Module 2: Physiological processes affecting crop

production

JADE R. PAPONG, MsC.

Faculty, Agricultural Science Department
College of Agriculture, Fisheries and Natural Resources
University of Eastern Philippines
University Town, Catarman, Northern Samar
Learning Summary

This lesson deals with the different physiological processes that affect crop
growth and development and ultimately yield. These include photosynthesis,
respiration, transpiration, and translocation processes as affected by various
factors, including plant nutrition.

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. enumerate and discuss various physiological processes that affect crop

growth and development; and;
2. determine various factors that influence the processes, including mineral
nutrition.

How plant nutrition influences the different

physiological processes of the crop?

Crop Growth and Development

Regardless of the management practices and agricultural inputs applied,

crops undergo several processes to grow and develop and eventually produce
yield. While growth is defined as the irreversible increase in cell size and number
through cell division and enlargement (Figure 1), development (Figure 2) refers to a
change but not always towards a higher or more complex state. Development could
either be gradual or abrupt, which involves two processes, such as growth and
differentiation. It leads to dry matter production, of which dry weight accumulation is
an essential parameter in characterizing growth, which is of most significant
economic importance. Growth Crop growth may differ because of phytohormones'
action in regulating the process. These growth hormones include auxin, gibberellins,
cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid.
 Figure 1. A manifestation of how growth is achieved

Figure 2. Example of differentiation

Physiological Processes Affecting Crop Production

Mineral nutrition plays a vital role in plants' different physiological processes,

affecting plant growth and development. Essential elements regulate the behavior of
chemical compounds. For example, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen serve as all
organic molecules' main structural framework. N is for proteins and part of the
porphyrin ring of chlorophyll pigment together with Mg. (Fig. 3). Essential elements
may also serve as an activator of enzymes/catalyst of biochemical reactions. P is
part of nucleic acids and chemical energy, while K is involved in the stomatal
movement
 Figure 3. The porphyrin ring of a chlorophyll pigment

Likewise, Mg and Zn serve as metal activator and cofactor of many enzymes. It is for
decarboxylases, oxidases, and superdismutases that help speed up physiological
processes like photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis versus Respiration

Crop yields cannot be explained solely by the differences in physical and

biological factors surrounding the crop, but how well the various physiological
processes are working within the crop. Photosynthesis is the starting point of all
biosynthesis. It is the process by which green plants produce their own food. It is
considered the cornerstone of crop production because it dramatically influences
crop yields. The process provides our energy source as we get them from foods,
aside from feeds, fiber, shelter, and biofuels. It is also the source of the oxygen that
we breathe. Thus the process keeps our lives going. It also helps in reducing
pollutants from the air. On the other hand, respiration is the breakdown of
photosynthetic products to produce energy, needed to run other physiological
processes. Metabolism for producing end-products like carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
and other forms essential to man directly impacts yields and quality (Lantican 2001).

Photosynthesis is a process that uses the energy from solar radiation to

manufacture carbohydrates (CHO) from water and carbon dioxide, as shown in this
chemical reaction.
light
Equation: CO2 + 12 H2O------> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
chlorophyll
It is endothermic, which means that it requires energy for the completion of the
process. Glucose (C6H12O6) is used and converted to other more complex
compounds such as proteins, lipids, cellulose, vitamins, organic compounds, lignin,
and other sugars.

The main organ of photosynthesis is the leaves because of the following:

- A large, flat external surface - allows maximum light interception per unit
volume and minimizes the distance CO2 must travel from the leaf surface to
chloroplast, a distance of around 0.l mm for most crop leaves.
 - Many stomata per unit area (about 12- 281) - allows maximum CO2 diffusion into
the leaf when stomates are open.
- Intensive internal surface and interconnecting air spaces - there are many
mesophyll cells in the leaves. This condition increases the total internal surface area
to allow CO2 to have more contact with the cell wall; hence, rapid CO2 diffusion.
- Abundance of chloroplast in each cell - most mesophyll cells contain many
chloroplasts (20 - 100/cell) where the light reaction of photosynthesis takes place.
- Close relationship between the vascular and photosynthetic cells - allows rapid
movement of water and minerals.

The Photosynthetic Active Radiation

Plants use the visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig 4) to drive
photosynthesis. This small spectrum of light is known as the Photosynthetic Active
Radiation (PAR). PAR is captured and absorbed by chlorophyll and other leaf
pigments such as carotenoids and xanthophyll.

Phot

synth

esis

Proc

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The
photos
ynthes
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proces
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Figure 4. The photosynthetic active radiation in the electromagnetic
be
spectrum (Campostrini, E. )

summarized in 3 major processes, namely;

a) Diffusion - It is the transport of CO2 from the atmosphere towards the reaction
center in the chloroplasts. The rate of CO2 diffusion depends on the CO 2
concentration, temperature, and the resistance to the diffusion pathway.
b) Photochemical process – This results in converting light energy into chemical
energy used to reduce CO2 to CHO. The reaction is strongly affected by light; hence,
called LIGHT REACTION. Production of chemical energy is achieved through cyclic
and non-cyclic photophosphorylation (Fig. 5).
c) Biochemical process - The chemical energy produced (ATP and NADPH 2) from
the light reaction reduces CO2 to CHO. This reaction is strongly affected by
temperature and can be performed without light, known as DARK REACTION.
 Figure 5. The cyclic (A) and non-cyclic (B) photophosphorylation

The Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fixation Pathways

There are three pathways of CO2 fixation in the biochemical process of

photosynthesis, which include the following:
- C3 Pathway or Calvin-Benson pathway (Fig. 6)
- C4 Pathway or Hatch and Slack pathway (Fig. 7)
- CAM Pathway or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (Fig 8)

Figure 6. The Calvin cycle or the C3 pathway of photosynthesis

 Figure 7. The Hatch and Slack or C4 pathway of
photosynthesis

While the C4 pathway has two fixation pathways separated in space, the
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism or CAM pathway also has two fixation pathways but
is separated in time (Fig. 21). Crops such as pineapple, orchids, cactus, and arid
crops open their stomates only at night when CO 2 fixation is feasible. The product
( malic acid) is stored in the vacuole, and during the day, it is fixed following the
Calvin cycle.

Figure 8. The Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) pathway of photosynthesis

 These pathways vary in characteristics, as shown in the Table below:

Table 1. Comparison of the three (3) pathways of photosynthesis

C3 Pathway C4 Pathway CAM Pathway

Lack of Kranz- Show Kranz-type Same as C3
type anatomy anatomy
Initial CO2 acceptor is Initial CO2 acceptor CO2 acceptor is PEP
RUBP is PEP in the dark and
RUBP in the light
Initial CO2 product is Initial CO2 fixation CO2 fixation product
3 phosphoglycerate product is Oxaloacetate is oxaloacetate in
the dark and G3P in
the light
Only one Two CO2 fixation Two CO2 fixation
fixation pathways separated pathways separated
pathway in space. in time.
High CO2 Low CO2 Same as C4
compensation point compensation point
Open stomates by day Open stomates by day Open stomates by
night

The Respiration Process

Respiration is an enzyme-mediated process in living organisms whereby food is
broken down into CO2 and H2O with the release of energy. It provides or serves as a
source of energy to drive various metabolic reactions in the cells. e.g. for cell
enlargement; cell division which, leads to growth and development. It helps build
blocks for many other cell molecules by providing a carbon skeleton to synthesize
other compounds. The chemical reaction of respiration is as follows:
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ------------->6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Processes of Respiration
Respiration involves two processes as shown in Figure 9.
1) Glycolysis - refers to anaerobic series of reactions known as the EMBDEN -
MYERHOFF - PARNASS PATHWAY (EMP), which takes place in the cytoplasm
where hexose sugars (glucose) are cleaved and oxidized to three (3) carbon
organic acid, the pyruvic acid.
Equation: C6 H12 O6------> - 2C3 H4O3 + 4H
Hexose Pyruvate
* It simply means that one molecule of glucose is converted to 2 molecules of pyruvic
acid.
Steps in Glycolysis Process
a) The preparation of sugar through the addition of phosphorus is
known as PHOSPHORYLATION.
b) Splitting of sugar molecules into two (2) fragments is referred to as
SUGAR CLEAVAGE.
c) Oxidation of the fragments to form an intermediate respiration
product is known as the PYRUVIC ACID FORMATION.

2) Kreb’s Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle or the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle. is shown in Fig. 10
It occurs in the mitochondria. The net result of this cycle is the breaking down
of pyruvic acid into CO2 and H2O. The two (2) molecules of pyruvate resulting from
glycolysis of a molecule of hexose sugars undergo a series of reactions that convert
them into a derivative of acetic acid - the acetyl Co-A, which they enter into the Kreb
Cycle.

Figure 9. The respiration process

Figure 10. The glycolysis and Kreb cycle in the respiration process
The Transpiration versus Evapotranspiration Process
Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from the aerial parts of the plants (Fig. 11).
Evapotranspiration is the total loss of water from both soil evaporation and plant
transpiration. Every corn and sunflower can transpire from two to five (2-5) liters
of water per day, while trees can transpire more than 200 liters per day.
Transpiration has several functions: cooling mechanism of the plant, movement
of nutrients within the plant, and uptake of nutrients from the soil to the plant.
A growing herbaceous plant comprises 70-90% water, depending on age,
species, and the environment where the crop is grown. Water is very vital to plants
because of its numerous functions such as solvent and medium for chemical
reactions, carriers of organic and inorganic solute maintain the turgor pressure to
plant cells, heat regulator and stabilizer as well as raw material for photosynthesis

Figure 11. The transpiration process

Types of Transpiration:
1) Lenticular - loss of water vapor through the lenticels. Percentage
loss is about 0.1%, which is also manifested in fruits.
2) Cuticular - loss of water vapor through the cuticle or cutins at about ~3-10%.
3) Stomatal – comprised 90% of loss of water vapor through the stomates

Conditions That Drive Transpiration:

- Water/Vapor Potential Gradient - This is the difference in vapor pressure
or water potential between the leaf's internal spaces and the atmosphere.
 - Adhesion and Cohesion Theory - Water molecules adhere to the xylem
walls, and hydrogen bonds that tie the hydrogen and oxygen keep the
molecules together.
- Presence of Stomata - Stomata is derived from the Greek term "stoma," which
means mouth. More stomata are present on a leaf's underside, protected from
direct exposure to sunlight. Corn plants, for example, have 10,000 stomates per
square centimeter on the lower leaf surface and 5,000 on the upper leaf surface.
The lower temperature on the underside of the leaf would lead to less
transpiration.

The Translocation Process

Translocation in the plants involves the absorption and transport of raw materials
for photosynthesis (Figure 12). It allows the transfer of photosynthetic products to
storage and consumption areas.

Figure 12. The translocation process

Mechanisms of Translocation

1. Cytoplasmic streaming/Passive transport - the movement of assimilates is driven

by diffusion from cell to cell according to concentration gradient (source to sink).
Also, the cytoplasm within the cell must stream.
Active transport - solutes are moved across a membrane against the
concentration gradient by a proton pump.
3. Bulk or Mass Flow - The said transpiration stream is the upward movement of
solution from the roots through the xylem to the uppermost leaves. The movement is
driven by vapor and water potential gradient
 3. Osmotic gradient- Concentration of solutes from the source (leaves) maintains a
high osmotic gradient potential. This condition causes the solutes' movement via
symplast and apoplast to the sink cells of low osmotic potential.

Factors Affecting Translocation

Water availability – since solutes are moved together with water.

Turgidity of plants – this is very important, especially for cytoplasmic streaming, so
the movement of solutes is facilitated.
Proximity of the sink from the source- the nearer is the area of storage from the
source or leaves, the easier is the transfer of photosynthates.
Developmental stage- while shoots and roots apices are the major sinks during
vegetative growth, fruits and seeds generally become the sink during the
reproductive stage.
Transport into sink tissues may require metabolic energy as required in active type
of transport.

Adaptation to Environment

Plants are stationary and so cannot escape environmental stress, they must be capable
of adaptation. The effects of environment on plant growth can be divided into:

a. forced damaged effect - controlled by environment

b. adapted responses - controlled by the plant

1. Damage is manifested as:

a. actual injury (death of all or parts of the plant) or
b. merely as reduced in growth rate due to physiological malfunction. Examples:
extremes temperature, excess or limited moisture, ions and others.

Resistance is conferred by molecular, anatomical or morphological structure,

being responsible for all major differences in plant distribution.

2. Adaptive responses - these refers the control on the constitutive damage resistance.
These involve a shift of the range over which resistance occurs, which may be
reversible (physiological) or irreversible (morphological). Levitt (1972) used elastic
strains (reversible) and plastic strains (irreversible) as response of the plant to
environmental stress. Both responses are adaptive and both require phenotypic
flexibility.

What does it mean when we say plants will give it potential yield when grown under
favorable conditions?

1. Changes in the amount of enzymes such as nitrate reductase of shaded plant is

an example of phenotypic elasticity (induced reversible physiological response).

2. Behavioral responses such as the closing and opening of flower and compound
leaves are example of phenotypic plasticity.

Each plant is capable of a range of responses to environmental fluctuations. Plants

response have molecular basis and could be classified whether the molecules directly
provide the adaptation, or by creating structures or behaviour pattern that are adaptive.
Classification of Response Types

1. Adaptation explicable in molecular term

a. Changes in molecular structure:

1. To resist denaturation if molecule would not survive stress, e.g., reduction in
the number of SH groups in protein of cold-hardened plants.
2. To improve operation, i.e., molecules would operate sub-optimally in changed
condition and changes in affinity of uptake system of nutrient-stressed plants.

b. Changes in amounts of molecules

1. To adjust capacity if insufficient or excess molecules should otherwise present,
e.g., differences in ribulose di-phosphate carboxylase activity in shaded and
unshaded leaves.
2. To protect metabolic system from injury, e.g., osmotic balance by amino acid
synthesis in halophytes or toxic chelation.
c. Changes in functional types of molecules
1. To operate alternative pathways - i.e. one set of molecules not appropriate for
changed condition, but no synthesis required - e.g. a switch of anaerobic
respiratory pathways on flood-tolerant species.
2. Adaptation requiring explanation in morphological or behavioral terms
a. Adjustments to temporal changes in the environment
1. immediate reactions - i.e. behavioral responses such as leaf and stomatal
movement.
2. long-term reactions - seasonal differences in growth form, including dormancy,
juvenile and nature leaves
b. Adjustments to spatial changes in the environment
1. qualitative responses - different structure produced, such as sun and shade
leave s; aerenchyma in flooded plants.

2. quantitative responses - changes in resource allocation such as morphological

reaction to density and shading or to nutrient stress.

Research the different factors affecting photosynthesis and respiration processes

and support your discussion with at least two (2) downloaded journal articles.

1. Based on the above activity and articles you have read, what lessons or
realizations have you made, especially in managing crop production?
2. Although respiration is necessary for the photosynthesis process to proceed,
why does the former need to be regulated? Discuss a management practice that
will maximize photosynthesis and reduce respiration.
3. Give the functions/role of the different phytohormones in regulating crop
growth and development.
Pessarakli, M. 2014. Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology. 3rd
Edition. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. 1018.
http://plantphys.info/plant_physiology/translocation.shtml
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Transpiration.html
Taiz, L. and Zaiger, 2006. Plant Physiology 4th edition. Sinauer
Associates, Inc. Publishers, Sunderland, Massachussets.764pp.
Weil, R.R. and N.C. Brady. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 15th Edition,
Global Edition. Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, England.
1105pp.
Willey, N. 2016. Environmental Plant Physiology. Garland Science, Taylor and
Francis Group, LLC. New York and London. 401pp.

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