself.
B4
Summary

(1) The ordinary gum contains carbohydrates

such as starch or sucrose, but the sugar-free gurr
has no carbohydrates in it, it just contains sugar substitutes such as Xylitol Sorbitol.
or
(2) The breakdown of starch or sucrose to monosaccharides is
called hydrolysis.
The hydrolysis of sucrose is:

sucrose + water glucose + f ructose

C12H22011 + H20 C6H1206 C61-11206
+

(3) To answer the question, various pieces of information may be needed:

What is tooth enamel?

Tooth enamel is composed of 95% mineral calcium hydroxyapatite, Ca, O(PO4)6(OH) 2.

What is tooth decay?

Tooth decay is caused when tooth enamel is dernineralised by acid in the mouth:
During acid attack, hydroxyapatite dissolves, releasing calcium ions an
hydrogenphosphate ions into the saliva:

Ca, O(PO4) 6(OH) 2+ 8H+ 10,10 Ca2+ + 6H P042- + 2H20

What are the acids?

The acids involved are lactic acid, acetic acid and propanoic acid. They are formed in thE
mouth when bacteria attack and break down carbohydrates like glucose and fructose,
released from the hydrolysis of sucrose. The pH in the mouth falls dramatically after sugar
has been eaten, then, after about one hour, rises back to pH 7.
After eating, the pH of the mouth, which is normally pH 6.5, falls rapidly to pH 4.5 because
bacteria in the plaque produce high concentration of acids.

What is sugar substitutes?

Sugar substitutes such as xylitol and sorbitol are broken down by bacteria to form acids al
a much slower rate than sucrose. Xylitol also has an antibacterial effect.

41 How does the saliva work with chewing gum?

Saliva contains hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate) ions and antibacterial agents such aE
fluoride ions. It helps to protect against microbial activity in the mouth by inhibiting the ability
of bacteria to break down carbohydrates and generate acids.

Chewing gum can stimulate saliva flow by up to 10 times its normal rate. The stimulatior
leads to a change increases the bicarbonate concentration, raising the pH and enhancinc
the saliva's ability to neutralise plaque acid. It also causes an availability of calcium and
phosphate ions, which can help heal a tooth's surface in the early stage of tooth decay.

(4) Although the pupils are not expected to obtain an answer, the conclusion is that chewing sugar-
free gum can help in the fight against tooth decay. The pupils are expected to be able to
devise a strategy to obtain an answer.

B5
 Chemproblem Number 4

Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay ?

Teacher's Guide

Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 3 Atoms and the periodic table Naming of compounds

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
Be able to spot chemical errors in a newspaper report
Begin to seek valid chemical explanations for observed data.

Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay" to each P-up-il-
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 15-20 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible Errors

Fluoride strengthens teeth by bonding with calcium to form calcium fluoride

Fluorine is the element, fluoride is already bonded to something.
Calcium fluoride is a harder, denser material than calcium alone,...
Calcium, as an element, is not present in teeth - pupils may remember that the metal reacts with
water. However, the fluorine can bond with calcium to form calcium fluoride.
Calcium is the main ingredient in enameL..
This leaves the impression that, in is
some way, calcium mixed with other materials to form tooth
enamel. Calcium is bonded to the other elements.
In fact, fluoride does help reduce tooth decay: the fluoride ion replaces the hydroxide ion in
Extra Information:
hydroxyapatite Ca3(PO4)6(OH)2 to fluorapatite Ca3(PO4)6F2- Under acid conditions in the
tooth enamel, changing
is less than hydroxyapatite and more resistant to the bacteria. Strictly, according to the
mouth, the fluorapatite soluble
Ca3(P04)6(OH)2, the most abundant element in tooth enamel is not calcium but oxygen I
molecule formula
B6
 Chemproblem Number 5

Glowing Splint Problem

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

0 Topic 5 Fuels 0 Composition of the air

Air pollution 0 Basic idea of a catalyst

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in working as
a team. In addition, pupils should:
" Be able to explain the formation of nitrogen dioxide gas in a car engine.
" Be more aware of the pollution problems related to nitrogen dioxide and how these are reduced.
" Be able to suggest possible explanations for an experiental observation.

Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "The Glowing Splint Problem" to each PjQi[[.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 20-25 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.
Possible conclusions and methods
In part 1, pupils are being encouraged to think again through what is happening in the combustion of fuels.
In a car cylinder, burning fossil fuels at high temperatures provides the condition for nitrogen and oxygen that
are from the air to form nitrogen oxides, nitric oxide initially which then is converted rapidly into nitrogen
dioxide.
Nitrogen dioxide gas can combine with water to form nitric acid, which can condense in the exhaust system
and cause corrosion. Equally, nitrogen dioxide can emerge into the atmosphere to form acid droplets and to
react with other pollutants. The its
oxide and products are all harmful to the environment and to humans.

There are two ways to reduce the problem of N02 in a car: transition metal catalysts can convert the nitrogen
dioxide back to nitrogen and oxygen or the fuel to air ratio can be improved to lower to formation of oxides of
nitrogen. Neither is perfect in that the catalysts work poorly at low temperatures (when a car starts) and the
formation of the oxides can be eliminated completely by engine adjustment.
In part 2, using the hint of the idea of catalysis, pupils are asked to explain what appears to be quite illogical:
the nitrogen dioxide oxygen mixture would not be expected to re-kindle the glowing splint by comparison
with air. In fact, a glowing splint catalyses the decompose of N02 to N2 and 02. Pupils, in their discussion,
may come up with other possible explanations eg. carbon is more reactive than nitrogen and is displacing the
nitrogen from the dioxide, releasing the oxygen - perfectly reasonable.
B7
 Chemproblem Number 6

Heat Packs for Mountaineers

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 11 Metals 0 Oxidation

0 The reactivity of metals

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
Be willing to speculate to develop explanations based on previous knowledge.
Become more able spotting hidden but relevant information to solve problems.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.

(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Heat Packs for Mountaineers" to each pgPL il.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.

When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 25-30 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible answers

The most difficult step is for to

pupils see that it is oxygen from the air coming into the porous fabric
bag once the sealed outer plastic bag is opened.
(1) When the protectiveplastic bag is removed,the powderediron will react with the 02 in air to produce
Iron(11)oxide. The energycomesfromthe oxidationof iron.
(2) According to the reactivityof metals,we cannotuse active metals like sodium or potassium because of
The highly unreactive metals like copper or silver are also not suitablefor the Heal
violent reaction.
Packs becauseof slow reactions. Therefore,a moderatelyreactive metal like iron is rathersuitable.
Alternativesmust have comparable reactivity(and not be too expensive); possibles: zinc is a bit too
reactive, tin too slow, nickeltoo expensive,manganesemightwork.
B8
 Chemproblem Number 7

How Can We Obtain Iron?

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 11 Metals * Chemical equations

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
" Be aware how iron is obtained from iron ores.
" Gain practice in interpretingchemical equations.
" Be able to select and re-arrange the equations reasonably.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled How Can We Obtain Iron? to each pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 25-30 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussionfor a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible answers

(1) All three are possible. % iron, byproducts (like S02), location of factory are all factors.
(2) The reasonable processes of converting iron into iron metal are, if haernatitie is used:
Equations 1 plus 3 or equation 2 Production of carbon monoxide
Equation 9 plus 10 Reduction of iron oxides with carbon monoxide
Equation 4 plus 5 Removal of impurities.
If Magnetite is used, equation 8 replaces equation 9 while, if pyrities is used, equation 7 has to be
carried out in advance - the sulphur dioxide cannot be vented to the air with the other waste gases and
causes considerable destruction to the actual furnace.

(3) Waste gases are largely nitrogen (60%), carbon monoxide (30%) and carbon dioxide (110%).If pyrites is
used, there is also sulphur dioxide. Sulphur dioxide (highly toxic and corrosive) and carbon monoxide
(highly poisonous) and carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) all pose problems.
B9
 Chemproblem Number 8

Moving Gases
Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

The properties of gases Formula masses

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
Be able to draw conclusions such as a graph or a brief principle from given data.
Be able to design an appropriate method to check if the conclusion is correct.
Develop the ability of prediction.
Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Moving Gases" to each P-upil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 20-25 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.
Distance
Possible conclusions and prediction (cm) I
Pupils may play with several ideas before they begin to spot that
the distance travelled is related to molecular mass. They may
simply see that the larger the formula mass, the smaller the
distance. This is sufficient to make an estimate of the answer.
However, some may think of drawing a rough graph, as shown Formula
alongside. Mass

Others may go further: if they look at sulphur dioxide and methane, they may see that quadrupling the
mass halves the distance travelled. Some may then see the inverse square relationship.
(2) Whatever they do, they can test their idea by looking at other gases in the table to see if their hypothesis
stands up.
(3) Their answer for chlorine will depend how which method they used. The most accurate answer, from
the data given, is 48 cm.
B 10
 Chemproblem Number 9

The Ozone Problem

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

The gaseous state 0 Chemical formula

Topic 4 How atoms combine.
,I

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
0 Be able to spot patterns from given experimental information
e Be able to draw inferences from the given information.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "The Ozone Problem" to each pupfl.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 25-30 minutes.

(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible conclusions and methods

Part 1 Pupils will struggle for a little while before they begin to see that it is the number of gas
molecules that is related to the gas valume: Gas volumes are related to balancec
equations. They then test this out in reactions (1) and (2).
(1) ThevolumeofCH20iS10Ml-
(2) The volume Of C02 is 20 mi.

Part 2 In accordance with the rule they have established, there must be two molecules of ozonE
giving three molecules of oxygen:
2(Ozone) 10 302

This gives 6 oxygen atoms on the right, demanding six on

the left: 03 is the only possible way to achieve this.
Bll
 Chemproblem Number 10

The Phosphorus Problem

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Separate of mixtures 0 Separate mixtures by taking

(pre-Standard Grade) advantage of the different
physical and chemical properties.

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
Gain experience in assessing data
Be able to draw inferences from the given information.

Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "The Phosphorus Problem" to each pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 20-25 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible conclusions and methods

Pupils will find it difficult at the to
start sort through the amount of data to see what is significant and useful.
Looking at melting and boiling points shows clearly that, with very slight cooling, the calcium silicate solidifies
leaving the others as gases. In practice, liquid calcium silicate runis out of the bottom of the furnace, the
three gases emerging in a pipe from the top.
If the gases are merely cooled around to 25'C, the phosphorus will solidify, leaving carbon monoxide and
However, there is to
no way get at the phosphorus without letting in air, thus
silicon tetrafluoride as gases.
causing a major fire.
The three gases have to be in
cooled water. The problem here is that the silicon tetrafluoride reacts to form
silicon dioxide which then contaminates the phosphorus.
in
The trick is to cool water at a temperature above 44*C (in fact about 70*C us used). At this temperature, the
as a liquid and can be separated readily from the solid silicon dioxide. After the silicon
phosphorus stays
dioxide is removed, the is to
water allowed cool and the solid phosphorus forms under the water. The carbon
on as a gas. The water will, in fact, contain dissolved hydrogen fluoride but this does not
monoxide continues
contaminate the solid phosphorus.
B 12
 Chemproblem Number 11

The Leaking Pipe

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 5 Fuels The fractional distillation of crude oil

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
Be able to distinguish the difference between the LIPgas and the Natural gas.
Be able to judge the accuracy of a report and recognise errors.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.

(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "The Leaking Pipe" to each Pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 15-20 minutes.

(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible Errors

The spokeswoman confuses LP gas with Natural gas. Propane gas arises from oil refining (alonc
with methane, ethane etc). Propane can be liquified readily and transported under pressure as a
liquid. It will evaporate when the pressure drops, not necessarily when it comes in contact with air.

Natural gas is, of course, mainly methane. This can also be liquified under pressure foi
transportation and, on reduction of the pressure, will evaporate.

In fact, natural gas liquids is a confusing description.

B 13
 Chemproblem Number 12

Salt, Salts and pH

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 9 Reactions of Acids. The pH scale as a measure

of acidity and alkalinity.

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
0 Gain experience in drawing conclusions from data.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.

(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Salt, Salts, and pH" to each pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 20-25 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible Conclusions

(1) Solutions of salts in water are not always neutral.

Solutions of salts of transition metals are acidic.

(3) Solutions of carbonates are basic (pH more than 7).

(4) Solutions of salts containing group 1 metals such as sodium always have a pH of 7 or more.

(5) Solutions of salts contains anions such as Cl-, N03-, S042- always have a pH of 7 or less.

B 14
 Chemproblem Number 13

Solubility

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Gradechernistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

" Topic 9 Reactions of acids Solubility, precipitation

" Topic 7 Properties of substances

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
" Be able to draw conclusions from data.
" Develop the ability of prediction by using data provided.
" Sift data intelligently to design an appropriate method to separate the mixture of solutions.
" Be able to predict the result of mixing two solutions.
Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Solubility" to each puptI.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 30-35 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible conclusions and approaches

(1) Solubilityrulesthat they mightdeducefrom the data given:
" Any solid is soluble if it contains sodium, potassium and nitrate ions.
" Most of the chlorides are soluble(only lead and silver chlorides are insoluble).
" Some of the sulphates are soluble(calcium, barium, lead and silver sulphates are insoluble).
" Any solid is insoluble if it contains hydroxide ions and carbonate ions except for sodium and potassium
compounds.
0 Most lead compounds are insoluble except lead nitrate.
(2) Magnesium hydroxide will be formed.
(3) Add a solution which contains negative ions such as C032-, S042-, OH-, F-, Cl- (except N03- ) to the
mixture solution of lead nitrate and sodium nitrate. The lead ions will combine with these negative ions
to form precipitates. Filter the precipitates off, rest of the solution is sodium nitrate. Care must be taken
not to add excess, thus contaminating the sodium nitrate.
(4) 0.16 < Sr(OH)2 > 14 and 0.0002 < SrSO4 > 0.2
In fact, the solubility of strontium hydroxide is 11.7g per 100g, the solubility of strontium sulphate is
0.0006g per 1009.

B 15
 Chemproblem Number 14

The Swimming Pool Problem

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Gradechemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 8 Acids and Alkalis e Concept of pH

e Acidic solutions contain H

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
" Be able to write down the ionisation equations.
" Be able to sift information and draw conclusions.
" Bring information together to judge the best pH value of water for the swimming pool.
" Begin to see the significance of chemistry in a leisure activity.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "The Swimming Pool Problem" to each pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 30-35 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible conclusions

Part 1 The desirable properties for swimming pool water might be: clear water, no bacteria, no nasty
smells, clean pool walls and surrounds are, warm, reasonable pH (they may suggest 5.5 to match
many shampoos and soaps)
Part 2 They will be unsure of the ionisation of hypochlorous acid:
HOCI (aq) H+ (aq) + OCI - (aq)
-00.
Part 3 Referring to the information and the graph, the answers are:
1-1 The good pH value for swimmers could be anything between 5.5 and 7.
kC,
I
(b) Nitrogen-chlorine compound formation happens at lower pH values.
The pH must be kept above 6.
(c) The best pH value to allow the HOCIto kill bacteria is less than 8, say.
(d) pH 6-8.
(e) They had sore eyes might due to the pH value decreasing below 6.
B 16
 Chemproblem Number 15

Trees and Cars

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 6: structures and reactions Formula Masses

of hydrocarbons
Topic 5 Fuels

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
0 Be able to write and balance the combustion equation of octane.
Be able to carry out some chemical arithmetic.
Be aware that the role of trees is important in reducing the C02 in the environment.

Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Trees and Cars" to each pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 30-35 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussionfor a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible calculation

There are several ways to tackle the problem. Here is a possible route.
A balanced equation: 2 C8H1 2502 0- 16 C02 18 H20
8+ --.
From this (or by simply deducing that there are 8 carbons per molecule of octane),
114g of octane will give rise to 352 g of carbon dioxide.
1 litre octane has a mass of 700 g. Thus,
MassOfC02 from1 litre = (700 -- 114) x 352g= 2161g
The car will use 4200 litres of petrol.

The C02 produced will weigh: 2151 x 4200 g9 076 000 g= 9076 Kg >9 tonnes]

Thus, the number of trees required to absorb the C02 in a year is over 1500H
The newspaper report is completely incorrect.
B 17
 Chemproblem Number 16

Bonding

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 7 Properties of substance The types of bonding

including covalent, polar
covalent, ionic and metallic.

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
" Learn how to assess the value of inforarrition gained experimentally
" Be able to select an appropriate method to obtain an answer.
" Develop the ability of sifting information.

Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Bonding" to each pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 15-20 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible conclusions

The information to be given to pupils is:

Melting point: Does not melt, sublimes at 1930C.
Boiling point: Sublimes.
Solubility in water: Extremely soluble.
Electrical conductivity as dissolved: Solution conducts very well.
Electrical conductivity as melt: Does not melt.
React with water: Disssolves rapidly, sometimes with a sight "fizz".
The bonding in aluminiurn chloride is polar covalent, in all phases. The compound tends to exist as a dimeric
molecules A12CI6- In water, there is rapid dissolving, sometimes with a reaction giving a slight "fizz" as the
chloride is hydrolysed to give free hydrated aluminium ions and chloride ions. In this phase, the bonding is
ionic. Thus, aluminium chloride is a polar molecule but, on reaction with the water, ions are set free.
B 18
 Chemproblem Number 17
Chemicals from salt

Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.
Curriculum links Prior knowledge

0 Topic 7 Properties of substances 0 Electrolysis

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in working as
a team. In addition, pupils should:
Be able to predict what might happen from the given relevant information.
Develop the abilities of discrimination between three electrolysis methods.
Guidelines
(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "The Chemicals from Salt" to each pupil.
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 25-30 minutes.
(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.
Possible conclusions
The pupils will not have met the reactions between the various products but might be able to deduce or
guess some of the reactions:
(a) Hydrogen and chlorine are likely to react to form hydrogen chloride.
(b) Chlorine, being a nonmetalicelement is likely to react with sodium hydroxide (an alkali).
They will not have met hypochloriteas a possible product.
(c) Hydrogen and sodium hydroxide do not react but they probably could not deduce this.
The strengths and weaknesses for each cell are shown below:
Strengths Weaknesses
Membrane uses the least energy needs very pure brine
high purity and concentrationof NaOH
no environmentalproblems
Diaphragm uses low energy low purity and concentrationof NaOH
asbestos can cause serious disease
replace diaphragms frequently
Mercury highest purity and concentrationof NaOH use the most energy
mercury vapour is poisonous
mercury is expensive

The mercury cell still dominates the market and works extremely well. The poisonous nature of mercury (small
amounts escape into the marine environment) is the main problem The diaphragm cell started to replace
mercury cells but, latterly, with the development of membrance technology, the membrance cell is the
preferred option.
B 19
 Chemproblem Number 18

Rates of Reaction
Teacher's Guide
Introduction

The unit is written for 14-15 years old pupils following Standard Grade chemistry.

Curriculum links Prior knowledge

Topic 1 Chemical reaction Reaction of acids with metal

Topic 2 Speed of reactions to produce gas

Learning outcomes
Pupils are being asked to work in a small group to try to solve problems and should develop skills in
working as a team. In addition, pupils should:
Be able to plot graphs of the results from the experiments.
Be able to find out the factors, which influence the speed of a chemical reaction.
Gain more experience in communicatingand cooperatingwith each other.

Guidelines

(1) Form the class into groups of 3, with an occasional group of 4 to balance numbers.
(2) Give a copy of the unit entitled "Rates of Reaction" and the graph paper provided to each
aup -
Ril
Give one copy of the blue Answer sheet to each group.
Pupils will take a few minutes to read the unit before group discussion starts.
Have scrap paper available if requested.
(3) Allow enough time for the groups to discuss and agree answers to the questions.
Do not take part in the group discussions unless pupils get completely confused.
(4) When pupils have finished, give each pupil a copy of the yellow sheet entitled "Endpiece".
Allow a few minutes for them to complete this on an individual basis.
(5) At the end, collect in all the sheets used for return to the Centre for Science Education.
A suggested time for the unit is about 30-35 minutes.

(6) You may wish to lead an open class discussion for a few minutes at the end.
This time can be used to comment on the problem and to summarise conclusions.

Possible answers

(1) Experiment 2 involved 0.5g of zinc.

(2) Experiment 3 might have happened for any (or a combination) of the following reasons:
" Temperature more than 20"C,
"A catalyst was used.
" The concentration of the acid than 1M was increased.
(3) Experiment 4 might have happened for any (or a combination) of the following reasons:
0 The concentration of acid was less than 1M.
The zinc was in larger lumps (not powdered)
The temperature was reduced to less than 200C.
B 20
 Appendix C

The Exemplary Answer Sheets

 Answer Sheet

Argon and Electric Welding

Please write your names here:

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

After discussing with your group, write down

the conclusions you think that you can make.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................
If you need more space, use the other side

I
Elý7 AnswerSheet
The Swimming Pool Problem

Please write your names here:

After discussing with your group, write down

the conclusions you think that you can make.

Part 1
....................................................................................................................................

Part 2
....................................................................................................................................

Part 3
....................................................................................................................................

If you need more space, use the other side

C2
 Appendix D

Evaluation Sheets (Three Versions

 Endplece
Now work on your own. Think about the problem you have just tried to solve.
Answer the following questions to show how you tackled the problem.

Please write your name here:

.....................................................................
01
;11
Tick the box that best describes O'ý ($1 0, 0'. %,
your 0> LOA -
experience in tackling this problem. P/, -1
00 00
The problem was enjoyable.

The problem was difficult.

I found that solving this problem was satisfying.

The problem was completely new to me.

I learned nothing from the problem.

I had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem.

I prefer solving problems on my own.

We worked well together as a group.

We did not share the work out evenly in our group.

I found the group discussion helpful.

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer.
I could not have solved the problem by myself.

I needed the other group members to help me

remember background information

Please answer the following questions.

What did you do first to solve the problem ?

........................................................................................................

What was the second step ?

...............................................................................................................................

What did you need to know before you began ?

...............................................................................................

What was the easiest part in the problem ?

...........................................................................................................

What was a hindrance in preventing you from reaching a solution ?

........................................................................

How did you overcome obstacles in the problem ?

...............................................................................................

In what ways did working in a group help to solve the problem ?

...........................................................................

What have you learned from the problem ?

...........................................................................................................

I
 Endpiece
Now work on your own. Think about the problem you have just tried to solve.
Answer the following questions to show how you tackled the problem.

Please write your name here:

.....................................

Tick the box that best describes your

experience in tackling this problem.
<DI
- 01
The problem was enjoyable.
The problem was difficult.
I found that solving this problem was satisfying.
The problem was completely new to me.
I learned nothing from the problem.
I had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem
I prefer solving problems on my own.
We worked well together as a group.
We did not share the work out evenly in our group.
I found the group discussion helpful.
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer
I could not have solved the problem by myself.
I needed the other group members to help me
remember background information

Please answer the following questions.

After reading the problem, what did your group discuss first ?
................................................................................

What was the second step your group took to solve the problem?
........................................................................

What did you need to know before you began ?

..................................................................................................

What made it difficult for you to solve the problem?

...............................................................................................

How did you overcome obstacles in the problem ?

...............................................................................................

The problem was quite difficult. What do you think you learned from trying to solve it?
.............................................

D2
 Endpiece
Now work on your own. Think about the problem you have just tried to solve.
Answer the following questions to show how you tackled the problem.

Please write your name here: 41,

..................................................................... Ly'.
"0
Tick the box that best describes your CýO o'
experience in tackling this problem. -1 CP
,0 kýp
00 P 61
0
190
0 '0
1

The problem was enjoyable.

The problem was difficult.

I found that solving this problem was satisfying.

The problem was completely new to me.

I learned nothing from the problem.
I had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem.
I prefer solving problems on my own.
We worked well together as a group.

We did not share the work out evenly in our group.

I found the group discussion helpful.

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer.
I could not have solved the problem by myself.
I needed the other group members to help me
remember background information

Please answer the following questions.

did you need to know before you began ?

What made it difficult for you to solve the problem?

D3
 Appendix E

Word Association Tests (Two Booklets)

 Appendix E

Name:

Word Association Test

Centre for Science Education

I
 Page 1

When you hear or seea word, it often makes you think of other words. In
this study we would like to find out what other words are brought to your
mind by some words usedin Chemistry.

On each page you will find a key word written many times. Say the word
to yourself, and then as quickly as possible write the first word to comes to
mind in spaceNumber 1. And then continue to write in the other spacesother
associatedwords which cometo mind.

Continue in this way until you are told to tum the next page.

There are no right answers.

Write as quickly as possible since you are allowed only 30 sec. for each
page.

Thank you very much.

E2
 Page 2

EXAMPLE I

EAGLE

EAGLE I BIRD
............ .............

EAGLE 2 R-Y
............. ..............

EAGLE 3 NEST
............ ...........

EAGLE 4 C-LAW
........... ...........

EAGLE 5 FEATHERS
........

EAGLE 6 13EA-K
............ ...........

EAGLE 7 BAL-D
............ ...........

EAGLE 8 PREY
........... ............

EAGLE 9 PRES+D-ENT...
........

EAGLE 10
...................................

Write as many words as come to your mind in the time available

E3
 Page 3

EXAMPLE 2

ACID '

ACID I AL-KAL4
.......... ..........

ACID 2 CONCENTRATION
.......

ACID 3 Ht
.......... ....................

ACID 4 IONS
......... ................

ACID 5 LITMUS
...... ..............

ACID 6 P.R.O.T.ON
..........

ACID 7 SALT
.......... ..............

ACID 8 P-H
.......... ....................

ACID
...................................

ACID 10
...................................

Write as many words as come to your mind in the time available

E4
Page 4

OXIDATION

OXIDATION 1
...................................

OXIDATION
...................................

OXIDATION
...................................

OXIDATION
...................................

OXIDATION
...................................

OXIDATION
...................................

OXIDATION
...................................

OXIDATION
...................................

OXIDATION
...................................

OXIDATION 10
...................................

E5
page 5

METAL

METAL I
..................................

METAL
..................................

METAL
.................................

METAL
................................

METAL
................................

METAL
.................................

METAL
.................................

METAL
................................

METAL
................................

METAL 10
...............................

E6
Page6

OXYGEN

OXYGEN 1
..................................

OXYGEN
.................................

OXYGEN
.................................

OXYGEN ................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN 10
...............................

E7
page 7

ENERGY

ENERGY I
..................................

ENERGY 2
..................................

ENERGY 3
.................................

ENERGY 4
................................

ENERGY 5
................................

ENERGY 6
.................................

ENERGY 7
.................................

ENERGY 8
................................

ENERGY 9
................................

ENERGY 10
...............................

E8
Page8

REDUCTION

REDUCTION
................................

REDUCTION
................................

REDUCTION 3
................................

REDUCTION 4
................................

REDUCTION 5
..............................-

REDUCTION
................................

REDUCTION 7
................................

REDUCTION 8
................................

REDUCTION 9
................................

REDUCTION 10
...............................

E9
Page 9

ELECTRON

ELECTRON I
.................................

ELECTRON 2
.................................

ELECTRON 3
.................................

ELECTRON 4
.................................

ELECTRON 5
.................................

ELECTRON 6
.................................

ELECTRON 7
.................................

ELECTRON 8
.................................

ELECTRON 9
.................................

ELECTRON 10
.............................

E 10
Page 10

OXIDES

OXIDES I
..................................

OXIDES 2
..................................

OXIDES 3
.................................

OXIDES 4
................................

OXIDES 5
................................

OXIDES 6
.................................

OXIDES *7.................................

OXIDES
................................

OXIDES 9
................................

OXIDES 10
...............................

11
Page II

REDOX REACTION

REDOX REACTION
.................................

REDOX REACTION 2
.................................

REDOX REACTION 3
.................................

REDOX REACTION 4
.................................

REDOX REACTION 5
.................................

REDOX REACTION
.................................

REDOX REACTION '

.................................

REDOX REACTION
.................................

REDOX REACTION
.................................

REDOX REACTION 10
................................

E 12
Page12

BURNING

BURNING I
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
.................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING 10
...............................

E 13
Name:

Word Association Test

Centre for Science Education

E 14
 Page I

When you hear or seea word, it often makesyou think of other words. In
this study we would like to find out what other words are brought to your
mind by some words usedin Chemistry.

On eachpageyou will find a key word written many times. Say the word
to yourself, and then as quickly as possible write the first word to comesto
mind in space Number 1. And then continue to write in the other spaces
other associatedwords which come to mind.

Continue in this way until you are told to turn the next page.

There are no right answers.

Write as quickly as possible since you are allowed only 30 sec. for each
page.

Thank you very much.

E 15
 Page 2

EXAMPLE I

EAGLE

BIRD
EAGLE
...................................

EAGLE 2 FLY
...................................
NEST
EAGLE 3
...................................

CLAW
EAGLE 4
...................................

FEATHERS
EAGLE 5
...................................

6 BEAK
EAGLE
...................................

BALD
EAGLE 7
...................................

PREY
EAGLE 8
...................................

EAGLE 9 PRESIDENT
...................................

EAGLE 10
...................................

Write as many words as come to your mind in the time available

E 16
 Page 3

EXAMPLE 2

ACID

ALKALI
ACID I
...................................
CONCENTRATION
ACID 2
...................................
H+
ACID 3
...................................
IONS
ACID 4
...................................

LITMUS
ACID 5
...................................
PROTON
ACID 6
...................................
SALT
ACID 7
...................................

PH
ACID 8
...................................

ACID
...................................

ACID 10
...................................

Write as many words as come to your mind in the time available

E 17
Page 4

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION
...................................

COMBUSTION 2
...................................

COMBUSTION 3
...................................

COMBUSTION 4
...................................

COMBUSTION 5
...................................

COMBUSTION
...................................

COMBUSTION 7
...................................

COMBUSTION 8
...................................

COMBUSTION 9
...................................

COMBUSTION 10
...................................

E 18
Page5

OXIDES

OXIDES
..................................

OXIDES 2
..................................

OXIDES 3
.................................

OXIDES 4
................................

OXIDES 5
................................

OXIDES 6
.................................

OXIDES 7
.................................

OXIDES 8
................................

OXIDES 9
................................

OXIDES 10
...............................

E 19
Page6

FUEL

FUEL I
.................................

FUEL
.................................

FUEL
.................................

FUEL
.................................

FUEL
.................................

FUEL
.................................

FUEL
.................................

FUEL
.................................

FUEL
.................................

FUEL 10
................................

E 20
Page7

OXYGEN

OXYGEN I
..................................

OXYGEN
.................................

OXYGEN
.................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN
................................

OXYGEN 10
...............................

E 21
Page 8

ENERGY

ENERGY I
..................................

ENERGY
..................................

ENERGY
.................................

ENERGY
................................

ENERGY
................................

ENERGY
.................................

ENERqY
.................................

ENERGY
................................

ENERGY
................................

ENERGY 10
...............................

E 22
Page9

BURNING

BURNING I
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING
................................

BURNING 10
...............................

E 23
Page 10

HEAT

HEAT I
..................................

HEAT
..................................

HEAT -
.................................

HEAT
................................

HEAT
................................

HEAT
.................................

HEAT
.................................

HEAT
................................

HEAT
................................

HEAT 10
...............................

E 24
Page II

CARBON DIOXIDE

CARBON DIOXIDE I
.................................

CARBON DIOXIDE
.................................

CARBON DIOXIDE
.................................

CARBON DIOXIDE
.................................

CARBON DIOXIDE
.................................

CARBON DIOXIDE
.................................

CARBON DIOXIDE
.................................

CARBON DIOXIDE
.................................

CARBON DIOXID
.................................

CARBON DIOXIDE 10
................................

E 25
 Appendix F

Pupils' Answers
Unit 1 Argon and Electric Welding
Group I Welders torch used up all the oxygen from the air in the tank. The argon was uselessto
the welders torch as it is a noble gas. The oxygen is used up by the flame, and the air is
displaced by argon. The men could not take in argon and had no air to breathe,therefor
suffocating. (The argon comes from the torch)
Group 2 The gas in the torch could not have been argon, becauseit does not bum. So there must
have been a hydrocarbon burning the oxygen in the torch, creating carbon dioxide which
suffocatedthe men.
Group 3 Argon cannot bum, unreactive (noble gas), fuel could be a hydrocarbon such as methane.
Oxygen used up from fueling the flame. When a hydrocarbon is burned it forms carbon
dioxide and water, and carbon dioxide is poisonous. Due to lack of oxygen in tank,
carbon monoxide was possibly produced which is even more poisonousthan carbon
dioxide.
Group 4 The detective is wrong in saying argon used up the oxygen in the tank as argon doesnot
react with oxygen. We suggestthat the gas used to weld the metal was a hydrocarbongas
eg methaneor butane.The carbon would have reactedwith the oxygen creating C02
(carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide could have overcome the workers. For example,
CH4 + 02 ---> C02 + H20

Group 5 The workmen were using a hydrocarbon to weld, perhapsbutane.The burning reaction
used up the air in the tank and when a hydrocarbon is burned without enoughoxygen,
instead of forming water and carbon dioxide it formed carbon monoxide, which suffocated
the men. It could not be argon as argon is unreactive and it is coloured, so the men
would seeit and escape.
Group 6 Argon doesn't bum, so it cannot be the fuel for the welder. Argon comes out and fills up
the tank and pushed out the oxygen.
Group 7 Two men were suffocated in a tragic industrial accident,where they were in an
unventilated tank and did not used efficient breathing apparatus.They died from lack of
oxygen but not due to the argon gas as it does not bum.

Group 8 Argon is a noble gas, this meansthat it does not react with anything. The two workmen
died becausethe argon gas filled up the tank and took away the supply of oxygen needed
for the men to finish the job. As a result of this the men died.
Group 9 We do not think that argon was burned becauseit is a noble gas. We think a hydrocarbon
was burned, which used up the oxygen in the tank. Another possible explanation is that
when the hydrocarbon burned C02 and CO were produced which poisonedthe workmen.
We think the detective should have said" Burning methanegas in the welders torch
apparently used up all the oxygen in the tank".
Group 10 There was only a limited supply of oxygen and they were in there so long they used up
all of the oxygen and started breathing in carbon dioxide.

Group II As argon is a noble, unreactive gas, it cannot be burned. The gas was most likely to be a
hydrocarbon(methane)gas as they are good fuels. When a hydrocarbon is burned carbon
dioxide is released.Oxygen is used when burning occurs. These two things probably lead
to the death of the men. The burning would use up oxygen and produce carbon dioxide
suffocating the victims.
Group 12 Argon gas does not bum becauseit is one of the noble gasesin the Periodic tables, so it
is very unreactive. They suffocatedbecausethere was no oxygen left in the air becauseit
had all been used up.

I
Unit I (Revised) Argon and Electric Welding
Group I The flame neededoxygen to bum and used up all the oxygen so he suffocated. The heat
to bum the metal turn to steam and the steam filled in the tank and the oxygen was
burned and he died from lack of oxygen.
Group 2 The two workmen died of fumes becausea small fire. Used up all the oxygen becauseof
a mistake one of the men made with the welder.
Group 3 We think that all the oxygen in the tank was used up by the workmen breathing and the
blow torch. After all the oxygen was used up, the gas(argon)from inside the gas
container escapedand the workmen died of asphyxiation. Burning argon gas from the
welders torch apparently used up all the oxygen in the tank.
Group 4 Burning the oxygen gas meansthe oxygen is not full proof and the men could suffocated.
The oxygen in tank was all used, mean oxygen level is not right. Air is made of : 0.03%
carbon dioxide, 1% argon, 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.
Group 5 The workmen should not have been enclosedin the tank without an air vent or oxygen
packs. Also they should have found another way for the welders to use their torches, as
burning of a naked flames usesup oxygen.
Group 6 The oxygen in the tank was used up by the flame in the torch. The flame and the sparks
for the electrical-welding need oxygen to bum and so used up all the oxygen in the tank.
Leaving no oxygen for the welders to breath.
Group 7 A chemical reaction took place and the argonjoined to make argon oxide compound and
the men could not breath so they were suffocated. The mistake, they used too much argon
when burning the welders flame.
Group 8 If the oxygen helps the argon gas bum, it acts as a catalyst and therefore is not usedup.
Pure oxygen is neededto bum but air has only 20% oxygen so the gas from the torch
could not escapefrom the tank. The bumers used up all the oxygen in the tank and they
suffocated. When the argon bum in the air, the gas produced filled the tank and killed
them.
Group 9 In order to melt the metal they used argon gas which used up all the oxygen in the tank.
Things bum better in pure oxygen. It gave off strong fames and there was not enough
oxygen for them to breath. They used too much oxygen burning the gas or they did not
have enough oxygen in the tank.
Group 10 The flame in the torch burned up all the oxygen in the tank becausethe flame needs
oxygen to bum. Therefore there was no oxygen left in the tank, so the men suffocated.
Group II The welding torch which the men were using eventually used up all the oxygen which
resulted in the men suffocated.
Group 12 Argon does not bum in oxygen. They didn't have enough oxygen. Argon is already in the
air. The argon in the welders torch would not use oxygen.

Unit 2 Which is the Best Fuel?

Part I
(1) C+ 02 --)' C02
CII H24 + 18 02 12H20 +II C02
CH4 + 5/2 02 C02 + 2H20

(2) Coal is 02 +CC

Oil is 02 + 11 C+ 24 H -3, Cl IH24
Gas IS 02 +C+4H -3- CH4

(3) C+ 02 --)' C02

CII H24 + 16 02 -3' 12H20 + 11 C02
CH4 +2 02 --) C02 + 2H20

F2
(4) 2C + 202 --> 2CO2
CiiH24 + 17 02 -> II C02 + 12H20
CH4 + 2 02 -4 C02 + 2H20
(5) C+ 02 -3' C02
CIIH24 +6 02 -4 11 C+ 12H20
CH4 + 02 -+ C+ 2H20
(6) C+ 02 --ý C02
CiiH24 + 1802 -3' 11 C02 + 12H20
CH4 + 2 02 -ý C02 + 2H20

(7) C+ 02 -3' C02

CIIH24 + 1702 --> II C02 + 2H20
CH4 + 2 02 --)' C02 + 2H20

(8) C+ 02 -* C02
CiIH24 + 1702 -+ II C02 + 2H20
CH4 + 2 02 -+ C02 + 2H20

(9) C+ 02 --)' C02

CIIH24 + 1102 -+ II C02 + 2H2
CH4 + 02 -* C02 + 2H2

(10) C+ 02 --3' C02

CiIH24 + 1602 -3' 11 C02 + 2H20
CH4 + 2 02 --ý' C02 + 2H20

(11) C+ 02 -'ý C02 I molecule formed

CIIH24 + 1702 -3' 11 C02 + 2H20 23 formed
CH4 + 2 02 --) C02 + 2H20 3 formed

(12) C+ 02 -4 C02
CiiH24 + 1802 -ý II C02 + 2H20
CH4 + 2 02 -4 C02 + 2H20

Part 2
(1) Formula mass of carbon = 12x 1=12 g
Formula mass of oil = (I 2x 11) +(24x 1) = 156g
Formula mass of methane = (12x I) + (4x I) = 16 g

(2) Coal is 12, oil is 156, gas is 16.

(3) Coal is 12Z, oil is 156g, gas is 6.g.
-1
(4) C= 12
Cl IH24 = 132 + 24 = 156
CH4 = 16

(5) Coal is 12 + 32 = 44 g
Oil is 132 + 24 + 16 = 172 g
Gas is 12+4+ 16=32g
(6) C= 12 amu
CII H24 = 145 amu
CH4 = 16 amu

(7) Coal is 1-2,oil is 156, gas is 1-6.

(8) C= 12, Cii H24 = 146, CH4 = 15

(9) C= 12, Cii H24 = 156, CH4 = 16

(10) Coal = 12 amu, Oil =156 amu, CH4 16

(11) Coal = 12, Oil 156, Gas =16

(12) C= 12, CII H24 146, CCH4 = 16

F3
Part 3
(1) Oil gives out the greatestamount of energy as it has the most molecules formed.
This is becausethere are more moles in the balancedequation.
(2) Our first answer is coal becauseits a solid. Our secondanswer is oil becauseit has
a greater formula mass.
(3) 1000 / 12 = 83 mole,
1000 / 156 = 6.4 mole,
1000 /16 = 62.5 mole.
Therefore coal would give most energy.
(4) 1000 / 12 = 83 g,
1000 / 156 = 6.4 g,
1000 /16 = 62.5 g.
Therefore coal would give most energy.
(5) Coal 1000 / 44 =2 1,
Oil 1000 172 30,
Gas 1000 32 30.
Gas gives the most.
(6) Methane.

(7) Coal would give the most energy.

Coal 1000 / 12
Oil 1000 156
Gas 1000 16
(8) C= 83 amu, CII H24 =7amu, CH4 = 67amu
Methane gives you most energy releasedbecausemost molecules are formed in oil??
(9) Coal = 83, Oil = 6.5, Gas = 62.5
Coal gives the most energy.
(10) Coal I mole =44g, Number of moles in I kg= 1000/ 44 =20 moles roughly
Gas Imole =64g, No od moles in I kg =1000/ 64 =15 moles roughly
(11) Coal = 1000/ 12= 83.3 xI= 83.3
Oil = 1000/ 156 = 7.15 x 23 = 161
Gas =1000/ 16 =62.5 X3 = 187.5
Gas would seemto give off the most energy.
(12) Coal

Part 4
(1) This is not a fair assumptionbecausesuch factors on the bonding, structure and intermolecular
forces have to be taken into account.
(2) Its not a fair assumptionbecauseeach substancehas its own strength no matter how many
molecules are weaker substancehas but the stronger would still releasea lot more energy than.
(3) Yes. It is becausecoal formed most molecules.
(4) Yes. Becausethe smaller the molecules the more energy is released.
Becausethe less bond to break.
(5) Gas gives the most becauseit makes the most number of molecule in 1000 g of fuel.
(6) Bonds need energy to be broken and formed.
(7) We do not think this is a fair assumption.There could be large molecules formed but few of them
and the energy could be more than if there was a lot of small molecules formed. The molecular
size could vary giving different amountsof energy.
(8) It is a fair assumptionbecausewith more molecules there is more energy available to react with.
(9) No, one of the fuels is only one element and the other two contain hydrogen.
(10) No answer.
(11) We do not seethis as fair. Gas gives out most energy in I OOOgper molecule it is oil.

(12) Yes, it is a fair assumptionbecauseparticles of carbon divide into 1000g.

F4
Unit 2 Which is the Best Fuel? (Taiwanese Pupils')
Q 1: What did you need to know before you began?
(1) Have strong knowledge about "Thermochemistry" (36);
(2) Basic chemical calaculationssuch as how to calculate formula mass and mole (37);
(3) How to write the balancedcombustion equations(41);
(4) We neededto know what the influence of chemical equation by moles was (1);
(5) We neededto know what was the products (1);
(6) We neededto know how to use the chemical calculation to solve the problem (1);
(7) How to work out the Energy of Reaction and the variety of energy released(2);
(8) About mole and how to apply it (10);
(9) What was the combustion equation of each fuel (1);
(10) We neededthe basic concept of thermochemistryto work out the demandedenergy (1);
(11) We neededto know the atoms are reserved(1);
(12) Burning organic compound will produce C02 and H20 (2);
(13) We neededto know the coefficient of chemical equation is equal to the mole ratio of each
compound (2);
(14) General chemistry knowledge (13);
(15) The organic chemistry knowledge (2);
(16) The energy level (En) (2);

Q2: What made it difficult for you to solve the problem?

(1) We had difficulty in agreeing in the same solution (4);
(2) Not enough time (1);
(3) T hermochernistry (2);
(4) Part 3, becausewe neededto know what the products was and had to calculate the released
energy / thinking (19);
(5) The combustion equation (1);
(6) Discussing the problem (2);
(7) Part 4, determining whether the assumptionis fair. Especially we had to write our opinions
neededa profound concept and thinking / did not know how to answer it / did not have clear
ideas / we had never done this kind of problem so we neededmore time (16);
(8) It is difficult for me to decide which fuel was the best (3);
(9) Not difficult (1);
(10) Part 3 and Part 4, becausewe did not have clear ideas / the problem was abstract/ we knew
what the answerwas but could not provide a reasonableexplanation / the problem was
unusual, we had to think it very long (7);
(11) All are difficult (1);
(12) We had never paceda problem like it before, so we did not know where to start (2);
(13) To construct our ideas (1);
(14) Part 3, first we used E=mC2 but then thought the combustion eqautionie is related to the
"thermochemistry" (2);
(15) We thought the energy releasedis related to the number of molecules formed (1);

Unit 4 Fluoride Improves Tooth Decay?

Group I They rewrote the statment: Fluorine strengthentooth by bonding with calcium, the main
element in enamelto form calcium fluoride, calcium fluoride is a harder, densesubstance
than calcium alone. Fluorine changedfrom fluoride, element changedfrom ingredient,
substancechangedfrom material.
Group 2 "Fluoride strengthensteeth by bonding with calcium", we think that this statementis
false; " making teeth more resistantto bacteria that causedecay", becauseteeth are harder
it does not make them more resistant to teeth.
Group 3 Calciurn could be an ingredient in enamel but not the main one, fluoride has exactly
bonded so it is impossible to form calcium fluoride.
Group 4 Fluoride is the main ingredient in enamel, calcium and fluorine are both contained in
liquid therefore can not be hard and can not be denseas this would weigh you down,
calcium fluoride is not an antibacterial liquid so this can not prevent decay.

F5
Group 5 Calcium reacts with water so it cannot be on it's own in your mouth, fluorine can be
bonded to calcium but fluoride cannot.
Group 6 Fluofine strengthensteeth by bonding with calcium not fluoride as it says,your teeth
cannot contain calcium alone becausecalcium reactswith water (it has to be linked with
something else), fluorine bonded with calcium is the main ingredient in enamelnot
fluoride as it says on the sheet.
Group 7 Calcium is not the main ingredient in enamel, calcium is added to teeth to make them
stronger, fluoride should be a fluorine becauseit is an element not a compound, " harder,
dneser" doesnot make sense.
Group 8 Fluoride is meant to be fluorine becauseit is a single element, calcium fluoride is less
densethan calcium and softer becauseit is a solution.
Group 9 The calcium would react with the water when you brushedyour teeth etc. Fluorine is a
gas and calcium is a metal, calcium fluoride is denserso it could not prevent the bacteria.
Group 10 Fluoride is not the name of the unbonded element, its real name is fluorine. Calcium
could not be on its own in your mouth as it would react violently with the moisture in
your mouth, it is actually bonded with fluorine.
Group II The teeth do not becomemore resistantto bacteria but more resistant to chipping.

Group 12 In the first sentenceit statedthat fluoride bonds with calcium. This could not happenfor
fluoride is a compound and could not bond with anything else so it would only mix with
the element calcium, fluoride mixing with calcium would not make teeth more resistant
to bacteria for calcium is not the main ingredient in enamel.
Group 13 It says " Improves Tooth Decay" Making teeth more resistant to the bacteria that cause
,"
decay".

Group 14 Calcium is in your teeth not actually in the enamel, fluoride might not always strengthen
teeth, calciuni fluoide is not denserthan calcium.
Group 15 Wrong title, it should be "Fluorine fights tooth decay". Calcium is not main ingredient,
2 parts of fluorine to I part calcium, not fluoride but fluorine.

Unit 5 The Glowing Splint Problem

Group I Part 1
(a) Nitrogen dioxide is formed when the engine is ignited and a spark is
formed.
(b) N02 is a factor of acid rain and air pollution which can corrode buildings.
(c) Diesel run cars do not spark, so N02 is not produced.
(d) sulphur dioxide.
Part 2
(1) There is the sameamount of oxygen as before, but this time it relights
a glowing splint.
(2) Nitrogen dioxide contains oxygen, so there is more than 20% oxygen
present.

Group 2 Part 1
(a) Sparks inside the engine from the spark plugs.
(b) It can kill human being.
(c) By using a catalytic converter or using diesel gas.
(d) Nitrogen and oxygen.
Part 2
(1) It is becausethere is the sameamount of nitrogen and oxygen as there
is in air but it does re-kindle a glowing splint.
(2) The copper has reactedwith it in some way.

F6
Group 3 Part I
(a) The mixture is sparkedin the engine, oxygen and nitrogen from the air
combine to make N02.
(b) Air pollution affects eyes and lungs.
(c) Use a catalyst or a different petrol.
(d) Nitrogen and oxygen.
Part 2
(1) Because N02 does not re-kindle a glowing splint and it is made of 80% N02 and
only 20 % oxygen.
(2) Because there is oxygen in the nitrogen dioxide.

Group 4 Part I
(a) When air and fuel ignite the oxygen and nitrogen combine.
(b) It can causeacid rain which can corrode buildings and metal and kill
plants.
(c) Add a catalytic converter.
(d) Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Part 2
(1) This is unexpectedbecausethe 20% of oxygen in air cannot re-kindle a
glowing splint but the 20% in the gas produced can.
(2) Becausethere is lots of it.

Group 5 Part 1
(a) We think nitrogen dioxide gas is formed in the spark plug ignites the
petrol.
(b) N02 can causeacid rain which corrodes buildings and kills plants.
(c) N02 can be solved by fitting a car with a catalytic converter.
(d) Carbon dioxide is produced when N02 is removed.
Part 2
(1) The result is unexpectedbecauseair contains 20% oxygen as well.
(2) A possible explanation is that nitrogen dioxide contains oxygen so the
percentageof oxygen when together is higher than 20% so it can relight
the glowing splint.

Group 6 Part I
(a) The spark from the engine has enough energy to ignite the nitrogen in
the air making it bond with the oxygen in the air making N02.
(b) It can causeacid rain which stunts growth in trees, causesthe acidity
of lakes and rivers to rise killing animals.
(c) Use alternate fuels: solar, wind, nuclear, fission etc, or use a catalytic
converter.
(d) Carbon dioxide is formed, sulphur dioxide is formed.
Part 2
(1) This is an expectedresult becauseit contains 80% nitrogm dioxide,
but in the statementit statesthat N02 does not relight a glowing splint.
(2) The oxygen in the N02 addedto the 20% oxygen, there could
be enough 02 to relight the glowing splint.

Group 7 Part 1
(a) Nitrogen dioxide is causedby a car engine sparking.
(b) The effects of this is that it causesdamageto buildings, kills plants
and sea life and it is harmful to people with asthma.
(c) To solve this problem use a catalyst fitted to the car exhaustwhen
N02 is removed.
(d) Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide is fromed.
Part 2
(1) This was an unexpectedresult becausethere was more nitrogen
dioxide than oxygen.
(2) A possible explanation for this is that there is oxygen in nitrogen
dioxide, this meansthe oxygen has been increasedtherefore it will allow a
glowing splint to be rekindled.
F7
Group 8 Part 1
(a) Nitrogen reactswith oxygen in a car engine which forms nitrogen
dioxide.
(b) N02 causesacid rain.
(c) The problems of N02 can be solved in a car by fitting a catalytic
converter.
(d) When N02 is removed from the car exhaustthe gasesthat are formed
lead vapor.
Part 2
** No answer.

Group 9 Part 1
(a) No answer.
(b) Acid rain.
(c) Catalytic converter.
(d) Catalyst must break up.
Part 2
(1) Becauseits like air but did rekindle a glowing splint.
(2) No answer.

Group 10 Part I
** No answer.

Part 2
(1) It is unexpectedbecauseair, which contains 20 % oxygen doesn't
relight a glowing splint but the gas from the test tube, which also contains
20% oxygen relights a glowing splint.
(2) Adding a catalyst breaks up the nitrogen dioxide into nitrogen and
oxygen which gives more oxygen gas to relight the glowing splint.

Unit 5 (Revised) The Glowing Splint Problem

Question:
Group I When N02 is broken up it breaks up into nitrogen and oxygen.
Group 2 Nitrogen and oxygen are formed when N02 is broken up in the exhaust.

Group 3 N2 and 02.

Group 4 Nitrogen and oxygen are formed when nitrogen dioxide is broken up in the exhaust.
Group 5 N2,02 and carbon monoxide.
Group 6 Nitrogen dioxide could be broken down into its two component gases
nitrogen and oxygen.
Group 7 No answer.
Group 8 No answer (repeatwriting the question).
Group 9 The gas which are formed from N02 in a car exhaustwould be nitrogen
and oxygen.
Group 10 It forms nitrogen and oxygen.

Problem (1) and (2)

Group 1 (1) This result is unexpectedbecausethe percentagesof gasesreleasedare equal to air

which does not relight a glowing splint.
(2) The reason for the splint re-lighting is that 20% oxygen plus the oxygen from the N02
breaking up with the heat is enough oxygen to re-light a glowing splint.

F8
Group 2 (1) This is an unexpectedresult becausewe are told N02 will not rekindle a glowing
splint but after heating the gases,the gasescoming out of the test-tube one of them being
N02 will rekindle a glowing splint.
(2) A possible explanation for this is that the catalyst on the end of the glowing splint is
breaking up the N02 which is helped by the heat. Thus producing more oxygen allowing
the splint to rekindle.

Group 3 (1) Becausewhen N02 is broken up, air comes out and air will not relight a glowing
splint but this does.
(2) We think its becauseit has been heatedand heat speedsup a reaction. And you get
more oxygen from nitrogen dioxide it reeps giving off the oxygen. Oxygen from the N02
breaksup by cracking.
Group 4 (1) It is unexpectedbecauseair has 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen, this is not enoughto
relight a splint. Moreover, the products of the experiment could relight it even though it
had the samepercentagesof nitrogen and oxygen.

(2) No answer.

Group 5 (1) The fumes relight a glowing splint when we predicted it would not.
(2) The catalyst breaks the N02 into nitrogen and oxygen plus the other 20% oxygen
which meansthere will be more oxygen which will rekindle a glowing splint.

Group 6 (I)The result of this experiment is unexpectedbecausegasesfrom the test tube only
contain the same amount of oxygen as is in the atmosphere.
(2) A possible explanation for this is that the heat from the glowing splint breaks down
nitrogen dioxide into nitrogen and oxygen producing enough oxygen to relight the
glowing splint.

Group 7 (1) It is an unexpectedresult as although the nitrogen dioxide rekindle the glowing splint
this is not meant to happen.
(2) The glowing splint acts as a catalyst and breaks up the nitrogen dioxide causingthe
reknidle of the splint.

Group 8 (1) Becausethere is a substancewhich acts as a catslyst.

(2) The glowing splint acts as a catalyst and to break up nitrogen dioxide to releasemore
oxygen to relight the glowing splint.

Group 9 (1) In experiment 1, it showesthat nitrogen dioxide does not rekindle a

glowing splint but in experiment 2, it does rekindle a glowing splint so the result is
unexpected.
(2) The glowing splint acts as a catalyst to break up the N02 into oxygen and nitrogen,
which leaves is with 46% oxygen enough to relight a glowing splint.

Group 10 (1) It statesthat air or N02 will not rekindle a glowing splint but in part 2 it saysthat
these do rekindle a splint, this is why it is unexpected.
(2) When N02 is breaking up it gives off more oxygen to the air and we all know when a
glowing splint is enteredto a test tube of oxygen it will rekindle. This is a possible
explanation for this experiment.

F9
Unit 6 Heat Packs for Mountaineers
Problem (1)

Group I By rubbing your hands with the heat pack it is heatedup enough for a reaction to occur, and
becauseit is an exothermic reaction it is self-sustaining. The iron will react with the air
producing Fe203.
Group 2 When you open the airtight bag the air gets in and starts the reaction, when you shakeit, it
mixes the reactanttogether and the moist cellulose acts as a conductor to draw the heat away
from the core. The iron powder is the raw reactant.
Group 3 When the bag is opened,air gets in. The oxygen in the air then mixes with the iron and when
you rub it the cellulose it moistens the salt and speedsup the reaction allowing electron
movement. The carbon also helps the reaction. The powdered iron speedsup the reaction.
Group 4 The heat pack works by someonerubbing the pack. When this happens,the main material
fine iron powder) reactswith the air inside and the porous fabric lets the heat escapethrough it
giving off heat.
Group 5 Oxygen in the air combines with iron and gives energy which is then convertedto heat
energy. When the bag is rubbed , the heat is travelled through the porous fabric onto the hand
which then keepsthe person worm.
Group 6 The heat pack works when oxygen reactswith fine iron powder, the other three components
are catalysts.The heat energy comesfrom the reaction.
Group 7 As you rub your handstogether, the particles collide with each other and move from positive
ions to negative ions which producesthe heat energy. The oxygen comesthrough the porous
so when you rub your handsit producesfabrics heat energy which kick startsthe reaction.

Problem (2)

Group I Iron is used as it is a good reactant and it is a cheapmetal. Zinc can also be used as it is a
good reactanrt and is cheap.
Group 2 Iron powder is the main material becauseit is cheapand it is a good reactantwith oxygen.
Manganeseis also anothermetal that has similar chemical properties to iron. Therefore it can
be used as a substitive for iron.
Gropu 3 Iron is used becauseit rusts quickly and is speededup by salt. Aluminium or lead could be
used becausethey corrode quickly.
Group 4 Iron is used becauseit reacts with oxygen from the air in a good manner. It will give the right
temperatureand it will be safe when reacting. Zinc will be another suitable element since it is
similar to iron when reacting with oxygen.
Group 5 Iron powder is used as a main product becausemetal reactswith oxygen much easier.zinc
could be used instead of iron as its not poisonous and does not react faster than other
chemicals.

Group 6 Zinc could be used. Iron used becauseit reasonablyreactive and not poisonous.
Group 7 We use iron becauseiron is a heat conductor, becauseit is not a finite resource.
Copper -- radiator, cheapmetal to get hold off.
Aluminium-- foil, to keep everthing warm, very light.
Carbon- stops buildings from corroding.

Unit 8 Moving Gases

Group 1 (1) We worked out all the atomic massesand found out that the higher the massthe lower the
distance it travelled.
(2) We can take a gas with a higher atomic mass and one with a lower mass and seeif the
pattern continues by carrying out the sametest upon it.
(3) The atomic mass of chlorine is 71 which higher than S02 and lower than S03, so it had
to be in the middle becausethe difference is 16. Chlorine travells at 47 cm.

F 10
Group 2 (1) Sulphur plus oxygen compoundstravel between 44 and 50 cm and the more oxygen
contained in the compound the less distancetravelled. The lower the relative atomic masss
the more distancetravelled. CH4 has the lowest mass(16) but the highest distancetravelled
atI00 cm. S03 has the highest mass (80) and the lowest distance travelled at 40 cm.
(2) We would test this theory by using a coloured gas with a high mass and put it in tube
a
for a certain amount of time and measurehow far it has gone. We will do the samefor
another coloured gas with a low mass and leave it for the sameamount of time under the
sameconditions and then measurethe distancetravelled.
(3) 1 expect for C12 that it will travel between 50 cm and 44 cm because its mass is 78
which
between the mass Of S02 (64) and S03 (80) and they had travelled 50cm (S02)
and 44cm
(S03).

Group 3 (1) The higher the atomic mass,the less distancethe gas travels.
(2) Try the experiment with other gases.
(3) The gas C12will travel 47 cm.
Pupils, notes:
a. Atomic mass affect distance travelled.
b. Drew a picture of outer shell of atom.

Group 4 (One member of this group drew a graph)

(1) The lighter the gas compound the further it travels in a set amount of time.
(2) You could work out the weight of the different gas and find out the speedthey travel
throgb air this would show our pattern.
(3) We found that the lighter the gas the faster it travels through air, and think C12will cover
at distance in the set time of about 47.4cm according to our graph.
Pupils' notes:
a. the way of prediction: 80 - 64 = 16 ; 50 - 44 =6
16 /6 =2.7, closer to 50 cm
b. the graph shown below:

Group 5 No answer.
(But they correctly calculated the formula mass of each gas)

Group 6 (1) We tried to relate gram formula massto distancetravelled and our conclusion was
that the lighter the massthe further it travelled.
(2) To find out if this pattern is correct we could separatethe groups into the finthest distance
and made sure they weighed less than the shorter distancegas.
(3) It will travell at 150 cm as its mass weight is 71. ( Where is the value 150 from? They
wrote: Cl =35.5 x 2, so 71 x2= 150. )

Group 7 (1) The lighter the gas is the further it will travel and the heavier the gas is the least it will
go.
(2) The heaviest gas is chloride.
(3) No answer.
(But they correctly calculated the formula mass of each gas.)

Group 8 (1) The pattern we have noticed from the table is : The lighter the compound is, the further
that it will travel. e.g. S02 (mass is 64) travelled 50 cm and CH4 (mass is 16) travelled
I 00cm.
(2) You would test a light gas and a heavy gas. Set them up in the experiment and seehow
long each will travel in one hour.
(3) Between 44 and 50 cm; becauseC12is lighter than S03 which travelled 44 cm and heavier
than S02 which travelled 50 cm.

Group 9 (1) The higher the distancethe lower the mass is and the smaller the distancethe higher the
mass.
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
Pupils' note: they simply used two gases to compare it. CH4 has the
highist distance, S03 has the smallest distance.

Fll
Group 10 (1) The lighter the gas, the further it travels. The heavier the gas, the shorter it travels.
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
Pupils' notes: they just calculated two gases' formula mass, but the
datas were incorrect. S02=32 + 16 +2 =50; HCI =1+ 35.5 =36.5 x2
= 73.

Group I1 (1) The lighter the compound the ftirther it will go. The heavier the gas the less it will go.
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
Pupils' note: they did not completely calculate the formula mass of
each gas.

Group 12 (1) The heavier the gas the less distance it travels. The lighter the gas the longer it travels.
(2) No answer.
(3) Between 45 cm and 49 cm.
Pupils' notes: they correctly calculated the formula massesof gases.

Unit 8 (Revised) Moving Gases

Question(1)
Group 1 (1) The lighter the gas the further the distance it may travel.
(2) The gasesare perfumed so if you put a gas at one end of the room and timed how long it
takes for you to smell it, then you could find out which gas travels the quickest.
(3) C12would be very slow becauseCl=3 5.5 but doubled =7 1. The gas is heavier.

Group 2 (1) The heavier the molecule is, the less distance it travels.
(2) Take more molecules, work out their weight and the distancethey travel and work out
whether our hypothesis is correct.
(3) No answer.

Group 3 (1) The gas with hydrogen travels the finihest becauseit is the lightest. The gaseswith
sulphur and oxygen in them travel the least becausethey are two of the heaviest.
(2) Line people at 40 cm, 50 cm, 60 cm, 70 cm, 80 cm, 90cm and 100 cm away from the
gas, let off each gas after each other wait until the last about 25cm.
(3) About 25 cm.

Group 4 (1) The denserthe substance'srelative atomic mass,the slower it travels. The lighter, the
faster.
(2) 1 would test to seeif C02 travelled between 66 and 94 cm in the sameconditions.
(3) 44 - 47cm under the sameconditions.

Group 5 (1) The lower the molecular massof the gas the further distance is travelled.
(2) No answer.
(3) Roughly 44 cm. It is the same as S03.

Group 6 (1) The higher the formula weight of the compoundsthe less distance it travels as it is
heavier. One oxygen weighed the sameas a methanemolecule.
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.

Group 7 (1) The heavier the atom the less distancetravelled.

(2) The experiment would be done again with oxygen and hydrogen to seeif and H2 are the
causesof the distancetravelled.
(3) No answer.

Group 8 (1) The lighter the molecule is the ftirther distance it can travel. For example, S02 weighs 64
g and only travels 50 cm but methane(CH4) weighs 16 g and travels 100 cm.
(2) No answer.
(3) 45 cm we would expect it to travel.

F 12
Group 9 (1) When you calculatethe relative atomic massesfor each substancethe higher the added
number the slower the substancetravels.
(2) Set up the sameexperiment with different molecules, calculate their
molecular weight and their distancewith the experiment.
(3) The group believe it will go 54 cm.

Group 10 (1) As the molecular massincreasesthe distancetravelled decreases.

(2) No answer.
(3) No answer

Group I1 (1) All even numbers.The longer the distancetravelled the lighter the molecule.
(2) You would test it by using different gasesof different weight into a tube and measurethe
distance travelled in a certain amount of time. You need to know the weight of I mole of gas
and compared it with the others.
(3) It would travel approximately 45 cm.

Group 12 (1) The lighter they are the further they travel.
(2) Test more gases.
(3) 46 cm.

Group 13 (1) If there is a di-oxygen in the fon-nulathen it would be half in methane.If you add up
relative atomic mass sulpher dioxide the distancetravelled. The more the gas the less distance
it would travel.
(2) Test how far another gas would go. Test it through in a gas tube.
(3) You would expect to travel.

Group 14 (1) We found out that the gaseswith higher GFM (gram formula mass) went less in distance
and the ones with lower GFM went more ftirther indistance.
(2) You would test different gases.
(3) 71 was the GFM, so we guessedthat 97 (cm) would be the distance.

Unit 10 The Phosphorus Problem

Goup I Melt at -90 'C, then boil at 280 'C, then boil at -191'C, then melt at
-1540 'C.
pupil's notes:
a. Put SiF4 in water to make it disappear.
b. To get rid of SiF4 put it in water and it should react and
hopefully disappear, CaSi03 melt.
Group 2 To separateCaSi03 from the gasesyou would use the method of
filtration. P2 by centrifuging.
Group 3 To get pure phosphorussolid we will melt SiF4(g) and bum CO(g) in air; and because
CaSi03 (s) is a solid we would filter it by hand and melt P2(g) and then freeze it so we
would be left with pure phosphorussolid.
Group 4 We started getting rid of SiF4 by putting it in water. We then got rid of the CO by
putting it in ammonia and freezing it at -199'C. We then filtered the CaSi03 out and got
the gas in conical flask with a gas that it does not react with.
Pupil's note: 2.90 + 1.82 =5.72 in his white paper. (use density)
Group 5 No answer.
Group 6 Put the mixture into water and you are left with CaSi03 and P2 as a solid, then heat at 44
'C and keep the solution P2, then store the gas P2 and cool until it is a solid.
Group 7 Freeze it in liquid nitrogen to -80'C then pump out the liquid nitrogen.
Group 8 If we want to get pure phosphoruswe would cool the three gasesto 44 'C, then the other
two would escapeinto the atmosphere.We would then cool the phosphorusunder water
about 30 'C degrees. Then put a small jar under the water to scoop up the solid, from
there you would put this in a glove box, open the jar and let the phosphorusand the water
out to let the solid dry off. This is how we would solve this problem.
Pupil's note: they drew a glove box picture.

F 13
Group 9 Mix four compoundswith water, then
SiF4: Reacts in water,
CO: Escapesas a gas in water,
P2: Changesto a liquid, lies in bottom of melt. Cool water under 44 'C. (
it turns to crystals, lies at bottom of water.)
Keep P2 under water as when it is taken out of water it will explode.
CaSi03: no reaction.
Group 10 Add water to the compounds to remove SiF4. Boil the compounds to -191T to remove
CO. Boil the compounds in an airtight room then separatethe CaSi03 from P2 by
distillation. Keep the compounds in an airtight box with gloves attachedto the side for
your hands.
pupils' note: P2 burns violently.
Group II Put it under water and you would get rid of SiF4 and left with two compounds(CO +
P2). When CO escapes,then you cool down P2 as a liquid and it turns into a solid.
Group 12 You could freeze off the P2 at 44 T and it would be solid.
pupil's note: Phosphorus explodes in air, so keep it under water.

Unit 12 Salt, salts and pH

Group I
(1) The conclusion we have come to is that all the salts containing( 11) e.g. Iron ( 11) sulphateare
acidic, with a pH of no more than 3.
(2) Nitrate, chloride and sulphate salts all contain a pH of 7 or less.
(3) All the potassium salts had a pH between 7 and 11.
(4) All the carbonatesalts had a pH of either 10 or 11.
Group 2
(1) Any salt containing sulphur has a pH of < 7.
(2) Any salt containing sodium has a pH of > 7.
(3) Any salt containing carbon has a pH of > 10.
(4) Any salt containing chlorine
(5) Any salt containing potassium
(6) Any salt containing calcium
(7) Any salt containing nitrogen
Group 3
(1) Salts containing chloride seemto have a pH < 7.
(2) Salts containing carbonate seemto have a pH > 10.
(3) Nitrate salts don't go below pH of 3.
(4) Only one salt contains sodium and has a pH of 10.
(5) All the salts with the ( 11)sign have a pH < 3.
Group 4
(1) All salts containing sulphate, nitrate and chloride have a pH of 7 and less. We say that the pH >
7.
(2) All salts containing carbonate have a pH of 10 or more. We say that the pH < 10.
(3) All salts containing sodium and potassium have a pH of 7 or more. We say that the pH < 7.
(4) All salts containing iron have a pH of 1.
(5) All salts containing aluminium, zinc,and copper have a pH of 3.
(6) All the salt solutions with an acidic pH contains transition metals.
(7) All the salt solutions with a pH of 7 or more contain alkali metals.
Group 5
(1) Sulphates pH < 7.
(2) Potassium pH > 7.
(3) Nitrates pH< 7.
(4) CarbonatepH > 10.
(5) Sodium pH > 7.
(6) Carbonatesare the only alkalines.
(7) The acidic salts have no alkali metals in them.

F 14
Group 6
(1) Anything with carbon in it is an alkali.
(2) Any compound with sodium in it has a pH of 7 or more.
(3) Anything with transition metals are acidic.
(4) Anything with chloride has a pH less than 7.
Group 7
(1) The salts pH relate to the non-metals position in the periodic table more than to the
metal.
(2) Salts containing sulphur have a pH of 7 or less.
(3) Salts containing carbonatealways have a alkali pH.
Group 8
(1) All the substanceswhich contain sulphatehave a pH < 7.
(2) All the substanceswhich contain carbonatehave a pH > 10.
(3) All the substanceswith (11)have a pH < 7.
(4) All the substanceswhich contain sodium have a pH > 7.
(5) All the substanceswhich contain chloride have a pH < 7.
(6) All of the non-metals have a higher pH than the metals.
Group 9
(1) Sodium a metal in group I will have a pH greeter than or equal to 7 in a salt.
(2) Sulphate has a pH which is smaller than or equal to 7.
(3) Chloride, non-metal in group 7 when in a salt has a pH smaller than or equal to 7.
(4) Carbonatea non-metal in groooup 4 has a pH greater than or equal to 10.
(5) Nitrate a non-metal in group 8 has a pH smaller than or equal to 7.

Group 10
(1) Salt contains carbonatehave a pH of 10 or more.
(2) Salt contains sulphatehave a pH of 7 or less.
(3) Salt contains (II) have a pH of 3 or less.
(4) Salt contains nitrates have a pH of 3 or more.
(5) Salt contains chlorides have a pH of 3 or more.

Group II
(1) Salts that contain sulphur have a low pH, while salts that contain chlorine also have a low pH.
Thesekinds of salts are acidic.
(2) Salts containing sodium have a high pH and salts that contain carbon are strong alkalis.
(3) Salts containing nitrogen have an acidic pHof 3 to 7.
Group 12
(1) The carbonateshave a higher pH level of 7.
(2) The sulphateshave a lower pH level of 7.
(3) The chlorides have a pH level of 7 or under.
(4) The nitrates have a lower pH level of 7.
Group 13
(1) Sulphates,chlorides and nitrates are all acidic or neutral.
(2) Carbonateproduce only alkali.
(3) Sodium and potassium produce alkali solution and they are alkali metals.
(4) Aluminium, zinc and copper are shiny metals and they produce an acidic solution.
Group 14
(1) Sulphate pH < 7.
(2) CarbonatepH> 10.
(3) Chloride pH < 7.
(4) Sodium is either alkali or neutral.
Group 15
(1) Salt containing sulphur(S) seemto have the pH < 7.
(2) Salt containing chlorine(CI) seemto have the pH < 7.
(3) Nitrogen(N) has a pH of, 7.
(4) Carbon(C) has a pH of> 10.
(5) Iron(II) in salt has a pH of 1.
(6) Aluminium in salt has a pH of 3.
(7) Zinc (11)in salt also has a pH of 3.
(8) So does copper, sodium and potassium in salt have a pH of > 7.

F 15
(9) With calcium in salt having a pH of only 7.
(10) All salts are made of a metal and a non-metal.
Group 16
(1) We found carbonateshad a pH > 10.
(2) Potassium pH > 7.
(3) Sulphate pH <7 and nitrate pH < 7.
(4) So our conclusion is one of the groups of salts (carbonateand potassium) have a pH
value of 7 or
over and the other group(sulphateand nitrate) have a pH of 7 or less.
Group 17
(1) Sodium salts have the pH >7.
(2) Salts containing sulphur has the pH< 7 and are acidic.
(3) Salts containing chlorine has the pH< 7 and are acidic.
(4) Salts containing nitrgen has the pH< 7 and are acidic,
(5) Salts containing carbon has the pH> 10 and are alkalis.
Group 18
(1) Salts containing sodium have a pH more than 7.
(2) Salts containing carbonatehave a pH more than 10.
(3) Salts containing sulphate have a pH less than 7.
(4) Salts containing chloride have a pH less than 7.
(5) Salts containing nitrate have also a pH less than 7.
(6) Double bonding power metals seemto have a low pH.

Group 19
(1) Salts containing carbon--pH >10.
(2) Salts containing sulphur--pH < 7.
(3) Salts containing sodium--pH >7.
(4) Salts containing nitrgen--pH < 7.
(5) Salts containing chlorine--pH < 7.
(6) Salts containing oxygen--pH < 11.
(7) We think the lesserthe group number of the two elementsfrom the compound the higher the pH.
ie. potassium carbonatehigh pH= 11(strong alkali).
Group 20
(1) All the alkali metals in the table produce a neutral or alkali solution but transition metals produce
acidic solutions.
(2) All group I metals will make an alkali solution.

Unit 13 Solubility
Group 1 No answer.
Group 2 (1) The elementswith a bonding power of one, a large percentagewere
soluble.
(2) If we mixed magnesium chloride to potassium hydroxide, the physical
state will change and solubilities reversed.
(3) No answer.
(4) No answer.
Group 3 (1) a. Top two lines are soluble.
b. All nitrates are soluble.
c. The majority Of C032- are insoluble.
d. The Pb2+line is all in soluble apart from N03-
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
(4) They will be insoluble.
strontium hydroxide = 2, strontium sulphate = 0.01.
Group 4 a. Na+ are all slightly soluble.
b. K+ are soluble.
c. N03- are all soluble.
d. S042- there is a mixture of solubilities.

F 16
 (2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
(4) Strontium hydroxide is slightly soluble, strontium sulphate is slightly
insoluble.
Group 5 (1) a. For C032- it has very low solubility.
b. Na+ is mainly soluble in every solution.
c. Pb2+ has mainly very low solubility in solution.
d. N03- is a normally very soluble solution.
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
(4) Strontium hydroxide would be insoluble.
Group 6 (1) a. All the K+ are soluble.
b. Na+ is always soluble or slightly soluble.
C. Most C032- are insoluble.
d. Pb2+ is nearly always insoluble.
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
(4) Strontium hydroxide = 7.08, strontium sulphate = 0.02.

Group 7 (1) a. All top two lines are soluble.

b. All N03- are soluble.
C. Most C032- are insoluble.
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
(4) Strontium hydroxide = 10, strontium sulphate = 0.02.

Group 8 (1) a. Sodium and potassium are always soluble.

b. All nitrogen compounds are soluble.
c. Most neutral chargedcarbon compoundsare insoluble.
(2) No answer.
(3) No answer.
(4) Strontium hydroxide will be slightly soluble, strontium sulphate will be insoluble.

Group 9 (1) a. Every nitrate is soluble.

b. Every sodium is soluble.
c.Lead is insoluble with the exception of the nitrate.
d. Potassium is completely soluble.
(2) It stays soluble.
(3)You would put the solution into a hydroxide solution so that the sodium would
dissolve and you could extract it.
(4) Strontium hydroxide is slightly soluble, strontium sulphate is insoluble.
Group 10 (1) a. The alkali metals are soluble in all compounds.
b. C032- is insoluble except with alkali metals.
c. N03- is very soluble with all compouns.
d. OH- is insoluble with the transition metals.
e. F is insoluble with group (11)metals.
f. Cl- is very soluble with group (II) metals.
(2) Mg2+ Cl- + KOH -00, K+Cl- (dissolved) + Mg2+ OH-
which would be a liquid of potassium chloride and a solid of magnesium
hydroxide.
(3) We would add sodium carbonateto the solution with lead nitrate and
sodium nitrate. The carbonate would react with lead and form a solid
which would collect at the bottom. All that would be left are sodium
and nitrate ions.
(4) Strontium hydroxide is soluble, strontium sulphate is insoluble.
Group I1 (1) a. The closer the compound is to be neutral, the more soluble it is.
b. Nitrates are all soluble.
c. Lead is not soluble except with nitrate.
(2) More potassium hydroxide will dissolve.
(3) Sodium nitrate.
(4) Strontium hydroxide is
slightly soluble and strontium sulphate is insoluble.

F 17
Group 12 (1) a. Sodium salts are mostly soluble.
b. Nitrate salts are mostly soluble.
c. Carbonatesalts are insoluble except the alkali metal salts.
d. Lead salts mostly insoluble except lead nitrate.
(2) Increasessolubility.
(3) Add carbonateto lead nitrate.
(4) It should not be very soluble becausemost strontium are not soluble.

Unit 13 (Revised) Solubility

Group 1 (1) Gradually moving down the graph, there are more soluble elements
ions thanat the top.
(2) Strontium hydroxide: prediction 10-11, agreedanswer is 10.
Strontium sulphate: prediction 0.001-0.09, agreedanswer is 0.001.
(3) No answer.
Group 2 (1) All sodium compounds are soluble or slightly soluble.
All potassium compoundsare soluble.
All nitrogen oxide compoundsare soluble or slightly soluble.
Most carbonatecompoundsare insoluble.
(2) No answer.
(3) Magnesium chloride and potassium hydroxide are soluble, so the mixture would be
soluble also. 112 + 54 = 166 makes it soluble.
Group 3 (1) All Na+ compoundsare soluble.
All K+ compounds are soluble.
All compoundswhich contain N03- are soluble,
All C032- are soluble apart from Na+, K+.
(2) Strontium hydroxide = 5, between Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ the solubility increases
each time from 0.0009 to 0.16 to 14, so it has to be in between 0.16 and 14.
Strontium sulphate = 0.01, the opposite happensit decreasesfrom 33 to 0.21 to 0.0002.
(3) When addedthe solubility decreases.
Group 4 (1) Na+ and K+ are both alkali metals (column 1), both have one outer electron and are
very reactive. They also have the samepropertis and are soluble in all of the compounds
given.
Mg2+, Ba2+and Ca2+are in column 2 and are very similar in their reactions with each
compounds.
Pb2+,Zn2+, Ag+ and Fe2+are all transition metals and their properties
vary in each compound. Therefore, their solubilities are vary.
(2) We would expect strontium hydroxide to have a solubility of 5, becauseit is between
calcium and barium in the Peroiodic Table (P.T). so its solubility is between them (0.16
to 14).
We would expect strontium sulphateto have a solubility of 0.02, again due to the fact
that Sr is between Ca and Ba in the P.T, so its solubility is between them (0.21 to
0.0002).
(3) The magnesium would not dissolve completely in the mixture as it is very insoluble
in OH-. The K+ would be soluble in the mixture as it is soluble in both OH- and Cl-.

Group 5 (1) Nat: all soluble apart for F which is slightly soluble.
,
K+: all soluble.
Mg2+: half are soluble, very small numbers.
Ca2+: mostly soluble.
Ba2+: only 2 are soluble.
Pb2+: 5/6 are soluble.
Zn2+: 3/6 are soluble.
Ag+: half are soluble, I decomposed.
Fe2+: varied (3 soluble, I insoluble, I not known).
(2) Strontium hydroxide: between 0.16 - 14, guess it is 6-7.
Strontium sulphate: guess 0.02.
These answers were found by taking roughly 1/2 the numbers between Ca2+ and Ba2+
(3) Both are soluble, there would be an extreme reaction giving off gases.

F 18
Unit 14 The Swimming Pool Problem
No. I
--- Water warm, clean, not too heavily chlorinated.
No. 2
--- Warm, clean, smell nice, not to taste bad, to be clear.
No. 3
--- Warm water, clean water, filters urine detector,water which doesn't hurt your eyes.
No. 4
--- Clean, not overly chlorinated, smellers, it should be colorless.
No. 5
--- No smell, clean, doesn't sting your eyes, clear.
No. 6
--- Not too much chlorine so it doesn't sting your eyes. The water must not be cloudy, must not have a
horrible taste, must not smell.
No. 7
--- Chlorine, clean, a good temperature,safety(enviroment)maintenance.
No. 8
Wann, smells nice, kind to your skin, clean, safe, wet, nice colour.
---
No. 9
Clean, doesn't smell, doesn't hurt eyes or give rashes.
---
No. 10
--- Hot water, clean water, nice smelling.
No. 11
The temperatureof the water, enough chlorine in the water to make it safe.
---
No. 12
Not an excessivetemperature,clean, lifeguards.
---
No. 13
Not too cold, but not too warm either. The water to be about pH neutral with the body's skin, but must
---
be able to kill bacteria.

No. 14
pH of around 5.5, not unpleasantsmell, enough chlorine to kill bacteria without harming swimmery,
---
clear and natural water.
No. 15
The water to be fresh and clean, to smell nice, not to irritate your eyes.
---
No. 16
A
--- sufficient volume of chlorine.
No. 17
No germs, doesn't irritate eyes.
---

Part 2
No. I
a. HCI H+ + Cl-
HOCI H+ + OCI-
b. The pH decreases(gets more acidic).

No. 2
a. HCI H+ + Cl-
HOCI H+ + Ocl-
b. When chlorine is addedit becomesmore acidic.

F 19
No. 3
a. HCI + e----', HCI-
HOCI +e- --> HOCI-
b. The pH gets more acidic.

No. 4
a. C12 (g) + H20(l) H+Cl- (aq) + HO- + Cl-(aq)
b. The pH drops below 7.

No. 5
a. C12 + H20 H+Cl- (aq) + H+OCI-(aq)
b. The pH of the water in the swimming pool would go down.

no. 6
a. HCI (aq) H+ + Cl-
HOCI (aq) HO+ + Cl-
b. No answer.

No. 7
a. HCI --), H+ + cl-
HOCI --) OH+ + Cl-
b. No answer.

No. 8
a. C12 (g) + H20 H+Cl-(aq) + H+OCI-(aq)
b. The water tums more acidic.

No. 9
a. C12 (g) + H20 (1) -+ H+Cl-(aq) + H+OCI-(aq)
b. The pH of the water goes down.

No. 10
H2+02- (1) H+Cl-(aq)
a. Cl- +
b. The pH will increasebecausechlorine is an alkali.

No. 11
a. no answer.
b. The pH will decreaseswhen the water is chlorinated.

No. 12
a. HCI H+ + CI-
HOCI H+ + OCI-
b. pH would decreasetowards pH 7.

No. 13
HOCI H+ + OCI-
b. The pH would increasebecauseof the positive hydrogen ions.

No. 14
a. HCI (aq) -3,H+ + Cl-
HOCI(aq) --> H+ + OCI-
b. The pH will be lowered from 7(pH of water) to an acid pH (due to fromation of acid)

No. 15
a. HCI H+ + Cl-
HOCI H+ + OCI-
b. The pH gets lower when chlorine is added.

No. 16
FICI H+ + Cl-
a.
HOCI H+ + OCI-
b. The pH level decreasesto becomemore acidic.

F 20
No. 17
a. HCI H+ + Cl-
HOCI H+ + OCI-
b. The pH drops(it becauseacidic), goestowards 0.

Part 3
No. I
a.pH >7
b. pH =5
c. no answer.
d. 5
e. no answer.
f The pH vlue was too low causing the HOCI to react and form irritating
compounds.
No. 2
a.pH >7
b. low pH values.
c. came form nitrogen chloride.
d. pH =5.5
e. about pH 5.
f. The pH was too high and didn't kill the bacteria.

No. 3
a.pH 5.5
b. pH 6
c. nitrogen compounds from the air.
d. pH 5-6.
e. pH 5.5
f. The pH value was too low and the HOCI has reactedwith the nitrogen compounds.

No. 4
a.pH 7
b. pH 9
c. nitrogen react with chlorine.
d. pH 10
e. pH 8
f. nitrogen has reactedwith the chlorine causing compoundsto form which causesore eyesbecausethe pH
of the water has been too low becauseof too much chlorine.

No. 5
a.pH 7
b. pH 10
c. The air.
d. pH 5.5
e. The average is 7.5 **(5.5+7+22.5) /3 =7.5
f. The pH has dropped to causebacteria in the pool and nitrogen compoundswhich causesore eyes.

No. 6
a.pH 7 is best
b. no answer.
c. They are formed in the chemical reaction.
d. pH 5.5
e. pH 8.5
f. The % of chlorine was too high.

No. 7
a.The pH has roughly got to be in the middle about pH 5.
b. About pH 8 not too high becauseit won't make but too low it will make the bad nitrogen
.
c. from the human body, eg. urine.
d. somewhere in the middle 5--7
e. 5--6
f. The pH was too low and the bad smelly compoundswere made.

No. 8
a.pH 5.5
b. pH 8

F 21
c. The air.
d. pH 5
e. pH 6
f The chlorine is to acidic the pH is too low.

No. 9
a.
b. pH I
c. the nitrogen in the air joined with the Cl in HOCI (aq).
d. pH 5
e. somewherebetween pH 5 and pH 6.
f. The HOCI (aq) reacted with the nitrogen in the air to give a substancewith the N-Cl bond. That give
them sore eyes. The pH was too low.

No. 10
a.pH 7, becauseacid aould be harmful.
b. pH 10, becauseit is a low pt on the graph.
c. the nitrogen comes off of us in the water.
d. pH 5
e. pH 7
f. The water was at a low pH and the hypochlorous reactedwith the chlorine and it was an irritant.

No. 11
a.pH 6
b. pH 6
c. The nitrogen compounds come fromour bodies-sweat,hair, skin etc.
d. pH 4.6
e. pH 6
f. The pH of the water was too low, the nitrogen reactedwith the acid hypochlorous.

No. 12
a.pH 7
b. the best pH values to avoid nitrogen formation is pH 7 onwards.
c. bacteria
d. pH 5
e. pH 6
f. The pH values in the pool dropped to low to allow nitrogen compoundsto form.

No. 13
a.pH 5.5
b. pH 9.5
c. HOCI
d. pH 5
e. pH 3
f. The pH was too low.

No. 14
a. pH 5.5
b. between 6 and 6.5
c. They come from the air, inside the pool (as air is 70% nitrogen).
d. beween 7.5 and 8
e. pH 6.
f. The pH ws too low, the HOCI reactedwith nitrogen to form the compoundswhich causeeye-soeness.

No. 15
a. pH 5
b. pH 5
c. no answer.
d. pH 6
e. pH 5
f. Too much chlorine has been added it has too much acid.

No. 16
a. pH 4
b. pH 6
c. The air.
d. pH 1.5
e. pH 4
f. The pH level was too low.
F 22
 No. 17
a. pH 5.5
b. pH 10
C. substancesin your eyes that fonn with Cl plus H20.
d. pHl. 2
e. ph 5.5
f The pH is too low (acidic).

Unit 15 Trees and Cars

No. I
Hint 2.

When I mole C8H Ig is burned, 8 moles of C02 is produced. This

gives a ratio of
C8HI8: C02 ý 1:3.
42000 km / 10 km = 4200 (1)
C8H18 + 02 -ý' 9H20 +8 C02
2 C8H] 8+ 2502 16CO2 +9 H20
I mole C8H 18 8 mole C02
114g 352g

got the ratio is 1: 3

700g x3= 2100,2100 X 4200 = 8820000,8820kg /6= 133.2 tree

No. 2
Hint 5.

Petrol C8HI8, mass = 114g

2 C8HI8 + 2502 -4 16CO2 +9 H20
114 1.?
228 16 x 44 =704

ratio is 1 3

so 700 2100

L mass therefore 2100 / 700 =3 litres

1 700g

m distance
700 lOkm
2100 d
700 10 therefore distance= 30 km
because 2.1 kg 30 km
so 6 kg -3ý 90 km

after got hint, 42000 / 10 = volume =4200

4200 x 700 x 3= 9000,000g

No. 3
Hint 4.

The car produces 16800kg of carbon dioxide and a tree only takes in 6 kg of carbon dioxide, so we needa
lot more trees to offset the pollution produced by just the one car.
CgH18 + 12 1/202 -+ 8 C02 +9 H20
114g 432g

ratio 13
12400g 37400g

so I kg 4 kg
4200 16800 kg

F 23
No. 4
Hint 2,4,5.

C8Hi8 = 114g 42000/ 10 =4200 (litres)

2 C8H 18 + 2502 +9 H20
-3,16CO2
2 moles 25moles 16 moles
228g 684g
Ig 3g

700 g2 100 g--from I litre of petrol

4200 litres 12600litres--per year
(they stick here)
4200 X 700 = 29400
700 x3x 4200 = 9,000,000g = 9,000 kg 9000 /6 =1500 g

No. 5
No hint

42000 / 10 = 4200 (litres)

4200 X 0.7 = 2940 kg
2 C8HI8 + 2502 16CO2 +9 H20
I mole 8 mole
114 g 352 g

ratio 13

so 2940 X3 = 8800 kg Of C02

Therefore you need 8800 /6= 1466trees, the quotation from the newspaperis incorrect.

No. 6
Hint 2.

The quotation from the newspaperis false, it should be approximately 1400 trees use up about 8000 kg of
carbon dioxide per year which is equivalent to a car driving 42000 kin.
C8H18 + 12 1/202 -3ý8 C02 +9 H20
I mole 8 mole
I 14g 352 g
Ig3g
700 g 2100 g
4200 X 2100 = 8000,000 g =8,000 kg so 8000/ 6 =1400 trees

No. 7
Hint 2,3. ( this group work very slowly, neededmore help)

42000 / 10 = 4200 litres of petrol

C8HI8 + 12 1/202 -> 8 C02 +9 H20
I mole gives 8 moles
114 g 352 g
Ig3g
I litre octane 2100 9 C02
4200 X 2100 g= 8500 kg

F 24
No. 8
No hint.

C8HI8 + 17 /2 02 -308 C02 +9 H20

because 10 km I litre
I km 1/ 10 litre
42000 km 4200 Itres
4200 x 0.7 = 2940 kg = 2,940,000g
C8H18 =114g 2940000 x8x 44 /114 = 9,077,900 g =9077.9 kg

No. 9
No hint.

4200 litres petrol used

C8H 18 + 12 1/ 2 02 --> 8 C02 +9 H20
I mole 8 mole
114 g 352 g
4200 XO.7=2940 (352 / 114) X 2940 = 9000 kg
so newspaperis wrong.

No. 10
The given hint is "use formula weight ". (they seemhave a plan?)
1. Find he balanced equation for the combustion of octane, find the gram formula mass of octaneand
carbon dioxide.
2. Work out the mass of octane used in 42000 km, from this answer and the gram formula massof carbon
dioxide you can work out the mass of carbon dioxide used.
3. The actual mass of carbon dioxide used was a lot more than the value stated in the newspaper.

C8HI8 + 25 /2 02 3'
--- 8 C02 +9 H20
because I litre = 10 km
42000 km = 4200 litres
so 4200 litres = 4200 X 700 = 2,940,000 g= 2940 kg
114 g 352 g

Ig 352/ 114
2940 X352/ 114 = 9000 kg

No. 11
Hint 7.

Work out the equation of combustion for octane, make out rough ratios octane burning into C02
produced, calculated the amount of litres and then calculated the weight of the octane.
Then the 1: 3 ratio used to calculate the amount Of C02 produced to get the answer.
C8HI8 + 25 /2 02 -), 8 C02 +9 H20
114 352
1 mole 3 mole

octane : C02 ratio iS 1: 3

4200 x 700 g= 2940 kg, octane =2 kg

F 25
Unit 16 Bonding
No. I
(1) We must measureelectrical conductivity as melt which will cost f40 and test reaction with water
costing an extra f 30 although.
Extra Q: dissolve in water, measureelectrical conductivity as dissolved, measuremelting pont. It comes
to f 90.
If dissolves meanseither polar covalent or ionic. If melting point high it is ionic. If melting
point is low, it is polar covalent.
No. 2
(1) A-measuer melting point
C-measuresolubility
E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt; total f 100.
(2) No bonding
No. 3
-1) D-measureelectriacl conducility as dissolved,
E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt
C-solubility; total is flOO.
(2) No bonding
No. 4
(1) D-measureelectrical conductivity as dissolved.
E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt.
A-measure melting point.
(2) No bonding
No. 5
(1) Type of bonding: covalent.
( Aluminum + hydrochloric acid aluminum chloride + hydrogen)

(2) Money spent: A-measure melting point E30

B-measureboiling point L20
C-measuresolubility E30
No. 6
(1) B-measureboiling point
C-measuresolubility
D-measureelectrical conductivity as dissolved
(2) No bonding
No. 7
(1) D-measureelectrical conductivity as dissolved E30.
B-measure boiling point f 20.
E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt M.
(2) No bonding
No. 8
(1) E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt.
A-measure melting point.
B-measure boiling point.
(2) No bonding
No. 9
(1) A, D, F.
(2) Polar covalent.
No. 10
(1) A-measure melting point.
C-measuresolubility.
E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt.
(2) The results of the experiments show us that AIC13iS-LO-niC.

F 26
No. 11
(1) A-measure melting point.
F-reaction with water.
C-measuresolubility.
(2) The type of bonding is ionic.

No. 12
(1) The type of bonding being referred to is ionic bonding.
(2) We wish to buy E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt.

No. 13
(1) A-measure melting point.
E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt.
C-measure solubility.
(2) It is a covalent bond.

No. 14
(1) E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt.
A-measure melting point.
B-measure boiling point.
(2) If it doesn't conduct it would be poor which would be covalent or polar covalent.
If it doesn't melt it would be high, so polar covalent, ionic or metallic.
If it sublimes it would high so covalent ionic or metallic.
T he result is covalent.
No. 15
(1) Our budget was f 90, we used tests = A, C, D.

(2) We think it is ionic becauseAIC13 is very soluble and ionic compounds are often soluble. AIC13
also does not melt and ionic compoundshave a high melting point. It is only ionic and covalent
bonds that have these similar properties, so we done the electrical conductivity as dissolved and
the results showed it was an ionic bond.
No. 16
(1) Aluminium chloride contains ionic bonds.
(2) We reachedthis conclusion by buying the following 3 tests results: A, C, D.
We found out that AIC13 does not melt but turns from solid to gas at 193 'c and it is extremely
soluble we elimanated. The other types of bonding by using the above information.
No. 17
(1) After some researchwe conclude that AIC13has 12olarcovalent bonding.
(2) It conducts good when it's dissolved in water and does not melt, also from the information that it
dissolves it must be soluble.
No. 18
(1) We choose the following three experiments,measuring melting point, measuring solubility and
measuring electrical conductivity as melt becauseonly two choices for it, but by using our result
we found out that it couldn't melt but by doing these we found the boiling point is extremely
high but by going through the result
.
(2) We found that it is covalent.
No. 19
(1) After discussing in the group we have come up with the folowing conclusion using " test D"
measuring conductivity as a solution. The solution conductedvery well. This ruled out covalent
bonding then using " test A" measuring melting point.
(2) The solution didn't melt, therefore this ruled out polar covalent.
(3) Finally, using experiment C "measure solubility" the result of this was the solution was
extremely soluble, this ruled out metallic bonding.
(4) So we conclude after thesethree experimentsthe solution must be ionically bonded.
(5) The total cost of the experiementwasf90: A=f 30, C=00,13=00.
No. 20
(1) A-measure melting point E30
C-measuresolubility L30
E-measureelectrical conductivity as melt E40.
(2) No bonding

F 27
 Appendix G

The Graph of Response to Thirteen Fixed

Questions
 Unit I

UM 1 UnRI

25 25

20

I
ý'
o5

d-g- d-g",

a
d-g-

UM 1 Und 1 UM I

25

20 211
4sx
2
15 0 is

10

5 4
2
'o
5 I
0
. g",

d-g- d-g- dýg-

UM 1 U. I

25
25

20
20

15 1D

10

0 d-gr-
ý91- , dhe, ag-
ag- -ý-g- 'U. 9- a -,
Zg- d(wg-
di. gr-

u'd I U. I

30

14
20
12
10

ý'o
a
6
4 4
5 2 2
0 0 0
ýg- -nl.,. g- dl. g- agý ýfth-g- di. g-
a Mf &r
di. g- cnmgý

20

0
Zg-

GI
 New Unit I

Uý aI

ý03

25

I1
20

dl. g- . g-

UM I
mw unu 1 Uýd I

Emý-nl
30 20
2' \, 20
-20

10
%\- 8
5

-Rý, . 9- d-g-
ý9, - -01, ý91111

d-g-
dgre

Uýa 1 UN I - U. 4 I
F--Q
8

35 35
Ez----
ý---
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
2
0 0

. gme _W., g- d. g- ag-

mr
di. g- di. g-
<H. g-

Uýa 1M1

25
30
""'%ý, ý6
25 20
4
20 ýo 2
10
10
8
6

0
. gl-
,- ýýfth o, - d-g-
& -, d-g- di. g-
d,. g-

- Uýft 1

G2
 Unit 2

Uýh 2 UM 2 Uýý 2
[--

30

25

20 20

ý,
0
0

I
ag- -l- ýgr- 77,7-
g -,
d-g- di. 9-

UM 2 Uýd 2 UM 2

F-mmý--
30
25 1
16
4
20 2

/l
15
ý05
10
-
5
0
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d1wgL
. 9- d-g-

-,

UM 2 UM 2 U. 2

20 : ý;
30 ý5
6
25 1
1
20
10
15 6
10 6

5
0

agree a"- g-
mr
d, ýg r-ee dsagme d-g-

UM 2 UM 2 UM 2

18
6
4
4
2
12
0
0
8 8
6 6
4
2

, ýh,, a g- d-q- ýg- nertherag- cf-gree agý -, th-g- di. 9-

&. r
d-g- di. g- crlmgý

UN 2

4
2

aqý -dhe, ýg- d-g-

di-gw

G3
 Unit 2 Taiwan

UN 2 T-n Uýl 2 T--

35

11

15
10

°ghdg
ýg- -dhý, ýg- d-g-
& n.,
dýgme

Uný 2 Taimn UM 2 T-n U, l 2 T-,

40
,5
31
'o
45
40
35
31
2ý 25

0
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g- d-g-
8", 'of
dl. g- d-g-

Und 2 Tal- U, d 2 Tal- Unn 2 Ta-n

F7 E

2b 45
40
:0 35 Mý
30
25
25
20 20
10 5
0
5

ag- edho, ag- ol-g- agý nodý' g- d-. 9- ag- -l- ý'- ý-g-
& no, &- &-
d1mgree I-gr- dýgreo

Uý4 2 TýI- Und 2 Tal- U, fl 2 T, 1-

60 31

ýo 25

20 20

30 5

10
ý10
. g- ., dh,, ag, ee d-gIll
& nor
dýgme dýgree dwg-

Unft2 T-n

F7

'0

10
d-gree

G4
 Unit 4

UM 4 Uýk 4

30
35
30
25
20

10
5
0 0
ýg- ýg- d.. g- agý mrdwr agý f,. g-

dl. g- dimg- , -g-

UM 4 UN 4 U. 4

8
6

2
0 10

4
2
0

ýg- ý-g- . I- -tthe, ag- dlmgr"

chmg"

Uýfl 4 Und 4 Unfl 4

F--o 9

35
35 35
30
25 21
20
5 15

0 10
5 s
0 0
. 9, - di. g- ag- ýftýr ag- dl. g, - g, - d-g-
& mr
di. g- Lq- d. g-

U. 4 UM 4 UN 4

F--O
,0
30
35 35
25
30 30
20
25
20
is ;5
0
5

d ýgl- d. g,- d-g-

. 9-

d'. 9- di-g-
I

UM 4

di. g-

di. 9-

G5
 Unit 5

ljýd 5

10

-hl, d, -j-

dýgme
Wgree -g-

Uýd 5 Uýd 5 UM 5

F7ý`

12
10

0
--g", d-g-

dwg- d-9-

Unt 5
Jn 5 UM 5
1-08

25 4
'o
25 ý,
12
%ý 10

6
%%x-- 4
2

0
o
agree ociher agree

d,sagree
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dearee
0
agree . 9, - Cýag, ee

Uýl 5
und 5 Uýd5

30
25 18 6

2
20
0
,5
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5
4
2
0
. glIl d-q- "17

dýgree

UM 5

r--7ý' 'ý

ýllý
--
10

d1-01-

G6
 New Unit 5

Uýd 5

25

20

,5

d-gl-

d-g- d-gl-

-, Uýý 5 - UO 5 - UM 5

04
20 2 mom=-
20

is

10

..... ...... ....

dýgree
'191-

dlýgree d-g- dýgree

UM 5 - uý 5 - Uýt 5

-01
2

10 4

d-g- Ig", --lagree dwg, ee

g-

dl. d-gree
9-

Und 5 UM 5 urid 5
ne,

30 1 14

12 12
10 10

8 8

10

2 2
0

. 91- d-g- agree neither disagree

. g- ,, th,, g- d-g, ee agree -dh.,
& mr 8-, agý & wr
dWg- dýgree disagree

nm Uml 5

10

d-gree

G7
 Unit 6

UM 6
01 U,l
20

ýg- ýg-

d.. 9- dtý. g-

UM 6 UM 6 Unft6

° I
14
12
10

8 no,

gdq
dl. g-

Und 6 UM6
UM6
1-08
20

4
2 8
0
6
8
6 4
2
0
agree ,, Mer agý d.. g-
d1mg- . g- ýeer agý d,. g, -
. gl- -dhýl g- g -,
a mr a-,
df. g-
Lg- dlwgree

Uýd 6 Unn 6
-ft 6

7 1

6
Iý
4
3
2
111
0 0
agý mKheragme dwgý agý mKtwragý dlwgý
9wr
di.
e.-,
g- di. 9-
dl. g-

UM 6

G8
 Unit 8

UM 81j, 8
U,,l 8

30

12
12

2
12 --- -----

4
112
0

10 4

agree rerlýer agree d-q- ag"', ed- ag- d-g, -

. g, - 0te, agree d, sag, ee

d-gree d-gree
dwgtee

UýR8
UM 8 UM 8

20

10

d-g-

Uýd a
UN 8

30 30

25

2ý 20

15

10

. g- ag- d-gree

dýqMe
d, -gree

UM 5 UM 8
u'd 8

16
4 14
2\ i,
Nsý-ý 10
8 I
6 I
I
2
0
0
ag'" -NN, d-g-
ý91- dl-g- neftheragree d-gree
ag- & mr

d-g- d-g-
diwgme

UM 8

'g, " d-91-

G9
 New Unit 8

Untf 8 UM 8

30 30

,5
16
20

,5 10
0

5
2

. g, - ne0- ag- d-g- d-""

&
Zg- d-g, - d-q-

UNt a Uý, t 8 'm u"t a

ý
-04 -06

16
16

15
'o 10

5 4
2
0 0
agý nedheragý dýgree
& mr
disag, ee d-g-

Una 8 ne. Una 8 ne, Una a

3 35
'5 30
/
25 25
0
20 20

,a152ýI
10
-, 5

,
0
agree neillneragree d-gr- agree nartheragree d-9l.. agree northa-gre. d-gr-
& nor & nor
diaýagrae d-gree disagree

new Unit 8 new Und8 new Unit 8

35 '5 25
--]
31
10

:0
191- "dhe, ýqne, d, -g, e ýg- -ýN, ýg- J-gne -g-
1. n., & no, gnee ane
d-gnee d-g- d-9, ee

Unit 8

neRher agme di, igree

lsg-

GIO
 Unit 9

U- 9 UM 9

-02

16 20

ýgl- dýgree
mr
dwgree

UM 9 Uýd 9 U. ff 9
1-04

In 10

,q

dýgree dýgree
dwgree

Unft9 U. " 9
UM 9

25

12
10

\\-,
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6
'4

d-g-
I0 agý -d.,
a-
d-gree
ag- dýgree

d-g-

Unh9 U. n 9

20
2' Mý1

5
0 _, _g" _gr"
-l- g,- d-g-
" mr
dýg-
dwgree

UM 9

GII
 New Unit 9

. 1. UM 9 Uýd 9 M. Uýl 9

35

15

5 10 -

a,
......
........ g- d-g- g,,,

6. g- f.-g- cfiwgý

new Und 9 new Unn 9 Und 9

30
35
2ý
30
0
20

gree d,. g, -
ne,
ý-gn, e ". g, - d-g-

- Uýý 9
new Und 9 - Uýd9

25
30

25 20

's

10

0
ag, ee ýg- d-g-
dlýgraa d-g-

.............
agree nadhe, agree
" nor
dl-g-
dl. gree di. g-

U. h 9 UM 9 - UM 9

30 30

25,

20
:0
Ic

5
C)

dl. g-

.. UM 9

ý,
0
di. 9-

G 12
 Unit 10

UM 10 Uýd 10 Uýl 10
1ý3

20 0

6
10
4
2 5
0

. g- -Ký, g- dýgree agr, e -tý, aq- d-g-, . g- ed., ý9, - d-g-

dfflgme dýgme

UM 10 UM 10 Uýd 10

35 20
30
21
20
0

10 5
5
0

d --l)-

dýqree dýgree

UM 10 Uý" 10
Und 10
-Q9

35
20
30 30

is 25

20 20
10 is
10
5
5

0
d-g- . g, - nedNrag- d-gree
agree norther agree d, sag, ea . g, - , dher ag, ee
a-,
& nor
dimgree d-g-
disagree

UM 10 Uýd io
Uýftlo

30
30

21
;, 0 20
20
15 ,5

10

0
0
d-gree ýgl- Ilghl, qr, e d-gree
ýg- gree d-g- -tý, ag-

d-g- di. g-

Uýd 10

30

25

2ý

d-gree

G 13
 Unit 12

Uýý 12 Uý612 Uýl 12

40
35
,1
21
15

5 5

-ftm-g- O-g- agme 0he, ag d-g- O-g-

a -,
dýg, ee -g- dýgree

Und 12 Uýd 12
Uýn 12

-06

411
35
31
21
Z00000000000000

10
5
di-g- dWgree I 7"I"j- dýgree

Uýd 12 U. 0 12 Und 12

45

35
'0 30
25
2' 20

5
c 0 0
neftherag- d-gnae . g- g- d-g-
-1- ýg- dýgree ag-
& nor mr
diýgree d,-g, ee dwgree

Uýd 12
unH 12 UM 12
[7-= 0,ý]
30
so 3n
41, 25

3 20
M

0
g- d-g-
-l-, g, - dl-gl-

d-gl- dfflgree
&ýgree

Und 12

51kI

& nor
dlýgree

G 14
 Unit 13

uýC 10 Uýý 10

30

25

-0
ý10

:,
o
ýg- e, týr ag- 1-9-
a. '
dýgree
Zg-

Unit 13 Unit 13 U,. t 13

10 10
2
0 0

ag- neither agree d-gree -l" ig" d-g, -

gho, 1, her
n. f
d-g- d-gree

Uýd 13 UýR 13 UM 13

N 25

25

20

10
0

0
ýq- nený, ag- d-gl-

d-91- d-g-

UM 13 Und 13 Uýft 13
r--Q
,,

30 20

15
20
10

ýg- -011 ý91- d-gree

a
ý-g- dwgree wgme

Uýd 13

30

25

2n

dwgme

G 15
 Unit 14

tý U, M 14 1-1 14
U'd

'o

10

. ýree -d- ýg- ý-g- ýg- dýgree

dýgme dýgree

Und 14 Uýý 14 UýM 14

[Q5
5 oll
11 25
1,
2)

0
"T- ag"' -Ohl, agree dtsagme
8-
dwg, ee d-gree

Und 14 Und 14 Urn! 14

3', .0 35
31 31
11 2
20 2

ý5
0
5

. 91- r. hýl . 91- d-q- ý9- -r- agree d-g-

& nor & no,
diýgme d-gn, e -gree

UM 14 U, d 14 Uýý 14

I-Qlo

35 30
21 S*ý
0 25

ý10 5

0
agree -1h" agree d-gee

ýagee

Uýft 14

35
\ i
11
15

............

ý,
0

G 16
 Unit 15

UM 15 "A 15

25 ! S]
1
20
12
1ý
0
10

0 0

-1., ýg- dwgree -ný, ýg- d-g-

dl-gl- d-g,.. d-g-

UM 15 UM 15 UM 15

-Q6

30

-1.1 g- d. -glee 71-

disagree d-91-

Uýd 15 Uýd 15 UM 15

25
16
14
20 2
0

10

o
aglee "'l- ýgl- d-g-
-11- ýg- d-gree
A-
g-
dlýgree

Und 15 Uýd
Und 15

012

20
30 14
2
0
12
a
10
is 6 I
4
2
0 0
dýgme d-g-
ag- nedherag-

0
ýg-

dýgme d-g- dv-g-

UM 15
F-013

10

ýgl- neKheragý dlýgree

9-
dýgme

G 17
 Unit 16

UM 16 U'd

35

25

gl- dWg, ee . 7, l-,

a.,
dýgree

Uýft 16 Urnt 16 Uýd 16

[-- ---n,-,
30

0
5

g,,, d-q- ,rg-

nor
diwgree diýgree dwg,, e

Unh 16 Uýd 16 UM 16

F-07

50 45
45 41
35
30
21
20
15
5
10 0
5

d-g- d-g-
d-gree

und 16 U,, d 16 UM 16

45 30
-
'o
35
30
15

ýo 10
5

5
5
0
d-g, ee agree naltheragree disagree
. g, - -ther ag, ee

dlýgFee disagree dwgree

UM 16

30

--X
10

5
0
agý enýragw d-gree

G 18
 Unit 18

UýM 18 18 - 15

-01
-7ýi-fl -oi1

0
agý -Khý, ag- d-g-
ýgl- d, ý g,

-g-
d'. 9-

UM le
18
um18 um
1-04

15

10

0
lh, I ....... 19-1 dýg-
. g", , ý9,, -

di. d. g, -
q-

UM la UO 18 Uýa 18

18
16

2
0
a
6
4
2
0
agý mý, ag- d-g- ag- -19- g- d-gl-
9-,
dl. g- di. 9- d,. g-

UM 18
UN 18

25

20
1c
4

IHL
10

0
. g- -c- ýg- O-g-

d.. g-

Unft le

1-013

nor
o.. g-

G 19
 Appendix H

Kendall's Tau Correlation Coefficient

 Kendall's Tau Correlation Coefficient
Ql JQ2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 08 09 Q10 IQ12
Qll
. 1
Unit 1 02
03 OA15** -0 428**
Q4 0.524** -0361*
Q5 -0.349*
Q6 -0.451** 0.454** -0.426**
Q7
Q8 0.364*
Q9 -0.324*
Q10 1 470** -0 327'
.0 .
Qll I I I I I I
I
Q12 0.436** -0.369* 0.287* -0-663**
Q13 1
-0.636** L68LL
Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 JQ6 Q7 Q8 1012
Q9 010 Oll

new Unit 1 Q2
Q3 0.446**
Q4
Q5
Q6 -0,306*
Q7
Q8 0.383* -0.330*
Q9 -0.339* -0.384*
Plo 0.351* 0.481**
10.343* -0.298*
. _-0.340*
Qll 0.429** 0.344* -0.290*
1
Q12 0.328* 0.304* 0.485-
Q13 0.468- 0.384- 0.610**
Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Qll Q12
Unit 2 Q2 -0.311
Q3 0.360*
Q4 -0,434** 0.616**
Q5
06 -0.458** -0,564**
Q7
Q8
Q9 -0.408** 0.321*
Q10 -0.306* 0.674**
Qll 0.349* 0.320* 1 0.414**
012 1-0.459** 1
0.548** 0.479** -0,494**
Q13 0.423** 1 1 10.372* 0.296* 0.561-
-0,329* -0.424**
Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 07 Q8 Q9 Q10 Qll Q12
Unit 2-Taiwan Q2
Q3 0.420**
Q4 0.224* 0.218*
Q5
Q6 0.403**
Q7
Q8 -0.227*
Q9 0.268* 0.276* -0.589-
Q10 0.290**
1-0.250* . -0.264*
Qll 1
-0.255* -0.469** -0.422**
1 10.304**
Q12 &248* -0.386**
Q13 1 10.353** 1 &557-
0.279* -0.242*
Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 JQ8 09 j Qlo Qll Q12
Unit 4 Q2 0.485**
Q3 0.436**
Q4
Q5
Q6 -0.346*
Q7 10.323* 0,321*
Q8
Q9 0.312*

Q10
Qll 0.283* 1
-0.493**
J j
Q12 0.371** 1
1 10 338* 1- - 1-1 285* 1
Q13 1 1
-0

I
 Kendall's Tau Correlation Coefficient
JQ2 Q6 JQ8 IQ12
Qi Q3 Q4 Q5 07 Q9 Q10 all
Unit 5 02
Q3
04
Q5
06 1
-0 390* J
07
Q8 -0.535**
Q9
-0.419**
Q10 -0.353*
all 0.327' 0.355*
-0.353*
1 _-0.346*
012 0.447** 0.580**
-0.333*
Q13 1 10.411** 10.490**
-0.399* 0.464*
.
Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 all Q12
new Unit 5 Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
_-0.363* 1-0.505**
Q6
Q7
Q8 0.429* -0.403*
09
010 0.550**
Oil 1 1_-0.451* 1

Q12 0.337* -0 513** 0 350*

Q13 0.335* -0 361 0.538**

Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 06 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Oil Q12

Unit 6 02
Q3 0.589**
Q4
Q5 -0.552**
Q6 0.482*
Q7 0.511*
Q8 0.513**
Q9

Q10
all 1-0.376* 1 1
1
Q12 -0.497** -0.586** 0.453*
1Q13 1 1 1 1 0.660**
-0.417* -0.452* -0.692**
Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 09 j Q10 all Q12
Unit 8 Q2 -0.308*
Q3 0.384**
Q4 -0.441** 0.390**
Q5 -0.562**
Q6 -0.386** 0.533** -0,453**
Q7 0.299* 0.335* 0.337*
Q8 -0.564**
Q9 0.331* -0.578**
Q10 0.302* -0.543** 0.324*
. 1 1
all 0.522** 0.3ý- 0.421** -OA46-1 -0.313*
L 1 10.397**
Q12 -0.407** 0.391** -0.460** -0.386** -0.509** 0 465**
Q13 OL421 0.305* 1 10,366* 1 0.593**
. -0.448** -0.401** -0.326*
Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 JQ1 1 Q12

new Unit 8 Q2
Q3
Q4
05 -0.324*
.
Q6 -0.384** -0.285*
Q7 -0.375*
Q8 0.373* 0.286* -0.283*
Q9 0.372** -0.290*
Plo 0.498**
-0.342*
_
1 _
1 1 1
all
-0,329*
Q12 1 1
-0,463**
Q13 0.319* 1 1
-0.336* 432"

H2
0
 Kendall's Tau Correlation Coefficient
Qi Q2 03 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 09 010 011 (1
Unit 9 Q2
03 0.478-
Q4 0.719-
Q5 -0.464*
Q6 0.388* -0.467* -0.480**
Q7 -0ý388* 0403*
08
Q9 0.435* -0.493-
WO 0 545- 0,595- -0 455* 0.557- -0ý490**
1- _ _
Qll -0ý382* 0,370*
Q12 1
0.470- -0 372* -0.508-
013 1 1 1 1 1 0.526-
-0,409* -0.427* -0.565- Oý685**
Qi Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 08 09 WO Qll Q12

new Unit 9 02
Q3 0.659-
Q4
Q5 -0.297*
_ 1-0.455-
Q6 -0.540** 0.312* -0.332*
Q7
Q8 0.408* 0493-
Q9 0.403-
QIO 0.303* -0.297* 0.593**
I
1 . -0.327*
Qll -0.286*
012 0.347
QI3

Qi Q2 03 Q4 05 06 Q7 Q8 Q9 1010 Qll I Q12

Unit 10 Q2 -0.322*
Q3 0.651
04
05 -0.396-
Q6 0.484- 0.519- -0.332*
Q7
Q8 0.563- -0.371* 0.527- 0.409-
Q9 -0.369* -0.367* -0.313* -0.479-
WO 0A15- 568** -0.351*
1 _O.
Qll 0.424- 0.432-
-0ý486** 0,568- -0.347* -0.350* -0.304*
3 2
1 ý_ 1 1
Q12 -0 337* 0.476- -0.473-
1 1 1 0.471-
Q13 O.413**
_
Qi Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 WO 011 Q12
Unit 12 Q2
Q3
Q4 0253*
Q5
Q6 -0.391 **
Q7 -0.245* 0.327-
Q8 -0.282* -0.554**
Q9 0.297 -0.462-
WO -0.267* 0.271*
1
Qll Oý380** -0.223*
1 1-0.237* 1 1 1-0ý231*
Q12 0.237* 0.381- 0.232* -0.250*
1-0.309- 1 1 10 240* 1 -
Q13 0 239*
1Q1 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 lQlo Qll Q12
Q2 03 Q4 Q5
1 1
Unit 13 Q2
Q3 10.360*

Q4 0.360*
Q5
Q6 4421- -0.369*
Q7 -0.299*
Q8 -0 556-
Q9 -0.421*
010 Oý424**
Qll U327 0.528- -0.291* -0.514** I
Q12 0.376* 0.442- -0.611** 0.361* 0310* 0.331* 0.455-
1 .
013 U508- 0.49 -A- 0153ý
-0,391-

H3
 Kendall's Tau Correlation Coefficient
Qi Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 010 011
Unit 14 Q2
Q3 0.452-
Q4
Q5
. -0.335** . -0.471
Q6 0.260* -0ý398**
Q7
Q8 -0.353**
Q9 -0ý245* 0.399- -0.363** 0.372- -0.419**
WO 0,295* -0.384** -0.379** KAM- -0,402**
W . _
Qll 0.309* * 1
-0.321
012 0.255*
- 10
Q13 0.269* 0 327* 465-

Qi Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 QB 09 010 011 Q12

Unit 15 Q2
Q3 0.421-
Q4 -0.593- -0.408**
Q5 -0.361 *
Q6 0.330*
Q7 0.451-
Q8 -0 421**
09
QIO O.410**
t _
Qil -0,309-
1
Q12 0.521-
Q13 0.387* 1-0.304* 0341* 0.408-
-0.333*
1Q4 1Q8 Q9 WO Qll I Q12
Qi Q2 Q3 Q5 Q6 Q7

Unit 16 Q2
03 0.516-
04 0.259*
05 -0.378** -0.422**
Q6 0.238* -0.242* -0.252*
Q7
Q8 0.311 & 351
Q9 -0 310-
WO 0.284* 0 250* 0380-
1 1
Qll Oý314** -0 337-
10.332- 1 1-0ý256* 1-0.389- 1
Q12
10.573- 1 1-0.339- 10 951* 4267* 10.323- 534**
013 0.237* 0.328-
_O,
101 1Q8 09 IQIO Qll Q12
Q2 Q3 Q4 05 Q6 Q7
1 1 1
Unit 18 02
Q3 10.531-

Q4
Q5
Q6 -0.358*
Q7 -0.375*
Q8
Q9 1-0.602-
WO 0.464* -0.477*

Qll -0 400*
Q12 0.623-
-0,355*
1 1 1 1 1
0.362*
1 Q13 -0 450*

H4
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H5
 Appendix I

A Summary of the Significant Correlation

 A Summary of the Significant Correlations
Unit I

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive associationwith "satisfying" (1%) and "worked well
together" (5%) but has a negative associationwith "learned nothing" (5%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "new problem" and "could not solve
problem myseýf " (1%) but has a negative association with "satisfying", "had enough previous
knowledge" at (I%) and "did not share the work out evenly" (5%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a positive association with "had enough
previous knowledge" (I%) but has a negative associationwith "new problem" and "could not solve
problem myseýf'(5%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "could not solve
problem myseýf" (5%) and a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (I%).
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a negative association with "could
not solveproblem myseýf'and "needed helpftom other members" (1%).
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion help"
(I %).
(9) We did not share the work out evenly in our group: it has a negative association with "group
discussion helpful" (I%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself: it has a positive association with "needed help
from other members" (1%).

New Unit 1

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive association with "satisfying" (1%), "worked well
together" and "group discussionhelpful" (5%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "were not sure have the correct
%) and "could not solve problem myself ' (5%)but has a negative associationwith " had
answer"(1
enough previous knowledge" (I%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a positive association with "group
discussion helpful" (5%) but "did not share the work out evenly" (5%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "needed help ftom
other members" (I %) and "could not solveproblem myseýf ' (5%).
(5) 1 learned nothing from the probern: it has a positive association with "were notsure had the
(5%) but has a negative association with "worked well together" and "group
correct answer"
discussion helpful" (5%)
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a negative association with "were
had the correct answer" and "could not solve problem myself' (5%).
not sure
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a negative association with "group discussion
helpful" (I %) and "could not solveproblem myself ' (I %).
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful"
(I%) but has a negative associationwith "did not share the work out evenly" (5%).
(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has positive association with "could not solve problem
myselt" (1%).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positiveasssociation with "ould
"needed helpftom other members " (I %).
not solveproblem myself'and
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblern by myself. it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (1%).

II
Unit 2

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive associationwith "satisfying" (5%) but has
a negative
associationwith "difficult"(5%) and "new problem" (1%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "new problem", "could
not solve
problem myseýf' and "needed helpfrom other members" (I %) and " were not sure had the correct
answer" (5%) but has a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (I%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a negative association with "did
not share
the work out evenly" (I%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "could not solve
problem myself' (1%), "did not share the work out evenly" and "were not sure had the correct
answer" (5%) but has anegative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (1%).
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a negative association with "could
notsolveproblem mysef'(1%) and "neededhelpftom other members"(5%)
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a negative association with "group discussion
helpAP'(I%) and "could not solveproblem myseýf'and "needed helpftom othermembers" (1%)
(8) We worked well together as a group: a positive associationwith "group discussion helpful"(1%).
(9) We did not share the work out evenly in our group: it has a positive association with "were not
sure had the correct answer" (I%).
(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has positive association with "needed help from other
members"(5%).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociationwith "needed
helpfrom other members" (5%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblern by myself.- it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (1%).

Unit 2 Taiwan

The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive association with "satisfying", "group discussion
helpful" (1%) and "new problem" but has a negative association with "were not sure had the
correct answer" (5%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive associationwith "new problem" (5%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a positive association with "had enough
previuos knowledge" (1%) but a negative associationwith "were not sure had the correct answer"
(1%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive associationwith "did not share the work
out evenly", "could not solveproblem myseýf' and "needed helpftom other members"(5%).
(5) 1 learnednothing from the probern: a negative associationwith "group discussion helpful" (5%).
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a negative association with "could
not solveproblem myseýf' (I %) and "neededhelpftom other members" (5%).
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a negative association with "were not sure had the
correct answer", "could not solve problem myseýf' (I %) and "needed help ftom other members"
(5%).
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful"
(I%) but has a negative associationwith "did not share the work out evenly" (I%)..
(9) We did not share the work out evenly in our group: it has a negative association with "group
discussion helpful" (5%).
(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has a positive association with "needed help ftom other
members"(1%).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociationwith "could
not solveproblem myseýf ' (1%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself. it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" G%)
-

12
Unit 4

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive association with "difficult", "satisfying" at Mand
"prefer solving problem myseý('(5%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "were not sure had the correct
answer" (5%) but has a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (5%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a positive association with "prefer solving
problem myseýf'(5%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "needed help ftom
other members"(5%).
(5) 1 learned nothing froin the problem: it has a positive associationwith "did not share the work out
evenly" (5%).
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a negative association with "were
not sure had the correct answer" (I%) and "neededhelpftom other members"(5%).
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "colild not solve problem
myseý(' (I %).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociation with "needed
helpfrom other members" (5%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself. it has a positive association with "needed help
from other members" (1%).

Unit 5

(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "could not solve
problem myseýf' (1%) and "were not sure had the correct answer" (5%) but has a negative
associationwith "had enough previous knowledge" (5%).
(6) We worked well together as a group: it has a negative association with "were not sure had the
correct answer", "could not solveproblem myseýf'and "needed helpftom other members" at 5%.
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a negative association with "worked well together"
(I%), "group discussion helpful" and "were not sure had the correct answer" (5%).
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a negative associationwith "did not share the work out
evenly" (I%).
(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has a positive association with "wer not sure had the
correct answer" and "needed helpftom other members" (5%).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociationwith "could
not solveproblem myself'and "needed helpftom other members" (1%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself.- it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (1%).

13
New Unit 5

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a negative associationwith "learned nothing" (5%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful" (1%)
and
14
needed helpftom other members" (5%) but has a negative association with "had enough previous
knowledge" (1%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a positive
association with "worked well
together" (5%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "could not solve
problem myself'(5%).
(5) 1 learned nothing from the problem: it has a negative association with "worked
well together" and
41
group discussion helpful" (5%).
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a negative association with "could
not solve problem
myseýf '(I%) and "needed help ftom other members" (5%).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociation with "could
not solve problem myseýf ' (5%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself. it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (1%).

Unit 8

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive association with "satisfying" (1%) and "prefer
solvingproblem myseýf' (5%) but has anegative associationwith "newproblem", "couldnotsolve
problem myset('at 1% and "difficult" (5%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "newproblem", "were not sure had
the correct answer", "could not solve problem myseU" and "needed help ftom other members"at
I% but has a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (1%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a positive association with "had enough
previous knowledge" (1%) and "prefer solvingproblem myseýf%"group discussion helpful" at 5%
but has a negative association with "learned nothing", "could not solve problem myself' and
"needed helpfrom other members" at I%.
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "were not sure had the
correct answer" (5%).
(5) 1 teamed nothing from the problem: it has a positive association with "were not sure had the
correct answer" (I%) and" neededhelpfrom other members" (5%) but has a negative association
with "had enoughprevious knowledge" and "group discussion helpful" (I %).
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a positive association with "did not share the work
out evenly" (5%) but has a negative associationwith "worked well together" and "could not solve
problem myseIr' at I%, "were not sure had the correct answer" and "needed help ftom other
members" at 5%.
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "could not solve problem
myself ' (I %) and " neededhelpftom other members" (5%) but has a negative associationwith " did
not share the work out evenly" (I
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociationwith "could
not solveproblem myself' (I%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself.- it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (I%).

14
New Unit 8

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive associationwith "worked well together" (5%) but has
a negative associationwith "learned nothing" and "prefer solvingproblem myse4r'at 5%.
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive associationwith "worked well together" (5%) but has
a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (I %).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfýing: it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (5%).
(5) 1 learned nothing from the problem: it has a negative association with "had enough previous
knowledge" (5%).
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a positive association with "did not share the work
out evenly" (I%) but has a negative association with "could not solve problem ini,self' (1%),
,
"worked well together", "group discussion helpful" and "needed helpftom other members"at 5%.
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful"
(I%) but has a negative associationwith "did not share the work out evenly" (5%).
(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has a negative association with "were not sure had the
correct answer" (5%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself. it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (1%).

Unit 9

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive association with "satisfying" (1%) and "had enough
previous knowledge" (5%) but has a negative association with "were not sure had the correct
answer" (5%) and "needed helpftom other members" (I%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "new problem", "group discussion
helpful" and "could not solve problem myself' at I% but has a negative association with "had
enoughprevious knowledge" (5%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a negative association with "learned
nothing" (5%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "group discussion
helpful" (1%) and "were not sure had the correct answer" (5%) but has a negative association
with "had enoughprevious knowledge" (I %).
(5) 1 learned nothing from the problem: it has a negative association with "prefer solving problem
myseýf' (5%).
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a positive association with "prefer
' (5%) but has a negative association with "group discussion helpful" and
solving problem mysef
"could not solveproblem myself' (5%).
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a positive association with "did not share the work
(5%) but has a negative association with "could not solve problem Myseu" (1%) and
out evenly"
"needed helpftom other members" (5%).
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful"
(I%) but has a negative associationwith "did not share the work out evenly" (I%) .
(9) We did not share the work out evenly in our group: it has a negative association with "group
discussion helpful", "needed helpftom other members" at I %and "could not solve problem myself'
(5%).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociationwith "needed
helpfrom other members" (1%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself.- it has a positive association with "needed help
fi-om other members" (M).

15
New Unit 9

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive associationwith "satisfying" (1%)
and "worked ýt,ell
together", "group discussion helpful" at 5% but a negative association with "learned nothing"
(5%).
(2) The problem was difficult: a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (I%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a positive association
with "ti,orked well
together" (1%) and "had enoughprevious knowledge" (5%) but has a negative association with
"learned nothing" (5%).
(5) 1 learned nothing from the problem: it has a negative association xvith "had enough
previous
knowledge" and "group discussion helpful" at 5%.
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a negative association with "were
not sure had the correct answer" (5%).
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a positive association with "did not share the ýI'ork
out evenly" (1%).
(8) We worked well together as a group: a positive associationwith "group discussion helpful" (1%).
(9) We did not share the work out evenly in our group: it has a negative association with "group
discussion helpful" (5%).
(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has a negative association with "were not sure had the
correct answer" (5%).
At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociationwith "could
not solveproblem myseýf' and "needed helpftom other members" at I %.
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblern by myself. it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (I%).

Unit 10

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive association with "satisfying", "had enoughprevious
knowledge", "worked well together" and "group discussion helpful" at 1% but has a negative
association with "learned nothing", "were not sure had the correct answer" at 1%, "difficult",
"did not share the work out evenly" and "could not solveproblem myseý(' at 5%.
(2) he problem was difficult: it has a positive associationwith "new problem", "were not sure had the
correct answer", "could not solve problem myself ' and " neededhelpfrom other members" at I%
but has a negative associationwith "worked well together" (5%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a positive association with "had enough
previous knowledge" and " worked well together" at 1% but has a negative association with "did
not share the work out evenly" and "were not sure had the correct answer" (5%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a negative association with "did not share the
work out evenly" " (5%).
(5) 1 learned nothing from the problem: it has a positive association with "were not sure had the
correct answer" (I%) but has a negative associationwith "had enough previous knowledge" (5%).
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a positive associationwith "worked
well together" (1%) but has a negative association with "were not sure had the correct answer"
(5%).
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful"
(I%) and but has a negative associationwith "did not share the work out evenly", "were not sure
had the correct answer" and "could not solveproblem myself' at I%.
(9) We did not share the work out evenly in our group: it has a negative association with "group
discussion helpful" (5%).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociationwith "could
not solve problem myseýf' (I %).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself: it has a positive association with "needed help
from other members"(1%).

16
Unit 12

(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "new
problem" and "could not solve
problem myseýf'at 5%, "were not sure had the correct answer" (I%).

(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "could
not solve
problem myseýf'(I%) but has a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (1%),
"prefer solving probelm myself ' and "group discussion helpful" at 5%.

(5) 1 learned nothing from the problem: it has a positive association with "could not solve problem
myseýf'(5%)

(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a positive association with "prefer
solvingprobelm niyseýf' (1%) and "group discussion helpful" (5%) but has a negative association
with "worked well together", "were not sure had the correct answer" and "could not solve
problem myseýf'at 5%.

(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a positive association with "did not share the work
out evenly" (5%) but has a negative association with "worked well together", "needed help ftom
other members" at 1%, "could not solve problem myseýf'(5%).

(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a negative associationwith "did not share the work out
evenl)ý'(I %)

(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has a positive association with "needed help ftom other
members" (5%) but has a negative associationwith "could not solveproblem myseýf' (5%).

(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself: it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (5%).

Unit 13

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive associationwith "satisfying"( 1%)
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "needed help ftom other members"
(I %), " new problem ", " were not sure had the correct answer" and " could not solve problem
myself ' at 5% but has a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" and " did not
share the work out evenly" at 5%.
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "were not sure had the
correct answer", " could not solve problem myself ' and " needed help ftom other members" at I%
but has a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" and "prefer solving probelm
myseýf' at 5%.
(5) 1 learned nothing from the problem: it has a positive association with "were not sure had the
correct answer" (I%) but has a negative associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (5%).
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a negative association with "were
not sure had the correct answer" (5%).
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a negative association with "worked well together"
and "needed helpfrom other members" at I %, "could not solve problem myseý/"(5%).
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful"
(I %), "could not solveproblem myseýf' and "needed helpftom other members" at 5%.
(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has a positive association with "needed help from other
members" (I %) and "could not solveproblem myseýf' (5%).
(11) At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a positive asssociationwith "could
not solve problem myself' and "needed helpftom other members" at 1%.
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself- it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (I %).

17
Unit 14

(1) The problemwasenjoyable:it hasa positiveassociationwith "satisfying" (1%) but has

a negative
associationwith "learnednothing" and"did not sharethe ýt,ork out evenly"at 5%.
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive associationwith "were not sure had the
correct
answer"(I%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problemwas satisfying:it has a positive associationwith "had
enough
previousknowledge"(5%) but hasa negativeassociationwith "learnednothing"(I%).
(4) The problem was completelynew to me: it has a positive associationwith "group discussion
helpful", "could not solveproblemmyseýf'and"neededhelpftom othermembers"at 5%.
(5) 1 learnednothingfrom the problem:it hasa positiveassociationwith "did not sharethe work out
evenly" (1%) but hasa negativeassociationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge"and "group
discussionhelpful" at 1%.
(6) 1had enoughpreviousknowledgeto solvethe problem:it hasa negativeassociationwith "did not
sharethe work out evenly"(I%) and"were not surehad the correctanswer"(5%).
(7) 1 prefer solving problemson my own: it has a positive associationwith "did not sharethe work
out evenly" (1%) but has a negative associationwith "worked well together" and ....group
discussionhelpful" at 1%.
(8) We worked well togetheras a group:it hasa positive associationwith "group discussionhelpful"
(I%) but hasa negativeassociationwith "did not sharethework out evenly"(I%).
(10) 1 found the group discussionhelpful: it has a positive associationwith "neededhelpftom other
members"(5%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself. it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (1%).

Unit 15

The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive association with "satisfying" (1%) and "had enough
previous knowledge" (5%) but has a negative associationwith "new problem" (I%).

(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "could not solve problem myseýr'
(1%) and "needed helpftom other members" (5%) but has a negative assocationwith "were not
sure had the correct answer" (I%).

(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a negative association with "new
problem", (1%), "learned nothing" and "neededhelpftom othermembers" at 5%.

(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "needed help ftom
other members"(5%).

(5) 1 learned nothing from the problem: it has a positive association with "prefer solving problem
myseýC(I%).

(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a negative association with "worked well together"
0%).

(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful"
(1%).

At the end, we were not sure we had the correct answer: it has a negative asssociationwith "needed
helpftom other members" (5%).

(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself. - it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (1%).

18
Unit 16

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive associationwith "satisfying", "worked
well together"
at I%, "had enough previous knowledge... ....group discussion helpful" and "needed help from
other members" at 5% but has a negative associationwith "learned nothing" (1%).
(2) The problem was difficult: it has a positive association with "were not sure had the correct
answer" and "needed help from other members" at I %, "new problem" (5%) but has a negative
associationwith "had enoughprevious knowledge" (5%).
(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a negative association with "learned
nothing" (1%).
(4) The problem was completely new to me: it has a positive association with "could not solve
problem myseýf'and "needed helpfrom other members" at 1% but has a negative associationwith
"had enoughprevious knowledge" (5%).
(6) 1 had enough previous knowledge to solve the problem: it has a positive associationwith "worked
well together" (1%) and "group discussion helpful" (5%) but has a negative association with
"could not solveproblem myseýf' (5%).
(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a negative associationwith "could not solve problem
myseýf'and "needed helpftom other members"at I%.
(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "group discussion helpful"
(I%) and "needed help from other members" (5%) but has a negative association with "did not
share the work out evenly" and "were not sure had the correct answer" at I%.
(9) We did not sharethe work out evenly in our group: it has a negative associationwith "needed help
ftom other members" (5%).
(10) 1 found the group discussion helpful: it has a positive association with "needed help ftom other
members"(I%).
(12) 1 could not have solved the peoblem by myself: it has a positive association with "needed help
ftom other members" (1%).

Unit 18

(1) The problem was enjoyable: it has a positive associationwith "satisfying" (1%)

(2) The problem was difficult: it has a negative association with "had enough previous knowledge",
"prefer solving problem myseýf' and "needed helpfrom other members" at 5%.

(3) 1 found that solving this problem was satisfying: it has a negative association with "were not sure
had the correct answer" and "could not solveproblem myseýf'at 5%.

(7) 1 prefer solving problems on my own: it has a positive association with "needed help ftom other
members"(5%).

(8) We worked well together as a group: it has a positive association with "could not solve problem
myself' (1%) and "group discussion helpful" (5%) but has a negative association with "did not
share the work out evenly" (I%).

(9) We did not share the work out evenly in our group: it has a negative association with "group
discussion helpful" (5%)

19
 Appendix J

Chi-Squared Anlysis Results

 Chi-Squared Analysis Results

Unit I to New Unit I Unit2 Scotishto Taiwan

Chi-Squared df significant Chi-Squared df significant
Ql 5.3 1 - _
Ql 0.0 1
Q2 2.1 1 Q2 24.5 2
Q3 0.1 1 Q3 6.0 1
Q4 1 0.9 1 Q4 14.6 3
Q5 2.0 3 Q5 0.6 1
Q6 1.4 2 Q6 8.7 2
Q7 3.0 3 Q7 0.4 2
Q8 11.2 1 Q8 2.7 1
Q9 2.7 1 Q9 4.4 3
Q10 1 0.3 1 Q10 0.0 1
Qll 2.1 3 Qll 10.3 3
Q12 3.01 31 Q12 3.913
Q13 1.31 31 Q13 13.313 1**

Unit 5 to New Unit 5 Unit 8 to New Unit 8

Chi-Squared df significant Chi-Squared df si ificant
Ql 16.7 1 Ql 7.3 1
Q2 1.3 1 Q2 1.1 1
Q3 9.5 1 Q3 2.4 2
Q4 1 7.7 1 Q4 4.2 1
Q5 0.5 1 Q5 1.1 3
Q6 0.4 1 Q6 4.0 2
Q7 0.9 1 Q7 1.2 1
Q8 2.9 1 Q8 0.0 1
Q9 6.2 2 Q9 0.2 1
Q10 3.9 1 Q10 2.6 1
Qll 9.2 1 Qll 0.6 2
Q12 0.41 11 Q12 1 0.41 3
Q 13 0.51 11 Q13 1 0.51 2

Unit 9 to New Unit 9 df 0.05 0.01

Chi-Squared df significant 1 3.84 6.63
Ql 15.4 2 2 5.99 9.21
Q2 0.2 1 3 7.81 11.34
Q3 5.9 2 4-1 7.49 1 13.281
Q4 2.1 1
Q5 0.2 1
Q6 1.1 1
Q7 1.5 1
Q8 0.1 1
Q9 2.0 1
Q10 1.1 1
Qll 1.1 1
IQ12 1 0.01 1
IQ13 1 0.11 11

iI
 Appendix K

Tape Transcripts
 Unit 2 Which is the Best Fuel Tape (No. 1) 7 Oct 99

B: Take coal first. (Slightly)

A: So part I C plus 0 to CH2. BecauseC02 for CH2, no, wouldn't It? H2 wouldn't it? No,
....
wouldn't be such C02.
B: No, I am burning a fuel over 0.
A: That's only for hydrocarbon,.... just C02.
B: C02?
B: No, wait
......
C: Besides, what hydrogen coming that?
A: I know, if you can't get through..... Part 2, another 2, so C eleven is still
.......
C: That will give you things.
A: H 24,24 plus 02 gives you H20 and C02.
B: Wait, how do you do that?
C: That's becauseyou
......
A: 24 that's 12 hydrogens, so that's 12,22..
B: Did the dot mark special
........
A: It 36 oxygens here.
B: Let me see,let me see....
A: It's eighteen.
C: eighteen?
A: Yeh, let us do part B, gas c.
A: Give 3 over 2 which is
............
C: C02 plus H20. that's twenty.
---,
(B made noise )
....
A: That's 5 over 2. (C: Calm down here, calm down)
How could the formula that's fine. So C is 12.
.............
A: Ok, for the first one, C is 12, the formula massesof the fuels is no, here part 2
...
B: Calculate formula massesof coal?
A: Becausetwelve times one, equals 12, now ok so the next one is oil.
B: You need a calculator?
C: No, but wait, twelve times II is 122 plus twenty-four is hundred forty six.
C: Hundred forty six?
A: We don't, we don't, twenty four that's six you write...
........
C: No, we have to do it like this, we have to be the best. was that twelve times II plus..?
A: Twenty-four times one, equals 146 grams. Ok, gas, CH4, that would be twelve sixteen
.......
(Calculation,... reading )
...
A: Assume that the energy releasedis related to
....
B: Why don't you stop that what are you doing? becausethe energy is from....
C: I need the calculation of it.
B: We doesn't need a scrap piece of paper to do the calculations, what are you doing?
C: We are reading.
A: Part B,...
C: That's oks, oil, oil, you just put down oil, because.......... each one by thousand........ one kilo
zeros equals....... one thousand grams, this has got the most grams so obviously it is going to be
oil.
A: Yeh, oil will give the most as it has the most products....... that's basedon the number of
molecules.
C: Oil is the most to that, how many molecules has to be right. Weigh molecule.
...
1
C: Six point 02...
A: Ok, oil is oil will... oil gives it the greatestof energy.
...
B: Per kilogram, write per kilogram, is it?
C: Per kilogram.
A: We should look further working.
C: Yeh, not up here.
A: Ok, back to them. Oil gives...., as oil it gives the more guess I think so.
..........
C: You are told to assumethat..... (reading)
A: Have you read it yet, part 1, what do you think?
B: I would say it was or why? Just go up?
............
C: Is hydrogen bonding giving the meaning?
.....,
A: Yeh, assume,as probably it might a hydrocarbon such as the structure for the bonding.
C: Hydrocarbon molecular bonding begin to that...
...........
A: I remembered my sister's exercise, there was a question, it wasn't sure a good
...................
answer that the burning fuel aren't basedon the number of molecules, is basedon structure and
certain hidden factors, so must be the samefor this.
C: Just write it down.
A: It's mostly grams yes, put down
........
A: It isn't, as...., it's a fair assumption. Taking into account other factors, structural bonding and
then this is finished. Alright there is two sheets.
C: We are on the secondsheet,aren't we?
A: No, becauseof..... bonding structure and intermolecular forces.
C: But that's just bonding, intermolecular forces into bonding, we'll just put it down.
A: Just put it down. Ok, that's us, I'll just tell them.
(Teacher came and checkedthe answer:
I am not sure about you got the sameanswer as oil, everything else you've got is
right .............. if you could give a little how you got the answer, that will helpful. )
..........
(Pupils checked the answers)
A: write down about the answer, oil isn't the answer.
........
C: It's becausecontains most carbon and hydrogen.
C: Atoms, molecular, therefore more energy gives out, each atom bums.
A: Oil is not the answer
....
A: Then you can pick one it's becausesmaller molecular seemsgive the idea, so you got
..............
more to bum, more products.
C: Gas can't be a possible answer?
B: isn't the coal over?
...
A: No, I did remember that a system would happen.................
C: You read a book? You don't take that?
C: that's becausegot most number of (B: molecules and atoms, pair of molecules ) and
.... ...
therefore more energy released.....
C: Take into account, gathering the right... coal as one, gathering the gas as one...
C: Gas can't be a possibility, becausegas ........ and then you bum gas...
A: it gives a quick about ... 2.... and soluble and gas, then the solvent gives-..
... formed,
A: I would say that, because the number of molecules.. must be there are more moles
formed
A: There are moles of the products, therefore more energy released.....
B: There are more moles in the balanced equation.
A: I think it is gas.

K2
 Unit 6 Heat Packs for Mountaineers Tape (No. 2) 7 Nov 993

B: The heat pack produces its heat by meansof a chemical

reaction. Look very very carefully. How
could us discuss?
C: They all fixed together they all right.
A: We do.
B: Mars, told us what we can pave(. first?
B: where the heat energy comes from? Why it gives the iron powder and carbon powder together?
...
C: How does it work?
B: You mean mix together?
....
C: Every iron reacts together?
B: No, would it is paper do that?
.........
A: Seeyou go that, I think that's might come to reaction, could you
...............................
seize....... starting electricity? (B: a hand?) What charge inside of it and transfer to the pack?
B: Just write about when you together from a chemical reaction..
..................
B: What's the fabric for? What that's for?
C: That's an that heat the end
.................... ........
B: How it works?
A: give the wee rub of it.
......
C: did you understand that what?
B: No
A: Would it do, cold?
B: for to make through including a reacting, so the paper do it.
..............

(Teacher: You are lookingfor somethingproducing the heat energy, aren't you? You are
... ... ... .....
lookingfor the chemical reaction somewhereand that should be componesed(? ). Soyou got iron,
carbon, salt and damp this. Ok, the clue is the main material, these one must be involved in the main
reaction somewhere. Because otherwise we could be so has to be iron reacting with
... ... ... ...... ....
something. Ok, go on talking about that )
... ... .......

C: Write down the damp is iron?

.......... ............
B: Something has bonded to be maybe with or
......... ............... ..................
A: If we go up, then we expected that start the reaction.
........................
(Teacher: But that's done, that's already.)
A: Shakedthat all, mixed that all together.
(T.- Ifyou shaked and rubbed together, that will encourage mixing, you know, mixing bring the
reactants together, so that's helpfulfor the reaction, but it doesn't the reaction ... ... .....
A: How the reaction happen?
(T.- Yougot to work out you know the iron reacting with something, the main interesting
... ... ... ....
is
things that ... ... ... ...whatever the other reactant is, it is one of them... ... .....
A: See,genius, genius the air gas come in .........................
......
(T: You also need to think of the directions, here is a hint,.... thesefour parts, just think of thesefour
parts)
A: Yeh, right, so the air gas .................. andjust about a chemical reaction.
you can speed up the reaction.
........
C: Is the reactant like a-catalyst?
B: That's I said, heat is a catalyst, that's why ...............
(T: "en you open the airtight bag, the in
air gets and starts the reaction, when you shake it, it mixes
together and the moist cellulose acts as a conductor to draw the heat awayftom the
the reactant
K3
 core.)
B: Why is iron powder used as the main material?
A: Becausewe can seeit
.......
B: Shouldn't iron
.................
C: Suggestany other powdered metal that might be used, giving reasonsfor your choice. Suppose
A: Magnesium.
B&C: Why?
A: Just good. Becausereacts with oxygen.
C: It bums your hand.
A: Reacting with oxygen.
C: What is iron's symbol?
B: Fe.
A: you can use manganese(Mn) product or...
......
B: Is cheaper?
C: hold on, why is iron the main material?
...
B: Becauseit's cheap, cheap
....
C: Becauseit is cheap and easy to use.
.......
A: As it is a good reactant with oxygen.
( Noise)
A: You would like me to speak.....right, where to start the reaction. finished, and you used
-that's
the very fine carbon powder as it's
.....................
B: Why it is salt?
A: I don't know
. ..........
B: It is not a wrong answer, you see.
A: It is a main reactant.
( Noise )
....
C: All right, go for another element
.........
A: Right, next Manganesecould be, becauseit has near similar property.
.....................
C: Manganeseis also another metal...
A: That has similar chemical properties to iron therefore,... It can be used as a substitute for iron,
symbol is Fe.