Mental Ability

FOUNDATION SERIES
FOR
JEE/NEET
NTSE / OLYMPIAD
 CONTENT
PHYSICS
S.N. TOPIC Page No.

1. ELECTRICITY
Theory 1 – 27
Exercise I 28–33
Exercise II 34–53
Exercise III 54–63
Answer Key 64–65

CHEMISTRY
1. CHEMICALREACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Theory 66 – 100
Exercise I 101 – 106
Exercise II 107 – 117
Exercise III 117 – 122
Answer Key 123

BIOLOGY

1. LIFE PROCESS
Theory 125 – 186
Exercise I 187 – 196
Exercise II 197 – 202
Exercise III 202 – 204
Answer Key 205

MATHS

1. REAL NUMBERS
Theory 206 – 232
Exercise I 233 – 234
Exercise II 235 – 237
Exercise III 238 – 241
Answer Key 242

MENTAL ABILITY

1. NUMBER SERIES
Theory 243 – 245
Exercise I 246
Exercise II 247 – 252
Answer Key 253

SOCIAL STUDY
1. POWER SHARING
Theory 254– 262
Exercise I 263
Exercise II 264 – 267
Exercise III 268 – 271
Exercise IV 272
Answer Key 273 – 274
PHYSICS
CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

1 ELECTRICITY
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
THEORY

CONCEPT TREE :

Electric field
Charge
Electric potential and potential diagram

Electric circuits and circuit diagrams

Electricity Ohm's law

Resistance

Heating effects of Electric current

Electric Power

1.1 INTRODUCTION :
Electricity has great importance in the modern society. The modern devices in our day to day life
require electricity for their operation. The most clean and convenient form of energy in our day to day
life is electricity.

1.2 CHARGE :
Charge is defined as the property of matter. When a charge is at rest, it produces electric field only, but
when in motion, it also produces magnetic field. Charge can be positive or negative. The smallest stable
possible charge is the charge on an electron.
Properties of Electric Charge :
1. Electric charge is of two types viz., positive and negative charge. Proton is said to be charged
positively and electron is said to be charged negatively. The magnitude of elementary positive
or negative charge is same and is equal to 1.6 × 10–19 C.
2. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. Thus a proton repels a proton and
attracts an electron.
3. The force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is given by Coulomb’s law.
4. Charge is conserved : Charge can neither be created no be destroyed. The charge from
one body can be transferred to another body but the total charge of a system remains constant.
This is called the law of conservation of charge.
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5. Charge is quantized : Protons and electrons are elementary charged particles. Though the
charge on them is opposite in nature, the magnitude of charge possessed by them is same i.e.,
1.6 × 10–19 C. Charge on a body is always an integral multiple of this value. This is called
quantization of charge.
The charge exists in fixed packets i.e. when a body is charged the charge on it is an integral
multiple of the charge on an electron.
q   ne
Reason for quantisation :
Since, electrons are indivisible, thus, only integral number of electrons can be transferred
from one body to another, on rubbing. Hence, the charge bodies will have charges which are
integral multiples of the charge on electron.
6. When a body gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged. When it loses electrons it becomes
positively charged. The positive charge being bound firmly in the nucleus does not participate
in charging.
7. Charge is invariant
8. Charge resides on the outer surface of the conductor. In insulators it remains where it is
placed.
9. The electric charge is additive in nature.
10. Charge cannot exist without mass but mass can exist without charge.
11. Charge is scalar quantity and the SI unit of charge is coulomb, denoted by (C).
2e e
Note : The smallest possible charge is the charge on a quark i.e. and , but it is unstable in nature.
3 3

Mass of an electron = 9.1 × 10–31 Kg.

A body having a charge of +1C has an electron deficit of 6.25 × 1018 electrons.

The study of electricity is classified into two parts.

1. Static electricity : It deals with electric charges at rest and their effects.
2. Current electricity : It deals with charges in motion and their effects.

S.No. Positive Charge Negative Charge

1. Glass Rod Silk
2. Woolen cloth or fur Ebonite, Amber, Rubber
3. Woolen cloth Plastic
4. Dry hair Plastic Comb
This chapter deals with charges in motion i.e., current electricity.

1.3 ELECTRIC FIELD

The region of influence around a charge is called the region of electric field.
Interaction of electric field between two charged particles :

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Two charged particles always interact with each other due to their electric field. There may be force of
repulsion or attraction between two charged particles.
This force of attraction exists between unlike charges and force of repulsion exist between like charges.
The force between two point charges q1 and q2 separated by distance ‘r’ is given by Coulomb’s law.
Coulomb’s law :
In 1785, Coulomb gave two laws for the force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically
charged bodies separated from each other by a definite distance. The laws are stated as follows
(i) ''The force of attraction or repulsion between two electric charges is directly proportional
to the product of two charges.''
(ii) ''The force of attraction or repulsion between two electric charges is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. This is known as inverse square law.''
F  q 1 q2
1

r2
q1q2 q1 q2
F
r2 r

q1q 2
Fk
r2
where K is proportionality constant (or Electrostatic Force constant or Coulomb's constant ). Its
value depends upon the medium between charges and units used for charge, distance and force.
1 Nm 2
The value of K =  9  109 2
4o C
The constant o is called the permittivity of free space. Its value is 8.9 × 10–12 C2/N-m2.
1 q1q2
 F ·
40 r 2
Force is a vector quantity.
 kq q   kq q 
 r
Vector Form of coulomb's law F  12 2 r̂ ; r  F  1 32 r
r |r| |r|

Intensity of electric field (E) :
The intensity of electric field at a point in the electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit
positive charge placed at that point

 F
E where q0 = 1
q 0

q 1
FK
r2
F q 1
In terms of magnitude, E = = K 2 where K =
1 r 40
Electric field is vector quantity and SI unit of electric field is N/C
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1.4 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE :

B
. F
.q0
A
q0E


If a positive test charge q0 is placed at a point A in an uniform electric field (see figure), a force q 0 E will
act on this charge along the direction of electric field. Now if test charge q0 is displaced from A to B, by

applying a force F = q 0 E in opposite direction to electric field intensity, then we have to do some work.
Let this work be WAB.
In this way, work done in carrying a unit positive charge from point A to B is defined as potential
difference between points B and A. i.e. potential difference between point B and A –

WAB
VB  VA 
q0

The electrons (negative charges) in a conductor or a wire flow from one end to another end of the
conductor if there is electric pressure difference called electric potential difference between the ends of
the conductor.
If point A is considered as a reference point (initial point where potential is zero) at infinity, then–

WB
VB = VB – 0 =
q0

Electric potential at point B is defined by above equation. That is, work done in carrying a unit positive
charge from infinity (V = 0) to the point under consideration in electric field, without change of its kinetic
energy, is called the electric potential of that point.
The S.I. unit for electric potential and potential difference is joule/coulomb, which is also known as
Volt. ''One volt potential at a point means that work done in carrying one coulomb charge from
infinity to this point would be one joule.'' Electric potential and potential difference are scalar quantity.
It is to be noted that ''positive charge always moves from high potential to low potential, similarly
negative charge moves from low potential to high potential.'' From reference point of view, the
electric potential of earth is considered as zero.

Smaller units of electric potential

1 mili volt (mV) = 10–3 V
1 micro volt (V) = 10–6 V
Larger units of electric potential
1 kilovolt (kV) = 103 V
1 megavolt (MV) = 106 V

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The electrons move only if there is a difference of electric pressure (i.e. the potential difference) along
the conductor. This difference of potential may be produced by a battery, consisting of one or more
electric cells.
The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter.
Note : The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential
difference is to be measured.
''A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.''

Concept of Electric Potential Difference A B

To understand the concept of electric potential take a vessel
Valve
consisting of two arms A and B as shown in Figure. The
water level in arm A is higher than the level in arm B, when
valve is closed. We know that pressure exerted by a liquid in
a vessel at the bottom of the vessel is directly proportional to Flow of Water
the height of the liquid in the vessel.
Therefore, pressure exerted by water in arm A is greater than the pressure exerted by water in arm B.
It means that there is pressure difference between the arms A and B. When the valve is opened, the
water flows from arm A to arm B of the vessel due to pressure difference. This flow of water continues
till the water level in both the arms of the vessel becomes equal or there is no pressure difference
between the two arms. This activity shows that the water flows from higher pressure to lower pressure.
In other words, water flow from one region to another region only if there is a pressure difference
between the two regions.

The electric potential difference across the ends of a conductor is maintained by a dry
cell or a battery. The chemical reaction taking place in a cell makes one electrode of
the cell as positive and the other electrode of the cell as negative. When, a conductor
is connected across these electrodes of the cell, then one end of the conductor is at
positive potential and the other end of the conductor is at negative potential. Thus,
there exists an electric potential difference across the ends of the conductor. This
electric potential difference moves the electrons (negative charges) in the conductor
from one end to the other end.

Illustration
Five joule of work is done in moving 12.5 × 1018 electrons from one
end to other end of a conductor. What is the potential difference
between the two ends of conductor ?
Sol. The charge on 6.25 × 1018 electrons is 1 C.
 When 12.5 × 1018 electrons move, the net charge transferred is 2 C.
 Q = 2C.
Work done (W) in moving 2C charge = 5 J. (given)
The potential difference (V) between the ends of conductor is
Work done 5J –1
V= = 2 C = 2.5 J C .
ch arg e
V = 2.5 volts
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Drift Velocity
In a conductor or a wire, negatively charged particles
called electrons have random or zig-zag motion as
show in figure. Therefore, the net flow of electrons
(or net flow of charge) across any cross-section of the conductor is zero. This is because number of
electrons flowing through the given cross-section to the right side is equal to the number of electrons
flowing to the left side through the given cross section.
Hence, there is no electric current in the conductor. However, when the ends of the conductor are
connected across a dry cell, there is a potential difference across the conductor. Now, the electrons
move from one end to another end of the conductor. But the motion of these electrons is not in straight
lines. These electrons collide with the ions of the conductor while moving from one end to another end
of the conductor. As a result of these collision, electrons drift from one end to another end with an
average speed known as drift velocity. The drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is very small.
Typical value of the drift velocity of an electron in a conductor is about 2.22 × 10–4 m s–1. It means,
electrons will take time about 2.5 hours to travel 5 metre long conductor.

Illustration Electric potential at a point in an electric field is 0.5 V when charge of

3C was brought from infinity to that point. Calculate the work done.
Sol. Electric potential (V) = 0.5 volts
Charge (Q) = 3C; Work done (W) = ?
W
V= Q

 W = VQ = 0.5 V × 3 C = 1.5 V C = 1.5 J Ans.

1.5 FLOW OF CHARGE (ELECTRIC CURRENT) :

Electric current is defined as continuous rate of flow of electric charge. Consider flow of charges
through a conductor as shown in figure. If  Q charge flows in t time through the cross section of
ΔQ
conductor under consideration then the current over this time interval is defined as I=
Δt

– Electric current ++ Area cross section

–– –– + +
–– –– + +
– Flow of electrons ++ Lower e– Higher
Lower Higher potential potential
potential potential I

The S. I. unit of current is the ampere symbolically represented as A. Therefore also,

Charge (Q) Q
Current (I) = Time ( t ) =
t

1 m A  103 A, 1 µ A  106 A
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Knowledge Enhancer
In a metallic conductor, when an atom loses one or more electrons, then atom becomes a positive ion,
which remains fixed at one place in the conductor. The electrons detached from an atom become free
and capable of moving from one part to another part of the conductor. The electric current in a metallic
conductor is due to the flow of electrons (i.e., negative charge carriers).
Positive ions Free
which are electrons
fixed at one
A metallic place
conductor

Note : 1 A of current is equivalent to one coulomb of charge passing through conductor in

1 second.
Conventionally, we define the direction of the current in the direction of flow of negative charge.
Whereas, the direction of current is considered opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
An instrument called ammeter measures electric current in a circuit. It is always connected in series
in a circuit.

A conductor or a wire carrying current is neutral. That is, it has net charge on
it equal to zero.

Types of electrical Materials :

(1) Insulators (2) Semiconductors (3) Conductors
Charge flow or conduction of electric current takes place only if free charge carriers are present. Since
protons are bounded and present in the nucleus so the conduction takes place only due to electrons.
(1) Insulators do not conduct electricity because of the absence of free electrons in them, Rubber is
an excellent insulator.
(2) Conductors conduct electricity due to presence of free electrons in them for example wire made
of Cu, Al. are good conductors.
(3) Semiconductors behave as insulators at low temperature whereas they behave as conductors at
high temperatures.

POINTS TO REMEMBER
However, because we tend to associate the word
Conventional flow notation
"positive" with "surplus" and "negative" with
"deficiency." The standard label for electron charge Electric charge
does seem backward. Because of this, many engineers moves from the
+
decide to retain the old concept of electricity with positively (surplus)
I side of the battery
"positive" referring to a surplus of charge and "negative" –
to the negative
referring to a deficiency of charge, and label charge (deficiency) side.
flow (current) accordingly.

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This is know as conventional flow notation.

Electron flow notation
Others chose to designate charge flow according to
the actual motion of electrons in a circuit. This form of Electric (–)ve charge
symbology is known as electron flow notation: moves from the
+
In conventional flow notation, we show the motion of negative (surplus)
I side of the battery
charge according to the (technically incorrect) labels – to the positive
of + and –. In this way or method the labels are kept (deficiency) side.
same, but the direction of charge flow is incorrect. In
electron flow notation, we follow the actual motion of
electrons in the circuit, but the + and – labels are same as before. Does it matter, really, how we
designate charge flow in a circuit ? Not really, so long as we're consistent in the use of our symbols. You
may follow an imagined direction of current (conventional flow) or the actual (electron flow) as far
circuit analysis is concerned.
Conventionally positive charge is at higher potential than negative charge flow always takes place from
higher potential to lower potential. The flow of current takes place from positive charge to negative charge.
The direction of electric current is from negative charge to positive charge i.e. the flow of electrons.
Symbols of some commonly used components in circuit diagrams.
(1) An electric cell
(2) A battery or a combination of cells
(3) Plug key or switch (open)
(4) Plug key or switch (closed)

(5) A wire joint or junction

+ – + G–
(6) Galvanometer G or

(7) Wires crossing without joining

(8) Heater

(9) Electric bulb or

(10) A resistor of resistance R

(11)Tapping key

(12) Variable resistance or rheostat

(13) Ammeter

(14) Voltmeter

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1.6 ELECTRIC RESISTANCE

Electric Circuit :
An electric circuit is a closed conducting path
containing a source of electric energy (i.e., a cell or a V
A  Ammeter
battery) and
V  Voltmeter
a device or element or load utilizing the electric energy. R  Resistor
A
R
For example, an electric bulb or lamp connected with
a cell with the help of connecting wires form simple
connecting + –
electric circuit. In this circuit, a cell is a source of electric wire cell
energy and an electric lamp is the load.

In fact, electric current is a means of transferring electric energy from the source to the load. Thus, "a
closed conducting path containing the source of electric energy and the load through which electric
current flows is known as electric circuit". | | | ||
|
lamp

| ||

|
| | | || |
|
| ||
| | | || |
+
A simple electric circuit is shown in figure. l A
–
+ –

Open and Closed Electric Circuits K

Open electric circuit : An electric circuit through which no electric current flows is known as open
electric circuit.

The electric circuit shown in figure will be open circuit if the plug of the key is taken out or if the
connecting wire breaks from any point.

Closed circuit : An electric circuit through which electric current flows continuously is known as
closed circuit.
(1) Electric Cell : An electric cell is a device which maintains a continuous flow of charge in a circuit.
The Cell changes Chemical energy into electrical energy.
(2) Electro Motive Force (E.M.F.) of a cell : The work done by the cell in forcing unit positive
charge to flow in the whole circuit once, is called the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the cell.

E  
w J
q C
The unit of emf is called ‘volt’(V). If in the flow of 1C of charge in a circuit the energy given by the
cell by 1J, then the emf of the cell is 1V.
(3) Internal Resistance of a cell : When we connect the plates of a cell by a wire, an electric
current flows in the wire from the positive plate of the cell towards the negative plates, and in the
electrolyte (inside the cell) it flows from the negative plate towards the positive plate. The resistance
offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of current (ions) through it is called the ‘internal
Resistance’ of the cell.
(4) Terminal Potential Difference : The potential difference across the terminals of a cell or battery
when the cell is in charging or discharging mode is called terminal potential difference.

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Electrical Resistance :
In a conductor whenever current flow takes place the motion of electrons takes place. During motion
they are opposed to flow and this is known as electrical resistance. The SI unit of electrical resistance
is Ohm denoted by .

Factors which determine the electric resistance of a conductor :

(1) The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length
R l
(2) The resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor
1
R
A
(3) The resistance depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor
(4) Removing the proportionality sign we have
l
R
A
(5)  - Resistivity of the conductor..
Resistivity : The resistance of a unit volume of a substance is known as its resistivity.
Resistivity is also known as specific resistance and its SI unit is ohm m.
(6) Effect of temperature on resistance :
The resistance of conductors increases with increase in temperature. Let the resistance of a
conductor at 0°C be R0.
Let the resistance of the conductor at t° C be Rt.
Then, Rt = R0 (1 + t), where '' is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance.
Pure metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistance. The resistance of metals increases
with an increase in temperature.
Alloys have a very less temperature coefficient of resistance. So the resistance of alloy like Manganin
and Constantan vary very little with an increase in temperature. Because of this property they are
used in making standard resistances.
Semiconductors like germanium, silicon and bad conductors like glass, pure water etc., have negative
temperature coefficient. The resistance of these materials decreases with an increase in temperature.
Reason for variation of resistance with temperature :
Resistance offered by a metallic conductor is due to the collisions between drifting electrons, and the
ions present in the metallic conductor. When the temperature of the conductor increases, the amplitude
of vibration of ions in the lattice increases and hence the collisions between electrons and the ions
become more frequent. Therefore, the opposition to the flow of electrons (constituting the electric
current) increases. In other words, resistance of the metallic conductor increases or decreases with
the increase or decrease of the temperature respectively.
Then, Rt = R0 [1 + (t2 – t1)]
Where,  is the temperature coefficient of the resistance.

(R t  R 0 )
 = R ( t  t )
0 2 1

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Thus, temperature coefficient of resistance () is defined as the change in resistance per unit original
resistance per degree rise in temperature.

ohm
S.I. unit of  is or kelvin–1 or K–1
ohm kelvin
 is positive for metallic conductors i.e. their resistance increases with the rise of temperature
(i.e. Rt > R0).
 is negative for insulators and semi - conductors i.e., their resistance decreases with the rise of
temperature (i.e., Rt < R0).
 is very - very small for high resistivity alloys like manganin (  10–5 °C–1). i.e. their resistance does not
change appreciably with change in temperature. It is for this reason that manganin and constantan are
used in making standard resistance coils.

Illustration :
The length of copper wire is 100 m and its radius is 1 mm. Calculate its resistance if
resistivity of copper is 1.72 × 10–8 m.
Sol. Length of copper wire (l) = 100 m.
Area of cross section (a) = r2 = 3.14 × 10–6 m2
Resistivity () of copper = 1.72 × 10–8  m
Resistance offered by a conductor is given by
l
R= 
A
1.72 108 100
= = 0.55 .
3.14 10 6
In this numerical, length of copper wire is 100 m. If the length is 1000 m i.e., 1 km, the resistance
offered by it would be 5.5  which is very less. Thus copper is a good conductor of electricity.

Illustration :
The resistance of 1 m of nichrome wire is 6 . Calculate its resistance if its length is 70 cm.
Sol. Given
1st case
Length of nichrome wire (l1) = 1 m = 100 cm
Resistance of nichrome wire (R1) = 6
2nd case
l2 = 70 cm
R2 = ?
By 1st law of resistance
R1 l1
R 2 = l2
6 100 cm
R 2 = 70 cm
 R2 = 4.2 .

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Illustration :
Two wires made of German-silver are taken such that the length and area of cross-section of the
second wire are twice and thrice respectively those of the first wire. If the resistance of the second
wire is 12 r, find the resistance of the first wire.
Sol.
1st case Silver is the best conductor
of electricity.
l1 = length of German silver wire;
a1 = area of cross section;
R1 = resistance
l1
R1 =  .....(i)
a1
2nd case
l2 = length of wire = 2l1 a2 = area of cross section of wire = 3a1.
R2 = resistance of wire = 12.
2l
R2 =  a
2

2l1
 12 =  3a .....(ii)
1
dividing (i) by (ii)

R1 pl 3a1 3
= a × (2l ) =  R1 = 18.
12 1 1 2

Knowledge Enhancer
1. The connecting wires in an electric circuit are made of copper and aluminium.The resistivity of pure
metals is very low. So, electric current passes easily through them. Out of metals, silver is the best
conductor of electricity because its resistivity is the lowest among all metals. Thus, connecting wires in
an electric circuit must be made of silver. However, the silver metal is costly as compared to other
metals like aluminium and copper. The resistivity of copper and aluminium are also low and these
metals are cheaper than silver. Therefore, connecting wires are made of copper and aluminium metals.
2. Filament of an electric bulb is made of tungsten metal. Tungsten being a metal has high resistivity.
Moreover, it does not burn (or oxidise) even at higher temperatures. The melting point of tungsten is
very high i.e., about 3380ºC. For these reasons, filament of an electric bulb (incandescent lamp) is
made of tungsten.
3. Heating elements of electrical appliances like electric iron, electric heater, electric toaster, room heater,
immersion rod are made of nichrome (an alloy of nickel, iron, chromium and manganese). Nichrome
is an alloy of metals. The resistivity of nichrome is more than the resistivity of the metals used to make
it. Moreover, nichrome does not burn (or oxidise) even at higher temperature. The melting point of
nichrome is 1500ºC. That is why, heating elements of electrical appliances are made of nichrome i.e.
an alloy.
4. Insulators are used to protect ourselves from the severe shock of electric current.

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1.7 OHM’S LAW :

"When physical conditions (temperature, length, cross section) remains the same, the current
flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends
of a conductor".
i.e. I  V
So we can also write
V  I
V  IR

V
R = Constant, provided length, cross section and temperature of the conductor remains same.
I

Bigger units of resistance.

1 kilo ohm (K) = 103 
1 Mega ohm (M) = 106 

1Volt
 1ohm 
1 Ampere

1 ohm is the resistance of a conductor is defined as when 1V of potential difference is applied across
the conductor and then a current of 1A flows through it.
Exception of Ohm’s law– In general almost all metal conductors obey the Ohm’s law V = IR for
which graph between V and I is a straight line as shown in figure. The conductors (or devices) obeying
the ohm’s law are called ohmic. However, there are some exceptions such as vacuum tube, semiconductor
diode, transistor, liquid electrolytes etc. in which relation V = IR does not hold good. These devices are
called non-ohmic.
Figure (a) shows V – I curve for a bulb. This appears from
the figure that this device do not obey the relation V = IR.

V
(a)

Figure (b) shows V – I curve for a semiconductor device

such as diode or transistor. Again this graph is not fitted in
I
the form of standard Ohm’s law. Hence such devices are
non-ohmic. V

(b)

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Knowledge Enhancer
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance G = 1/R. l
Its SI unit is ohm–1 or mho or siemen(s).
The substances which obey Ohm's law are called Ohmic or linear

conductors. The resistance of such conductors is independent of O V
magnitude and polarity of applied potential difference. Here the graph
between I and V is a straight line passing through the origin. The
reciprocal of slope of straight line gives resistance
V 1
R=  = constant.
I tan 
l
Examples silver, copper, mercury, carbon, mica etc.
The substances which do not obey Ohm's law are called non-ohmic or
non linear conductors. The I – V curve is not a straight line.
i.e. p-n diode, transistor, thermionic valves, rectifiers etc. O V

Choose the correct alternative :

(a) Alloys of metals usually have (greater/less) resistivity than that of their constituent
metals.
(b) Alloys usually have much (lower/higher) temperature coefficients of resistance than
pure metals.
(c) The resistance of graphite and most non-metals increases/decreases with increase in
temperature.
(d) The resistivity of a semiconductor increases/decreases rapidly with increasing
temperature.
(e) The resistivity of the alloy manganin is nearly independent of / increases rapidly with
increases of temperatures.
(f) The resistivity of a typical insulator (e.g, amber) is greater than that of a metal by a
factor of the order of (1022 /1023).

Solution
(a) Alloys of metals usually have greater resistivity than that of their constituent metals.
(b) Alloys usually have much lower temperature coefficients of resistance than pure metals.
(c) The resistance of graphite and most non metals decreases with increase in temperature.
(d) The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases rapidly with increasing temperature.
(e) The resistivity of the alloy manganin is nearly independent of increasing temperature.

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(f) The resistivity of a typical insulator (e.g. amber) is greater than that of a metal by factor of the
order of 1022.

Important terms :
Resistor : A component in an electric circuit which offers resistance (i.e. opposition) to the flow
of electrons constituting electric current is known as a resistor. For example, a metallic wire or a
conductor used in an electric circuit is known as resistor.
Variable resistance : In an electric circuit, sometimes current has to be increased or decreased.
A component used in an electric circuit to change the current without changing the potential difference
across the circuit is called variable resistance.
Rheostat is a device used in an electric circuit to change the resistance and hence current in the
circuit. It means, rheostat acts as a variable resistance of unknown value in the circuit.

1.8 COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES (OR RESISTORS):

Series Combination :
R1 R2 R3
In this combination, the resistances are joined end to end. In
series combination the current across each resistance is same V1 V2 V3
but the potential difference across each R1, R2 and R3 are V1, I
V2 and V3. To replace R1, R2 and R3 by an equivalent resistance
the potential difference across equivalent should be equal to the
sum of the potential difference across the three resistances. E
V1 = IR1
V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3
E = V1 + V2 + V3
IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
R eq  R1  R 2  R 3
Characteristics of series circuit :
(i) Same current is flowing through all the resistances.
(ii) The effective resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. Effective resistance
Reff = R1 + R2 + R3.
(iii) The applied voltage V = V1 + V2 + V3.
(iv) The maximum power is consumed by the resistor having the highest resistance, or the voltage
drop is maximum across the highest resistance.

Disadvantage of a series arrangement of resistors :

(i) Suppose all electric appliances like bulbs and electric tubes are connected in series in a circuit. If
any one of them fuses (i.e., breaks), then all the other appliances will also not work. This is
because series arrangement is not used in domestic electric circuits.
(ii) Different electric appliances like bulbs, electric tubes, electric heaters, toaster etc. have different
resistance and hence they require different amount of electric current for their operations. If they
all are connected in series, they will not operate properly.

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Illustration : Calculate (a) the equivalent resistance, (b) the electric current,
and (c) the potential difference across each resistor in the circuit
shown in figure

10  5 15 

7.5 V 7.5 V
(a) (b)

Sol.
(a) Any current that passes through the resistor of 10 also passes through the resistor of 5. So,
the 10 and 5 resistors are connected in series. Their equivalent resistance is
R = 10 + 5 = 15 
(b) The circuit is equivalent to that shown in figure (b). The current is
V 7.5V
i= = = 0.5 A.
R 15 
This is the current through both the resistors.
(c) The potential difference across the 10  resistor is
V1 = iR1 = (0.5 A) × (10 ) = 5V
The potential difference across the 5 resistor is
V2 = iR2 = (0.5 A) × (5) = 2.5 V.

Parallel Combination :
When two or more resistances are combined in such a way that their first ends are connected to one
point and the second ends to another point then this combination is in parallel. In this combination the
potential difference between the ends of all the resistances is same but the current in different resistances
are different.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 E

V V V
I  
R1 R2 R3
I R1 I
V V V V I1
   R2
Req R1 R2 R3
I2 R3
I3
1 1 1 1
   
R eq R 1 R 2 R 3
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of the resistances connected in parallel is equal to the sum of
the reciprocal of those resistances.

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Advantages of connecting electrical devices in parallel :

1. In a series circuit the current is constant throughout the electric circuit. Thus it is obviously
impracticable to connect an electric bulb and an electric heater in series, because they need
currents of widely different values to operate properly.
2. Another major disadvantage of a series circuit is that when one component fails the circuit is
broken and none of the components works.
3. On the other hand, a parallel circuit divides the current through the electrical gadgets. The total
resistance in a parallel circuit is decreased. This is helpful particularly when each gadget has
different resistance and requires different current to operate properly.

If 'n' number of resistors each of same value connected in parallel, then the
equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of 'n' resistors is given by

R
Req.=
n

Illustration :
Determine the equivalent resistance between points A and B in the following
circuits

Solution

C
6

7
6
1 and 2 in series Req1  4  2  6
A B
10

3
7 1 1 1
6 and 6 in parallel reduces to    3
Req2 6 6
A B
10
10

3 and 7 in series Req3  3  7  10

A B
10

1 1 1
10 and 10 in parallel A B    5
5 Req 10 10

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Q. Given n resistors each of resistance R, how will you combine them to get the (i) maximum
(ii) Minimum effective resistance? What is the ratio of the maximum to minimum resistance?
Solution
(i) For maximum effective resistance, all the resitors should be joined in series.
Rmax = R + R + R + ........ n or Rmax = nR
(ii) For minimum effective resistance all the resistors should be joined in parallel.
1 1 1 1 1 n
=   + ........n or =
R min R R R R min R

R
so, Rmin =
n

R max 2
Now, R min = n .

Try yourself :
1. Determine the value of current in the 2 resistance and the potential difference between A and B in the
circuit diagram given

2. Find the equivalent resistance between the points A and D of the adjoining circuit diagram.

B C
A D
6 6 6

Distribution of Current in Two Resistors in Parallel :

Consider the circuit in Figure. The resistance R1 and R2 are connected in parallel. The current i gets
distributed in the two resistors.
I1 R1
We have i = i1 + i2 .........(i)
A B
Applying Ohm's law to the resistor R1, R2
VA – VB = R1i1. ........(ii) I I2
And applying Ohm's law to the resistor R2,
VA – VB = R2i2. ........(iii)
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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

R1
From (ii) and (iii), R1i1 = R2i2 or i2 = i1 .
R2
Substituting for i2 in (i), we have

1 R 1 R  R1  R 2 R2
i = i1 + R i1 = i1 1  R  = i1 = R2 or i1 
R1  R 2
i
2  2

R1
Similarly, i2  i
R1  R 2

i1 R 2
Thus, 
i 2 R1 .
The current through each branch in a parallel combination of resistors is inversely proportional to its
resistance.

Illustration : Two resistors of resistance 10  and 20  are connected in parallel.

A battery supplies 6 A of current to the combination, as shown in figure. Calculate the
current in each resistor.

10 

20 
6A

Sol. The current in the 10  resistors is

R2 (20 )  (6A )
i1  i =
R1  R 2 (10 )  ( 20 ) = 4A.
The current in the 20  resistor is
R1 (10 )  (6A)
i2  i
R1  R 2 = (10 )  ( 20 ) = 2A.

1.9 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW :

Kirchhoff’s First law or Junction Rule :
In an electric circuit, the ‘algebraic’
sum of the currents meeting at any junction in the circuit is Zero, that is
i  0
I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 – I5=0
I 1 + I2 = I3 + I4 + I5
Kirchhoff’s First law is a statement of the conservation of charge.
Kirchhoff’s second law or Mesh (loop) Rule :

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In any ‘closed’ mesh of a circuit the algebraic sum of the products of the current and the resistance in
each part of the mesh is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf’s in that mesh
E 0
Kirchoff’s second law is simply a statement of the conservation of energy.

Kirchhoff’s second law for mesh 1, we have

– I1R1 + E1 – E2 + I2R2 = 0 (1)
Kirchoff’s second law for mesh 2, we have
– I2R2 + E2 –(I1 + I2)R3 = 0 (2)

Illustration :
Apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage law to the adjoining circuit and obtain two
equations for I1 and I2.

Solution
Mark the current distribution for the circuit.
Apply Kirchoff’s law for the first closed mesh, we have
I1 × 10 + (I1 – I2) × 15 – 3 = 0
25I1 – 15I2 = 3 ..(1)
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law for the second closed mesh,
we have
I2 × 20 + I2 × 50 –(I1 – I2)15 = 0
17I2 – 3I1 = 0 ..(2)
Solving equation (1) and (2), we get
51
I1   0.134 A
380
9
and I2   0.024 A
380

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Relation among Terminal Potential Difference, EMF and Internal Resistance of a cell :
Let I E r
E = Emf of cell I
V = Terminal Potential difference V
I R
r = Internal resistance of cell A

During discharging Mode E r

I
E
V  E  Ir Where, I =
Rr
During charging Mode V
V  E  Ir

1.10 HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT :

When conductor is connected to a source of electricity like cell or batteries, an electric field is developed
across its ends and due to this field the free electrons of the conductor get moving in a definite
direction. During their motion these free electrons experience the resistance due to the collisions with
the ions or atoms already present in that conductor. Therefore, some energy of the electrons gets lost
in this process which appears in the form of heat energy. This effect of electric current is known as
heating effect of electric current. The electric appliances like electric kettle, heater, press etc.
operate their functioning based on the heating effect of electric current.
Conductor
Passing of an electric current of strength ‘i’ through a
conductor of resistance ‘R’ for time-interval t produces a A B

potential difference ‘V’ across its ends then the total charge V
i i
passing
through the conductor in time-interval t will be +

q = Strength of Current × time-interval or q = i × t
In this process the work done in carrying q coulomb of charge from one end to the other at potential
difference V will be
W = q.V or W = (i × t) × V = i × t × (i × R) = i2 × R t
If this entire work is converted into heat then heat produced is;
W Vi  t
H= =
J J
Here J is a conversion constant and known as the Mechanical equivalent of heat. Its value is
4.18 joule/calorie (1 cal = 4.18 J)
Hence the heat produced due to flow of current through a conductor.
Vi .  t
H= = 0.239 Vi . t = 0.239 i2 Rt (in calorie)
4.18

The production of heat in a conductor due to flow of electric current through

it is called heating effect of electric current.

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1.11 JOULE’S LAW :

These are as follows :–
(i) The amount of heat (H) produced in a conductor in a definite time interval t is directly proportional
to the square of the strength of current passing through it.
Hence H  I2
It is also known as law of current.
(ii) If the current of definite strength i passes through a conductor of resistance R for a definite time
interval  t then the amount of heat (H) produced in the conductor is directly proportional to its
resistance R.
Hence H R
It is also known as the law of resistance.
(iii) If the current of definite strength i passes through a conductor of resistance R then the amount of
heat (H) produced in the conductor is directly proportional to the time interval t for which the
current flows in it.
Hence H  t
It is also known as the law of time.
Therefore the amount of heat produced (H) when a current of strength i passes through a conductor
of resistance R for a time interval t is given by
H  I2 R  t
H = I2Rt Joule

1
or H  I 2 Rt  0.239I 2 Rt calorie
J

This equation is a mathematical expression of Joule’s law.

Specimen Numerical :– An electric heater of resistance 500 ohm is connected to a main supply for
30 minutes. If 5 A current flows through the filament of the heater, calculate the heat energy produced
in the heater.
Solution : Here, I = 5 A; R = 500 ohm
t = 30 minute = 30 × 60 s = 1800 s.
Using, H = I2Rt, we get
H = (5)2 × 500 × 1800 = 22500000 J = 2.25 × 107 J
Thus, heat energy produced = 2.25 × 107 J

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1.12 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

1. Electric heater, electric iron and water heater etc. work on the heating effect of current.
When electric appliances like electric heater, electric iron and water heater etc. are connected to
the main supply of electricity, these appliances become hot but the connecting wires remain cold.
The element of electric heater is made of nichrome. Nichrome has high value of resistivity and
hence high resistance. We know, heat produced is directly proportional to the resistance of the
material through which current flows. Since, resistance of nichrome is high, so a large amount of
heat is produced in the element of the electric heater. Thus, filament of electric heater becomes
red hot. On the other hand, connecting wires are made of copper or aluminium is very small, so a
very small heat is produced in the connecting wires made of copper or aluminium.
2. Electric bulb glows when electric current flows through the filament of the bulb.
Filament of an electric bulb is made of a thin wire of tungsten. The melting point of filament is high
i.e., about 3380ºC. The filament of the bulb is enclosed in a glass envelope fixed over an insulated
support. The glass envelope of electric bulb is filled with inactive gases like nitrogen and argon.
Since resistance of thin filament is very high, so a large heat is produced as the electric current
flows through the filament of the bulb becomes white hot. Hence, the filament of the bulb emits
light and heat.
3. Electric fuse in the electric circuit melts when large current flows in the circuit.
Electric fuse is a safety device connected in series with the electric circuit. Electric fuse is a wire made
of a material whose melting point is very low. Examples of the materials for making fuse wire are
copper or tin-lead alloy. When large current flows through a circuit and hence through a fuse wire, a
large amount of heat is produced. Due to this large amount of heat, the fuse wire melts and the circuit
is broken so that current stops flowing in the circuit. This saves the electric circuit fromburning.

Electric fuses used in electrical circuits are rated as 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A etc.
When we say, electric fuse is rated as 1A, it means the maximum current that
can flow through the fuse wire without melting it is 1A. If an electric current flows
through the electric circuit is more than 1A, then the fuse rated as 1A will melt
and the circuit breaks. For such electric circuit, fuse rated as 2A is used.

1.13 ELECTRIC POWER :

The rate of doing work, in an electric device due to flow of current in it, is defined as the power of that
electric device.
If, in a circuit with an electric source, the potential difference V is developed across the two ends of
a conductor of resistance R as current of strength i passes through it for a time-interval t then work
done in carrying a charge q through a potential difference V in the circuit will be–
W = q × V = i × t × V
So the rate of work done, i.e., Power of the electric device (P);
W iΔ tV
P= = =i×V
Δt Δt
V2
or P=V×i= = i2 R
R

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P = VI, when either V or I or both V and I change.

P = I2R is applied when current I is constant in the electric circuit.
V2
P= is applied when potential difference is constant in the electric circuit.
R
1 VA = 1 W
1 kVA = 103 W
1 h.p. = 746 W
* Equivalent power in series and parallel combination.
• In series combination P1,V1 P2,V2 P3,V3
1 1 1 1
=   i
Peq P1 P2 P3
V

i1 P1
• In parallel combination
Peq = P1 + P2 + P3 i2 P2
i3 P3
i

V
The S.I. unit of electric power is watt. Therefore in an electric circuit if 1 ampere current flows for a
time-interval of 1 second through a potential difference of 1 Volt then the power of the electric device
is termed as 1 watt.
In general kilowatt & Megawatt are used for measurement of electric power, Hence –
1 Kilowatt = 1000 watt = 103 watt
and 1 Megawatt = 1000 kilowatt = 106 watt
In practice, Horse Power (H.P.) is also used for the measurement of electric power. The value of 1
Horse Power is 746 Watt.
1.14 ELECTRIC ENERGY :
The work done in moving an electric charge through a circuit is electric energy.
The work done by an electric source for the flow of current for a certain time interval is known as
electric energy of the circuit. If electric power P is given for a small time t in a electric circuit then
electric energy of the circuit will be W = P × t so the electric energy of the electric circuit is–
W = P × t = Vi t = i2 Rt
The unit for the measurement of electric energy is watt × sec or joule. In practice kilo-watt hour is
used for the measurement of Electric Energy. It is also known as Board of Trade Unit (B.O.T.U.) or
simply Electric Unit i.e.,
1 Electric Unit = 1 k.w.h. = 1 kilo watt × 1 hour = 1000 watt × 3600 second
or 1 Electric Unit = 3.6 × 106 watt × second or joule. The rate of doing work, in an electric
device due to flow of current in it, is defined as the power of that.

How to calculate electricity bill?

Suppose electric appliances of a house have consumed 100 kWh of electric
energy in a month and the cost of one unit is 50 paise. Then the total bill for
a month = 100 × 50 = 5000 paise = Rs. 50.00. Here 1 kWh = 1 unit.

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 Electric current : An electric current is defined as the amount of charge flowing through any
Q
cross-section of a conductor per unit time, I = . Electric current is a scalar quantity..
t
ne
 Electric current in terms of number of electrons (n) in a conductor, I = ,
t
e = charge on an electron = –1.6 × 10–19 C.
 In a metallic wire or conductor, the flow of electric current is due to the flow of electrons from one
end to the other end of the wire.
 Charge carrier in a metallic wire are conduction elements.
 6.25 × 1018 electrons make one coulomb of charge.
 S.I. unit of electric current is ampere (A).
 Ampere (A) : Electric current through a conductor is said to be 1 ampere if one coulomb charge
flows through any cross-section of the conductor in one second.
 Ammeter is used to measure electric current.
 Ammeter is always connected in series in an electric circuit.
 Electric potential is defined as work done per unit charge.

W
V= q

 Electric potential is a scalar quantity.

 Electric potential difference is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge from one
point to another point.

W
dV = q

 SI unit of electric potential is volt (V).

 Voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.
 Voltmeter is always connected in parallel in an electric circuit.
 Ohm's Law : This law states that, "the electric current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across the ends of the conductor, provided the temperature and other
physical conditions of the conductor remain the same".
 Resistance (R) : Resistance of a conductor is the ability of the conductor to oppose the flow of
charge through it.
 Unit of resistance is ohm.
 1 Ohm : Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if a potential difference of 1 volt across the
ends of the conductor produces a current of 1 ampere through it.

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 Resistor is a component (say a metallic wire) in an electric circuit which offers resistance to the
flow of electrons constituting the electric current in the electric circuit.
 Law of Resistance :
(i) Resistance of a conductor depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor.
(ii) Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
(iii) Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the each of cross-section of the conductor.
(iv) Resistance of metallic conductor increases with the increase of temperature and decreases
with the decrease of the temperature.

l
 R=
A
 Resistivity or Specific Resistance () : Resistivity is defined as the resistance of the conductor of
unit length and unit area of cross-section.
 Unit of Resistivity :
In CGS system, unit if resistivity is ohm-cm.
In SI system, unit of resistivity is ohm-metre.
 Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series if same amount of current flows through
these resistors.
 The effective resistance of series combination of resistors is the algebraic sum of the individual
resistances of the resistors in the combination.
 An electric bulb or a heater or a metallic wire acts as a resistor.
 If one of the electric bulbs connected in a series is fused, then no electric bulb will glow inspite of
the fact that the combination is connected with a source of electric current.
 Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel if the potential difference across each
resistor is equal to the applied potential difference across the combination of the resistors.
 The effective resistance of the resistors connected in parallel is less than the minimum resistance
of a resistor in the combination.
 Resistors are connected in series if the resistance of the electric circuit is to be increased.
 Resistors are connected in parallel if the resistance of the electric circuit is to be decreased.
 Joule's Law of Heating :
The amount of heat produced in a conductor is
(i) Directly proportional to the square of the electric current flowing through it.
(ii) Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
(iii) Directly proportional to the time for which the electric current flows through the conductor.
H = I2Rt (joule)
 Electric fuse is a safety device used to save the electric appliances from burning.
 Electric fuse is a wire made of a material having low melting point.

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 Electric fuse wire is made of copper or tin-lead alloy.

 Electric energy : The work done by a source of electricity to maintain a current in an electric
circuit is known as electric energy.
E = VIt
 Electric power : Electric power is defined as the amount of electric work done in one second.
V2
P = VI = I2R =
R
 SI unit of power is watt.
 Practical unit of power is horse power (h.p.)
1 h.p. = 746 W
 Electric energy = Electric power × time
 Commercial unit of Energy : kilowatt-hour (kWh)
 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

Q
Electric Current i=
t
Important
Ohm's Law V = iR
l
R=
A
Resistors in series Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + .......
1 1 1 1
Resistors in parallel     ....
R eq R1 R 2 R 3

V2
Heat produced by electric current U = i2 Rt = t = Vit
R

U V2
Electric power P= = i2 R = = Vi
t R

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-I [NCERT Question]

Q.1 A piece of wire of resistance R is cut into five equal parts. These parts are then connected
in parallel. If the equivalent resistance of this combination is R', then the ratio R/R' is :
(A) 1/ 25 (B) 1/5 (C) 5 (D) 25
R
Ans. Resistance of each one of the five parts 
5

1 1 1 1 1 1
    
R' R / 5 R / 5 R / 5 R / 5 R / 5

1 5 5 5 5 5 25
or      
R' R R R R R R

R
or  25
R'
Thus, (D) is the correct answer.

Q.2 Which of the following terms does not represent electrical power in a circuit :
(A) I2R (B) IR2 (C) VI (D) V2/R
Ans. Electrical power,
2
V V
P  VI  (IR )R  I 2 R  V  
R R
Obviously , IR2 does not represent electrical power in a circuit.
Thus, (B) is the current an answer .

Q.3 An electric bulb is rated 220 V and 100 W. When it is operated on 110 V, the power consumed
will be
(A) 100W (B) 75 W (C) 50W (D) 25W
Ans. Resistance of the electric bulbs,

V2
R (P = V2/R)
P

(220) 2
or R  484
100
power consumed by the bulb when it is operated at 110 V is given by

V '2 (110) 2 110 110

P'     25W
R 484 484
(V' = 110 V)
Thus, (D) is the correct answer .

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Q.4 Two conducting wires of the same material and of equal lengths and equal diameters are
first connected in series and then in parallel in electric circuit . The ratio of the heat produced
in series and parallel combinations would be :
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1 (C) 1 : 4 (D) 4 : 1
Ans. Since both the wires are made of the same material and have equal lengths and equal diameters, these
have the same resistance. Let it be R.
When connected in series, their equivalent resistance is given by
Rs = R + R = 2R
When connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance is given by
1 1 1 2 R
  
R p R R R or R p  2

V2
Further, electrical power is given by P 
R

s V2
Power (or heat produced) in series, P 
Rs

V2
Power (or heat produced) in parallel, Pp 
Rp

ps V 2 / R s R p R / 2 1
Thus,     or Ps : Pp : : 1 : 4
Pp V 2 / R p R s 2R 4

thus, (C) is the correct answer

Q.5 How is voltmeter connected in the circuit to measure potential difference between two points?
Ans. A voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the P.D. is to be determined.

Q.6 A copper wire has a diameter of 0.5 mm and a resistivity of 1.6 × 10–6 ohm cm. How much of
this wire would be required to make a 10 ohm coil ? How much does the resistance change
if the diameter is doubled ?
Ans. We are given that, Diameter of the wire, D = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10–3 m
resistivity of copper (), = 1.6 × 10–6 ohm cm = 1.6 × 10–8 ohm m
required resistance, R = 10 ohm

 RA R ( D 2 / 4) RD 2
As R ,    [ A  r 2  (D / 2) 2  D 2 / 4]
A   4

3.14 10  (0.5  103 ) 2

or  m  112.7 m
4  1.6  108

 4
Since, R  2
 2
.(R  1 / D2 ) . When D is doubled , R becomes 1 times .
D / 4 D 4

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Q.7 The value of current, I, flowing in a given resistor for the corresponding value of potential
difference, V, across the resistor are given below :
I (ampere) : 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
V (volt) : 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2
Plot a graph between V and I and calculate the resistance of resistor.
Ans. The V-I graph is as shown in fig.

4.0

3.0
2.65
I (Ampere)

2.0

1.4
1.0
0.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
V(Volt)

For V = 4V (i.e., 9V - 5V ), I = 1.25 A (i.e., 2.65 A - 1.40 A). Therefore,

V 4V
R   3.2 
I 1.25A

The value of R obtained from the graph depends upon the accuracy with which the graph is plotted.

Q.8 When a 12 V battery is connected across an unknown resistor, there is a current of 2.5 mA
in the circuit. Find the value of the resistance of the resistor.
Ans. Here, V = 12V, I = 2.5 mA = 2.5 × 10–3 A
Resistance of the resistor
V 12V
R   4800   4.8 k
I 2.5  103 A

Q.9 A battery of 9 V is connected in series with resistors of 0.2 , 0.3 , 0.4 , 0.5 and 12 . How much
current would flow through the 12 resistor ?
Ans. Since all the resistors are in series, equivalent resistance.
RS = 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.5 + 12 = 13.4
Current through the circuit,
V 9V
I   0.67A
R s 13.4
In series, same current (I) flows through all the resistors.
Thus, current flowing through 12  resistor = 0.67 A

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Q.10 How many 176 resistors (in parallel) are required to carry 5 A in 220 V line ?
Ans. Here, I = 5A, V = 220 V.

Resistance required in the circuit, R  V  220V  44, resistance of each resistor, r = 176 .
I 5A
If n resistors, each of resistance r, are connected in parallel to get the required resistance R,
r 176
then R or 44  176 or n  4
n n 44

Q.11 Show how you would connect three resistors , each of resistance 6 , so that the combination
has a resistance of (i) 9 (ii) 2 .
Ans. (i) In order to get a resistance of 9 from three resistors , each of resistance 6 , we connect two
resistors in Parallel combination (or resistance 3 ) in series with the third resistor as shown in fig.
(ii) In order to get a resistance of 2 from three resistors, each of resistance 6 , we connect all
the three resistors in parallel as shown in fig (b) as equivalent resistance in parallel combination,
6
i.e., Rp is given by R p   2
3

Q.12 Several electric bulbs designed to be used on a 220 V electric supply line, are rated 10 W.
How many lamps can be connected in parallel with each other across the two wires of 220 V
line if the maximum allowable current is 5 A ?
V 2 ( 220) 2
Ans. Resistance of each bulb, r    4840
P 10
220V
Total resistance in the circuit, R   44
5A
Let n be the number of bulbs (each of resistance r) to be connected in parallel to obtain a resistance R.
r r 4840
Clearly , R  or n    110
n R 44

Q.13 A hot plate of an electric oven connected to a 220 V line has two resistance coils A and B,
each of 24  resistance, which may be used separately, in series , or in parallel. What are
the currents in the three cases ?
Ans. Here, potential difference, V = 220 V.
Resistance of each coil, r = 24 .
(i) When each of the coils A or B is connected separately, current through each coil, i.e.,
V 220V
I   9.2A
r 24
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(ii) When coils A and B are connected in series, equivalent resistance in the circuit,
Rs = r + r = 48 
V 220V
Current through are series combination , ie.e, Is    4.6A
Rs 48
(iii) When the coils A and B are connected in parallel, equivalent resistance in the circuit,
r 24
Rp    12
2 2
V 220V
Current through the parallel combination, i.e, I p    18.3A
R p 12

Q.14 Compare the power used in the 2  resistor in each of the following circuits :
(i) a 6V battery in series with 1and 2 resistors, and
(ii) a 4 V battery in parallel with 12and 2resistors.
Ans.
(i) Since 6V battery is in series with 1  and 2 resistors, current in the circuit.
6V 6V
I   2A
1  2 3
Power used in 2 resistor, P1 = i2 R = (2A)2 × 2  = 8W

(ii) Since 4 V battery is in parallel with 12  and 2 resistors, pd across 2 resistor, V = 4V.
2 2
Power used in 2 resistor, P2  V  ( 4V)  8W
R ( 2 )

P1 8W
Clearly,  1
P2 8W

Q.15 Two lamps, one rated 100 W at 220 V, and the other 60 W at 220 V, are connected in parallel
to the electric mains supply. What current is drawn from the line if the supply voltage is 220 V?
V 2 (220) 2
Ans. Resistance of first lamp , r1    484
P 100

V 2 ( 220) 2
Resistance of the second lamp, r2    806.7
P 60
Since the two lamps are connected in parallel , the equivalent resistance is given by
1 1 1 r r
   2 1
R p r1 r2 r1r2

r2 r1 484  806.7 390442.8

or Rp     302.5
r1  r2 484  806.7 1290.7

V 220 V
Current drawn from the line, i.e., I    0.73A
R p 302.6
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Alternate Method
Given P1 = 100 Watt V1 = 220 volt
P2 = 100 Watt V2 = 220 volt
Both lamp are connected in parallel the
Peq = P1 + P2 = 100 + 60
Peq = 160 Watt
Voltage supply in electric line V = 220 Volt
than P = VI
V Peq 2160
I= P = =
eq V 220
I = 0.727 Ampere

Q.16 Which uses more energy, a 250 W TV set in 1 h, or 1200 W toaster in 10 minutes ?
Ans. Energy used by 250 W TV set in 1 h = 250 W × 1h = 250 Wh
Energy used by 1200 W toaster in 10 min. (i.e., 1/6 h) = 1200 W ×(1/6) h = 200 Wh
Thus, a 250 W TV set uses more power in 1h than a 1200 W toaster in 10 minutes.

Q.17 An electric heater of resistance 8  draws 15 A from the service mains for 2 hour. Calculate
the rate at which heat is developed in the heater
Ans. Here, I = 15A, R = 8 , t = 2h
Rate at which heat is developed , i.e, electric power , P = I2 R = (15)2 × 8 = 1800 W or J/s

Q.18 Explain the following :

(a) Why is tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of incandescent lamps ?
(b) Why are the conductors of electric heating devices, such as toasters and electric
irons, made of an alloy rather than a pure metal ?
(c) Why is the series arrangement not used for domestic circuits ?
(d) How does the resistance of a wire vary with its cross-sectional area ?
(e) Why are copper and aluminium wires usually employed for electricity transmission.
Ans. (a) Tungsten has a high milting point (3380°C) and becomes incandescent (i.e., emits light at a
high temperature) at 2400 K.
(b) The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of pure metals of which it is made of.
(c) In series arrangement, if any one of the appliances fails or is switched off, all the other appliances
stop working because the same current is passing through all the appliances.
(d) The resistance of wire (R) varies inversely with its cross-sectional area (A) as R 1/A.
(e) Copper and Aluminium wires possess low resistivity and are economic so they are generally
used for electricity transmission.

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-II

Section - A
Q.1 What does an electric circuit mean?
Ans. An electric circuit is a closed conducting path containing a source of potential difference or electric
energy (i.e. a cell or battery) and a device or element utilizing the electric energy.

Q.2 Define the unit of current.

Ans. Unit of electric current is ampere. Electric current in a conductor is said to be 1 A if 1 coulomb charge
flows through the cross-section of the conductor in 1 second.

Q.3 Calculate the number of electrons consisting one coulomb of charge.

Ans. q=1C
Let n = number of electrons consisting 1 C of charge.
Using q = ne, we have
q 1C
n= = = 6.25 × 1018 electrons.
e 1.6  1019 C

Q.4 Name a device that helps to maximize a potential difference across a conductor.
Ans. A cell or battery.

Q.5 What is meant by saying that a potential difference between two points is 1 V?
Ans. Potential difference between two points is 1 V if 1 joule work is done in moving 1 coulomb charge
from one point to another point.

Q.6 How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 V battery?
Ans. Energy = Charge × Potential difference = 1 C × 6 V = 6 Joule.

Q.7 On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend?

Ans. Resistance of a conductor depends on (i) length (l) of the conductor, (ii) area of cross-section of the
conductor, (iii) nature of the material of the conductor and (iv) temperature of the conductor.

Q.8 Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same material, when
connected to the same source? Why?

V 1
Ans. I= . Since R  Area of cross  sec tion
R
Therefore, resistance of thin wire is more than the resistance of thick wire. Hence, current in thick
wire flows easily than in thin wire.

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Q.9 Let the resistance of an electrical component remains constant while the potential difference
across the ends of the component decreases to half of its former value. What change will
occur with current through it?
V V
Ans. I= . When V ' =
R 2
V I
I'= = .
2R 2
Thus, current in the component become half of it former value.

Q.10 Why are coil of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy rather than a pure
metal?
Ans. It is because (i) alloy does not oxidize (i.e. do not burn easily at high temperature), whereas pure
metal burns easily at high temperature, (ii) resistivity of an alloy is more than the resistivity of pure
metal, so large heat is produced due to the flow of current in an alloy.

Q.11 (a) Which among, iron and mercury is better conductor?

(resistivity of iron = 10.0 × 10–8  m and resistivity of mercury = 94 × 10–8  m)
(b) Which material is the best conductor?
Ans. (a) A material whose resistivity is low is a good conductor of electricity. Therefore, iron is better
conductor than mercury.
(b) Silver is the best conductor of electricity.

Q.12 Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of three batteries of 2 V each, a 5 

resistor, 8  resistor and a 12  resistor and a plug key, all connected in series.
5 8 12 

Ans.

+ –
2 V× 3 = 6 V K

Q.13 Redraw the circuit of question 12, putting an ammeter to measure the current through the
resistor and a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across 12  resistor. What
would be the reading in the ammeter?
Ans. Total resistance of the circuit, 5 8 12 
R = 5  + 8  + 12  = 25 
V=6V – + V –
A
V 6 +
I= = = 0.24 A
R 25 + –
Therefore, reading of ammeter = 0.24 A 2 V× 3 = 6 V K
Reading of voltmeter = IR = 0.24 A × 12  = 2.88 V.

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Q.14 Judge the equivalent resistance when the following are connected in parallel :
(a) 1  and 106  (b) 1  and 103  and 106 .
Ans. (a) When resistors are connected in parallel, then equivalent resistance of the combination is less
than the least resistance in the combination. Therefore, equivalent resistance of 1  and
106  connected in parallel is approximately 1  but less than 1 .
(b) The equivalent resistance is approximately 1  but less than 1 .

Q.15 An electric lamp of 100 W, a toaster of resistance 50 , and a water filter of resistance
500 are connected in parallel to 220 V source. What is the resistance of an electric iron
connected to the same source that takes as much current as all three appliances and what in
the current through it?
V2 220
Ans. Resistance of electric lamp, R1 = = 220 × = 484 
P 100
Net resistance when all appliances are connected in parallel
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2912
= R R R =   =
R 1 2 3 484 50 500 121000
Therefore R = 41.55 
V 220
Therefore I= = = 5.3 A.
R 41.55

Q.16 What is (a) highest (b) lowest resistance that can be secured by combining four coils of
resistances 4 , 8 , 12 , 24 ?
Ans. (a) Highest resistance is obtained when coils are connected in series.
Therefore R = 4 + 8 + 12 + 24 = 48 
(b) Lowest resistance is obtained when coils are connected in parallel.
1 1 1 1 1 12
Therefore =    =
R 4 8 12 24 24
24
Therefore R= = 2 .
12

Q.17 Why does the connecting cord of an electric heater does not glow while the heating element does?
Ans. This is because resistance of cord of electric heater is less than the resistance of heating element. So
more heat is produced in the heating element and less heat is produced in the cord. Due to more heat,
heating element glows.

Q.18 Compute the heat generated while transferring 96000 coulomb of charge in one hour through
a potential difference of 50 V.
Ans. H = VIt
Q  Q
H=V× ×t  I  
t  t
= VQ
= 50 × 96000 = 4.8 × 106 J.
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Q.19 An electric iron of resistance 20  takes a current of 5 A. Calculate the heat developed in
30 seconds.
Ans. H = I2Rt
= (25)2 × 20 × 30
= 15000 J.

Q.20 What are the advantage of connecting electrical devices in parallel with a battery instead of
connecting them in series?
Ans. (i) If any one of the electric devices in parallel fuses, then the working of other devices will not be
affected.
(ii) When different devices are connected in parallel, they draw the current as per their requirement
and hence they work properly.

Q.21 How can three resistors of resistance 2 , 3  and 6  be connected to give a total resistance
of (a) 4 , (b) 1  ?
Ans. (a) We get 4 resistance if 3 and 6 resistors are connected in parallel and this parallel
combination is connected in series with 2  as shown in figure.
Equivalent resistance of 3 and 6 is given by

1 1 1 1 1 3 1
= R R =  = = 3
R 1 2 3 6 6 2 2
Or R=2 6
Now 2  and 2  are in series,
So net resistance = 2  + 2  = 4 
(b) We get 1  resistance if all three resistors are connected in parallel.
2
1 1 1 1
Therefore = R R R 3
R 1 2 3

6
1 1 1 3  2 1 6
=   = = =1
2 3 6 6 6
or R = 1 .

Q.22 What determine the rate at which energy is delivered by an electric current?
Ans. Electric power determines the rate at which energy is delivered by an electric current.

Q.23 An electric motor takes 5 A from a 220 V line. Determine the power of the motor and energy
consumed in 2 h.
Ans. Power, P = VI = 220 × 5 = 1100 W
Energy consumed = Power × Time
= 1100 W × 2 h
= 2200 Wh
= 2.2 kWh.
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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

Section - B
Conceptual Problems :
Q.1 Electrical resistivity of some substances at 20ºC are given below :
Silver 1.60 × 10–8 -m
Copper 1.62 × 10–8 -m
Tungsten 5.2 × 10–8 -m
Iron 10.0 × 10–8 -m
Mercury 94.0 × 10–8 -m
Nichrome 10.0 × 10–8 -m
Answer the following question in relation to them :
(i) Among silver and copper, which one is a better conductor? Why?
(ii) Which material would you advise to be used in electrical heating devices? Why?
Ans.
(i) A material whose electrical resistivity is low is a good conductor of electricity. Since the electrical
resistivity of silver is less than that of the copper, so silver is a better conductor than the copper.
(ii) For making the elements of heating devices, alloy is used instead of a pure metal. This is because
the resistivity of an alloy is more than that of a metal and alloy does not burn (or oxidise) even at
higher temperature. Out of the given substance, nichrome is an alloy, so nichrome is used in
electrical heating devices.

Q.2 The length of different metallic wires but of same area of cross-section and made of the same materical
are given below.
Wire Length
A 1m
B 1.5 m
C 2.0 m
(i) Out of these wires, which wire has higher resistance.
(ii) Which wire has the highest electrical resistivity? Justify your answer.
Ans. (i) Resistance of a metallic wire  lenght of the wire.
Since, length of wire C is more than the lengths of wire A and B, therefore the wire C has the higher
resistance than that of wire A and B.
(ii) Electrical resistivity of a wire depends on the nature of the material of the wire and independent of
the length of the wire. Since all wires are made of same material, so the electrical resistivity of all
wires is same.

Q.3 Two metallic wires A and B of same material are connected in parallel. Wire A has length l and radius
r and wire B has length 2 l and radius 2r. Compute the ratio of the total resistance of parallel combination
and the resistance of wire A.
l l   2l l
Ans. Resistance of wire A, R1 = = 2 Resistance of wire B, R2 =  2 =
A1 r  2r 2r 2
Total resistance of the parallel combination,
1 1 1 1 r 2 2r 2 3r 2
= R + R or = + =
R 1 2 R l l l

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l R l r 2 1
R=  = × =
3r 2 R1 3r 2
l 3

Section - C
Numerical Ability :
Q.1 How much work will be done in bringing a charge of 5.0 millicoulombs from infinity to a point P at
which the potential is 12 V ?
Sol. The potential at infinity is usually taken as zero. So, the work done is
W =QV = (5.0× 10–3 C) × (12 V) = 60 × 10–3 J = 0.06 J.

Q.2 A particle with a charge of 1.5 coulombs is taken from a point A at a potential of 50 V to another point
B at a potential of 120 V. Calculate the work done.
Sol. We have
W = Q(VB – VA)
= (1.5 C) × (120 V – 50 V) = (1.5 × 70) J = 105 J.

Q.3 How many electrons are required to get 1 C of negative charge ?

Sol. Each electron has a negative charge of 1.6 × 10–19 C.
So, the number of electrons for 1 C of negative charge is
1C
n = 1.6  1019 C = 6.25 × 1018.

Q.4 Calculate the current in a wire if 900 C of charge passes through it in 10 minutes.
Q 900 C 9
Sol. i= = 10  60 s = = 1.5 A
t 6

Q.5 How much current will flow through a resistor of resistance 12  if a battery of 18 V is connected
across it ?
Sol. From Ohm's law,
V 18 V
i = = 12  = 1.5 A.
R

Q.6 Calculate the resistance of a copper wire of length 1 m and area of cross section 2 mm2. Resistivity of
copper is 1.7 × 10–8  m.
Sol. From Ohm's law
l 1m
R=  = (1.7 × 10–8  m) × –3
 6 2 = 8.5 × 10 .
A 2  10 m

Q.7 A copper wire has a resistance of 0.6 . Another copper wire of the same mass as the first one is
double in length of the first. Find the resistance of the second wire.
Sol. For the first wire, let
l = length and A1 = cross-sectional area.
For the second wire,

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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

2l = length and A2 = cross-sectional area.

Now, density = mass/volume.
The two wires have the same mass and they have the same density (being made of the same material).
So, their volumes are equal.
 lA1 = 2lA2 or A1 = 2A2.
Let the resistivity of copper be .
l
Resistance of the first wire is 0.6  =  ...........(i)
A1
2l
Resistance of the second wire is R =  A ...........(ii)
2
Dividing (ii) by (i),
R 2lA1 2( 2 A 2 )
0.6  = lA 2 = A2 = 4
 R = 0.6  × 4 = 2.4 .

Q.8 In an experiment to verify Ohm's law, the current through a resistor and the potential difference across
it are measured. From the values given below, plot a graph of i versus V. Show that the data confirms
Ohm's law, and find the resistance of the resistor.
Current (A) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Potential difference (V) 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 i
Sol. The graph is shown in figure. Scales are chosen to cover the A
(ampere)

given maximum values. We see that the graph is a straight 0.4

line passing through the origin. 0.3
Thus, i  V, which is Ohm's law. The resistance is 0.2
0.1
V OB 4.8 V B
R= = = 0.4 A = 12 . O
1 2 3 4 4.8 V(volt)
i AB

Q.9 When a potential difference of 20 V is applied across a resistor, it draws a current of 3A. If 30 V is
applied across the same resistor, what will be the current ?
Sol. The resistance of the resistor is
V 20 V 20
R= = 3A = 
i 3
When 30 V is applied across the resistor,
V 30 V
i= = 20 3  = 4.5 A.
R
Q.10 How will the resistance of a wire change if its diameter (d) is doubled, its length remaining the same ?
2
2 d d 2
Sol. the cross-sectional area of the wire is A1 = r =    = .
2 4
l l 4ρl
Its resistance = R1 =  = = .
A1 d 2 d 2
4

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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

2
When the diameter is doubled, cross-sectional area A2 =   2d  = d2.
 2 
l l
Its resistance = R2 =  A =  2 .
2 d

l
R2 2 1
Thus = 4dl =
R1 4
2
d

1
or R2 = R.
4 1
So, on doubling the diameter, the area of cross section becomes 4 times and the resistance becomes
one-fourth of the initial value.

Q.11 Calculate the potential difference across each resistor in the circuit shown in figure.
4 6 10

5V

Sol. The three resistors are joined in series. Their equivalent resistance is  20
5V
The current through the cell is i = 20  = 0.25 A.

The same current passes through each resistor Using Ohm's law, the potential difference across the
4 resistor = 0.25 A × 4 = 1V,
across the 6  resistor = 0.25 A × 6  = 1.5 V, and
across the 10  resistor = 0.25 A × 10  = 2.5 V.

Q.12 Three identical bulbs are connected in parallel with a battery. The current drawn from the battery is
6A. If one of the bulbs gets fused, what will be the total current drawn from the battery?
R Fused R

R R

R R

V V
(a) (b)
Sol. Let the potential difference maintained by the battery be V, and let the resistance of each bulb be R
(Figure). If the equivalent resistance of the circuit is r,
1 1 1 1 R
   or r = .
r R R R 3

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V 3V
The current is i = = . It is given that this current is 6A.
r R
3V V
So, 6A = or = 2A.
R R
If one of the bubls gets fused (figure), only two bulbs remain connected in parallel. The equivalent
resistance r' in that case is given by
1 1 1 R
=  or r' = .
r' R R 2
The current in the battery will be
V 2V
i'= = = 2 × (2 A) = 4 A.
r' R
Alternative :
As the three bulbs are identical, they will draw equal currents. As the total current is 6 A, each bulb
will draw 2 A of current. When one bulb gets fused, there is no current through it. Each of the
remaining bulbs remains connected to the battery as before. So current through each is still 2 A, giving
a total current of 4 A through the battery.

Q.13 A uniform wire of resistance R is cut into three equal pieces, and these pieces are joined in parallel.
What is the resistance of the combination ?
l
Sol. Resistance of the wire is R =  .
A
l l
Resistance of a piece of length is R' =  .
3 3A
R
or R' = .
3
Let the equivalent resistance of the three wires in parallel be Rp. Then
1 1 1 1 3 3 3 9
=   =    .
RP R3 R3 R3 R R R R
R
 Rp = .
9

Q.14 Consider the circuit shown in figure. The voltmeter on the left reads 10 V and that one the right reads
8 V. Find (a) the current through the resistance R, (b) the value of R, and (c) the potential difference
across the battery.
10V
V V

A B C
R 4

Sol. (a) Apply Ohm's law to the 4 resistor. The current through this resistor is
8V
i = 4  = 2A.

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As the two resistors are connected in series, the same current passes through the two resistors
(the voltmeters draw only a negligible current). Hence, the current through R is 2A.
(b) Applying Ohm's law to the resistance R,
10 V
10 V = R × (2 A) or R = 2 A = 5.

(c) The potential difference across the battery is

VA – VC = (VA – VB) + (VB – VC) = 10 V + 8 V = 18 V.

Q.15 Three resistors of resistances 10 , 20  and 30  are connected in parallel with a 6 V cell. Find (a)
the current through each resistor, (b) the current supplied by the cell, and (c) the equivalent resistance
of the circuit.
Sol.
(a) Let the current through the 10 , 20  and 30  resistors be i1, i2 and i3 respectively. The
potential difference across each of them is 6 V. Thus,
6V 6V 6V
i1 = 10  = 0.6 A, i2 = 20  = 0.3 A, i3 = = 0.2 A.
30
(b) The current supplied by the cell is i1 10
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = 0.6 A + 0.3 A + 0.2 A = 1.1 A.
i i2 20
(c) The equivalent resistance of the circuit is
i3 30
V 6V
R= =  5.5 .
i 1.1 A

6V
Alternative :

1 1 1 1 11
= 10   20   30  = 60  .
R
60 
 R=  5.5 .
11

Q.16 Consider the circuit shown in figure. Calculate the current through the 3 resistor.
i1 3

i 4
4 2
i2 6

12V 12 V
(a) (b)
Sol. The 3  resistor and the 6  resistor are joined in parallel. Their equivalent resistance is
(3)  (6)
R = (3)  (6) = 2.

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Thus, the two resistors may be replaced by a single resistor of resistance 2. The circuit can be
redrawn as shown in figure. The two resistors in the figure are joined in series. The equivalent resistance
is 4 + 2 = 6.
12 V
The current through the battery is i = 6  = 2A.
Now look at Figure (a). The current through the battery and the 4  resistor is 2 A. This current is
divided in the two resistors (3 and 6) which are joined in parallel.
R 2i
Using i1 = R  R , the current through the 3  resistors is
1 2
(6)  ( 2A) 12  A
i1 = (3)  (6) = 9  = 1.33 A.

Q.17 (a) How will you join three resistors of resistances 4, 6 and 12  to get an equivalent resistance
of 8 ?
(b) What would be the highest and the lowest equivalent resistances possible by joining these resistors?
Sol.
(a) As the equivalent resistance is 8 , the 12  resistor cannot be in series. So it must be in parallel
with some other resistors.
In parallel connection, the equivalent resistance (8) has to be less than all the resistances. So,
the resistors of 4 and 6 cannot be in parallel at one time with 12.
So, the resistors have to be in a mixed combination. Let us try the combination shown in figure.
The equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel between B and C is
12 
(6 )  (12 )
(6 )  (12) = 4 . A 4
B C D
So, the resistance between A and D is
6
4 + 4 = 8 .
Thus, the combination shown in the figure is correct.
(b) The highest resistance would be from a series combination, and is equal to
4 + 6 + 12  = 22 
A parallel combination will give the lowest resistance, which is given by
1 1 1 1 3  2 1 6
 
R = 4  6  12  = 12  = 12  .
 R = 2.

Q.18 How many bulbs of resistance 6 ohms should be joined in parallel to draw a current of 2 amperes
from a battery of 3 volts ?
V 3V
Sol. The equivalent resistance of the circuit = R = = = 1.5 .
i 2A
Let n bulbs be joined in parallel to achieve this resistance, Then
1 1 1 1 n
=   ......  = (as all resistances = 6)
1.5  r1 r2 rn 6
6
 n= = 4.
1.5 
So, 4 bulbs should be connected in parallel.

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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

Q.19 A current of 4 A passes through a resistance of 100  for 15 minutes. Calculate the heat produced in
calories.
Sol. The heat produced is U = i2Rt
= (4A)2 × (100 ) × (15 × 60 s) = 1.44 × 106 J.
Now 4.186 J = 1 cal.
1.44  106
Thus, 1.44 × 106 = cal = 3.4 × 105 cal.
4.186

Q.20 A 12 volt battery is connected to a bulb. The battery sends a current of 2.5 A through it. Calculate
(a) The power delivered to the bulb, and
(b) The energy transferred to the bulb in 5 minutes.
Sol. (a) The power delivered is
P = Vi = (12 V) × (2.5 A) = 30 W.
(b) Energy transferred in 5 minutes is
U = P × t = (30 W) × (5 × 60 s) = 9000 J.

Q.21 A current passes through a resistor for some time. It produced 400 cal of heat in this period. If the
current is doubled, how much heat will be produced for the same durations?
Sol. The heat produced is U = i2 Rt ......(i)
or 400 cal = i2Rt ......(ii)
2
If the heat produced is U1 when the current is doubled, U1 = (2i) Rt
From (i) and (ii), we have
U1 ( 2i) 2 Rt
400 cal = i 2 Rt = 4.
or U1 = 1600 cal.

Q.22 Calculate the wattage of an electric heater which draws 5 A current when connected to a 220 V
power supply.
Sol. The wattage is P = V × I = (220 V) × (5 A) = 1100 W.

Q.23 A bulb draws 24 W when connected to a 12 V supply. Find the power if it is connected to a 6 V
supply. (Neglect resistance change due to unequal heating in the two cases.).
V2
Sol. We have P=
R
(12 V 2 )
or 24 W = . ........(i)
R
Suppose the bulb draws power P1 when connected to the 6 V battery. Then,
(6 V 2 )
P1 = . ........(ii)
R
From (i) and (ii), we have
P1 (6 V) 2 1
24 W = 2 = .
(12 V) 4

24 W
or P1 = = 6 W..
4
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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

Q.24 Two identical resistors of resistance R are connected in series with a battery of potential difference V
for time t. The resistors are later connected in parallel and the same battery is connected across the
combination for time t. Compare the heat produced in the two cases.
Sol. The equivalent resistance of the series combination = R1 = R + R = 2R.
V2
The heat produced in time t is, H1 = t.
2R
(R ) (R ) R2 R
The equivalent resistance of the parallel combination is, R2 = = = .
RR 2R 2
2 H1 1
V2 2V 
The heat produced in time t is H2 = t = t  H2 = 4H1
R/2 R H2 4
The heat produced with the parallel combination is four times that with the series combination.

Q.25 A bulb is rated 40 W, 220 V. Find the current drawn by it when it is connected to a 220 - V supply.
Sol. Since the bulb is rated at 220 V and it is connected to a 220 V supply, the power consumed will be
P 40W 2
40 W. The current drawn by it is, i = = 220 V = A.
V 11

Q.26 A bulb is rated 60 W, 240 V. Calculate its resistance when it is on. If the voltage drops to 192 V, what
will be the power consumed and the current drawn?
V2
Sol. Power, P = .
R
2
V2 ( 240 V)
 R= = = 960 .
P 60 W
When the voltage drops to 192 V, the power consumed will be
V2 (192 V) 2
P= = = 38.4 W.
R 960 

V 192 V
The current drawn will be i = = 960  = 0.2 A.
R

Q.27 A room has two tube lights, a fan and a TV. Each tube light draws 40 W, the fan draws 80 W, and the
TV draws 60 W. On the average, the tube lights are kept on for five hours, the fan for twelve hours
and the TV for eight hours every day. The rate for electrical energy is Rs. 3.10 per kWh. Calculate the
cost of electricity used in this room in a 30 day month.
40
Sol. For each tube light, power P = 40 W = kW. So, the energy consumed by each tube light in a
1000
 40 
day is U = P × t =  kW  × (5 h) = 0.2 kWh.
 1000 
Energy consumed by the fan in a day is, U = P × t = (80 W) × (12 h) = 0.96 kWh.
Energy consumed by the TV in a day is, U = P × t = (60 W) × (8 h) = 0.48 kWh.
Total energy consumed in a day is, 2 × 0.2 kWh + 0.96 kWh + 0.48 kWh = 1.84 kWh
Energy consumed in a month is, (1.84 kWh) × 30 = 55.2 kWh.
The cost of electricity = Rs 55.2 × 3.1) = Rs. 171.12.

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Section - D
[ PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS, (1 MARK) ]

Q.1 A bulb cannot be used in place of a resistor to verify Ohm's law. Justify this statement with reason.
[SAl-20l2]
Ans. It is because Ohm's law holds good at constant temperature only.

Q.2 Name the instrument/device used to measure electric current in a circuit. [SAI-2010, 2011, 2012]
Ans. Ammeter.

Q.3 How is an ammeter connected in a circuit to measure current flowing through it? [SAl-2011,2012]
Ans. In series.

Q.4 In an electric circuit, state the relationship between the direction of conventional current and the
direction of flow of electrons. [SAl-2011, 2012]
Ans. The direction of conventional current is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.

Q.5 Name the device/instrument used to measure potential difference. How is it connected in electric
circuit? [SAl-2010, 2011, 2012]
Ans. Voltmeter, in parallel.

Q.6 What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter? [SAl-2013]

Ans. Infinity.

Q.7 Write SI unit of resistivity. [SAl-20l3]

Ans. Ohm-metre.

Q.8 State a difference between the wire used in the element of an electric heater and in a fuse wire.
[SAI-2013]
Ans. The wire used in the element of an electric heater has very high resistance while that in a fuse wire has
a low resistance.

Q.9 What is meant by the statement that the rating of a fuse in a circuit is 5 A? [SAl-2013]
Ans. It means that the fuse wire melts when more than 5 A current flows through it.

Q.10 Why tungsten is used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps? [SAI-2014]
Ans. Tungsten is an alloy as such it has a high resistivity and high melting point. Therefore, it is used exclusively
in filaments of electric lamps ..

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Q.11 Define one watt. [SAl-2014]

Ans. The power expended by a source is said to be 1 watt if one ampere of current flows through it under
a potential difference of 1 volt.
Q.12 Two students perform the experiments on series and parallel combinations of two given resistors R1
and R2 and plot the following V-I graphs.

V Series I Parallel

Parallel Series

I V
Which of the graphs is (are) correctly labelled in terms of the words ‘series’ and ‘parallel’. Justify your
answer [SAI-2014,2015]
Ans. In series combination, for a given voltage current is less as compared to that in parallel combination.
Therefore, both the graphs are labelled correctly.

Section - E
[ PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS, (2 MARKS) ]

Q.1 Name a device that you can use to measure a potential difference between the ends of a conductor.
Explain the process by which this device does so. [SAI-2003]
Ans. A voltmeter is used to measure potential difference between the ends of a conductor. It is always
connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to be measured.

Q.2 Define ‘1 volt’. State the relation between work, charge and potential difference for an electric circuit.
Calculate the potential difference between two terminals of the battery if 100 J of work is required to
transfer 20 C of charge from one terminal of the battery to the other. [SAI-2013]
Ans. The potential difference between two points is said to be 1 V if one joule of work is done in moving
a charge of 1 C between the two points.
Work = Q × V
100 = 20 × V
or V=5V

Q.3 State the factors on which the heat produced in a current carrying conductor depends. Give one
practical application of this effect. [SAl-20l2, 2013]
Ans. Heat produced in a current carrying conductor depends upon: (i) Square of the current (ii) Resistance
of the given conductor. (iii) Time for which the current flows. Electric iron, heater.

Q.4 List in a tabular form two differences in between a voltmeter and an ammeter. [SAl-2012, 2013]

Ans. Voltmeter Ammeter

(a) Used to measure (a) Used to measure
Potential difference. current
(b) Connected in parallel (b) Connected in series
in the electric circuit in the electric circuit
(c) Has high resistance (c) Has low resistance

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Q.5 A large number of free electrons are present in metals yet no current flows in the absence of electric
potential across it. Explain the statement with reason. [SAI-2013]
Ans. A large number of free electrons are present in metals; yet no current flows. It is because the electrons move
in a random way such that there is no net flow of electrons in anyone direction. When a potential difference
is applied across the conductor all electrons move in the same direction, thereby constituting current.

Q.6 Explain the term resistance. Give its SI unit of measurement. [SAI-2014]
Ans. The word resistance means resist or opposition that a conductor offers to the flow of charges through
it. When a potential difference is applied across the conductor, the free electrons get accelerated.
These moving electrons collide with other electrons and atoms due to which the electrons are slowed
down. In other words, the motion of the electrons is opposed. This opposition is called resistance of
the conductor. Resistance is measured in ohm ().

Q.7 On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend? [SAI-2014,2015]

Ans. The resistance (R) of a conductor depends upon :
(i) its length (L), where R  L
(ii) its cross-sectional area (A), where
1
R
A
(iii) resistivity () of its material, where R  .

Q.8 Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of three cells of 2 V each, a 5  resistor,
8  resistor and a 12  resistor and a plug key all connected in series. [SAl-2015]
Ans. The schematic diagram of the above mentioned circuit is given below :

Q.9 What are the conditions under which Ohm's law is not obeyed? [SAI-2015]
Ans. Ohm's law is not obeyed under the following conditions :
(i) Potential difference depends upon current non-linearly.
(ii) For the same value of V, I changes sign with V.
(iii) V and I have non-unique relation.
(iv) If temperature and pressure varies then ohm's law is not obeyed.

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Section - F
[ PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS, (3 MARKS) ]
Q.1 (a) State with the help of a circuit diagram an activity to find the resistance ‘R’ of a given wire.
(b) A current of 0.2 A passes through a resistor of 20 . Find the potential difference across its ends.
[SAI-2013]
Ans. (a) (i) A circuit is set-up using the wire of resistance R, an ammeter, a voltmeter and four
cells of 1.5 V each.
(ii) First one cell is used as source and the reading of ammeter and voltmeter is noted
down to find the current (I) and potential difference (V).
(iii) The number of cells is increased one by one and the readings are noted down.

(iv) The average ratio of V to I gives the resistance R ' of the wire.
(b) Given, I = 0.2 A, R = 20 
V = I R = 0.2 × 20 = 4 V

Q.2 Find the equivalent resistance of the following circuit. [SAI-2012,2013]

2

3 1
2

3
1
+ –
V

Ans. Resistance of 2 each are connected in parallel. Let their combined resistance by R P1 .
1 1 1
So,   1
R P1 2 2

 R P1 = 1 
Also, resistance of 1 each are connected in parallel. Let their combined resistance be R P2 .

1
So R P2 = 1 + 1 = 2 

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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

1
 R P2 = = 0.5 
2
Equivalent resistance (R) of the circuit is given by
R = 3 + R P1 + R P2 + 3 = 6 + 1 + 0.5 = 7.5 

Q.3 State the formula co-relating the electric current flowing in a conductor and the voltage applied across
it. Also, show this relationship by drawing a graph.
What would be the resistance of a conductor if the current flowing through it is 0.35 ampere when the
potential difference across it is 1.4 volt ? [SAI-2014]
Ans. It states that “Physical conditions remaining same then the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential applied across its two ends.”
The graph is as shown below :

Given, V = 1.4 V, I = 0.35 A. Now resistance is given by the expression

V 1.4
R   4
I 0.35

Q.4 What is meant by ‘electrical resistance" of a conductor? State how resistance of a conductor is
affected when (i) a low current passes through it for a .short duration; (ii) a heavy current passes
through it for about 30 seconds. [SAl-2015]
Ans. It is the opposition offered to the flow of current by a conductor.
(i) No effect on resistance, low current, hence no appreciable rise in temperature, so no change
in resistance.
(ii) Heavy current for about 30 seconds may increase the temperature of the conductor
appreciably, so resistance will change/increase.

Section - G
[ PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS, (5 MARKS) ]
Q.1 (a) What is meant by saying that the potential difference between two points is 1 volt ?
(b) Why does the connecting cord of an electrical heater not glow while the heating element does ?
(c) Electrical resistivities of some substances at 20° C are given below :

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Silver 1.60 10 8 m

Copper 1.62  108 m
Tungsten 5.2  108 m
Iron 10.0  108 m
Mercury 94.0  108 m
Nichrome 100  106 m
Answer the following questions in relation to them :
(i) Among silver and copper which one is better conductor ? Why ?
(ii) Which material would you advise to use in electrical heating device ? Why ?
[SAI-2010, 2012, 2014]
Ans. (a) Potential difference between two points is said to be one volt when one joule of work is done
to move a charge of one coulomb between the two points.
(b) Heating element glows because its resistivity is much higher than the resistivity of the
connecting cord.
(c) (i) Silver is a better conductor because it has the less resistivity.
(ii) Nichrome, because its resistivity is much higher in comparison to the others.

Q.2 (a) Explain how does a cell maintain current in a circuit.

(b) In the circuit given below the resistance of the path xTy = 2 and that of xzy = 6.
(i) Find the equivalent resistance between x and y.
(ii) Find the current in the main circuit.
(iii) Calculate the current that flows through the path xTy and xzy. [SAI-20l4]

Ans. (a) The chemical action within a cell generates the potential difference across the terminals of the
cell. This potential difference sets and maintain current in the circuit.
(b) (i) Equivalent resistance,
1 1 1 3 1 4 2
Re = 2 + 6 = 6 = 6 = 3
or Re = 1.5 
(ii) Total resistance of the circuit
= Re + 1.5 
= 1.5  + 1.5  = 3
6V
 Current (I) = = 2A
3
(iii) Current flowing through path xTy (I1)
6
I1 =  2 = 1.5 A
62
Current flowing through path xZy (I2)
2
I2 =  2 = 0.5 A
62

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Q.3 Draw a labelled circuit diagram showing three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series with a
battery (E), a rheostat (Rh), a plug key (K) and an ammeter (A) using standard circuit symbols. Use
this circuit to show that the same current flows through every part of the circuit. List two precautions
you would observe while performing the experiment. [SAl-2015]
Ans. The circuit diagram is as shown: Join three resistors of different values in series. Connect them with a
battery, an ammeter, a rheostat and a plug key, as shown in figure.

Plug the key. Note the ammeter reading. Change the position of ammeter to anywhere in between the
resistors. Note the ammeter reading each time. We observe that the value of the current in the ammeter
is the same, independent of its position in the electric circuit. It means that in a series combination of
resistors the current is the same in every part of the circuit or the same current series through each
resistor.
Precautions :
(i) The current should not be passed for a long time.
(ii) All the connections should be tight.

Q.4 (a) Derive the formula for the calculation of work done when current flows through a resistor.
(b) One electric bulb is rated 40 Wand 240 V and other 25 W and 240 V. Which bulb has higher
resistance and how many times ? [SAI-2015]
Ans. (a) Suppose a current I is sent through a conductor of resistance R for time t under a potential
difference of V volt as shown in figure. R
Then charge flowing through the conductor is Q = It
The work done in taking Q coulomb charge from one end of
the conductor to the other end at a potential difference V is
W = VQ
or W = VIt V
(b) P1 = 40 W, V1 = 240 V
+ –
V12 V12 240 240
P1 = or R1 = =
R1 P1 40
P2 = 25W, V2 = 240 V
V22 V22
P2 = or R2 =
R2 P2
240  240
25
240  240
R1 40 25 5 R1 5
  
So R2 240  240 =  R2 8
40 8
25
8
25 W bulb has more resistance and R times.
5 1

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III

Section - A
Direction for questions 1 to 5 : State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. Conventional current always flows from a body having high charge density to a body having low
charge density.
2. At constant temperature, the resistance of a conductor changes according to the applied voltage.
3. In an electrolyte, the movement of ions is responsible for electric current.
4. Electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
5. Earthing of electric appliances prevents electric shock.

Section - B
Directions for question 1 to 6. Fill in the blanks.
1. Power transmission is carried out at high ___________ and low ___________.
2. Switch is always connected to the ___________ wire.
3. Rate at which electric work is done is called ______________.
4. The process of depositing a thin layer of desired metal over another metal by passing an electric
current through some electrolyte is called _______________.
5. Conductance is the reciprocal of ______________.
6. The amount of work done by the cell on a unit positive charge carrier to force it to go to the point of
higher potential is called _______________.

Section - C
Direction for question : Match the entries in the column A with appropriate ones from column B.

Q.1 Column I Column II

L
(A) Ohm (p)
A
1 volt
(B) Resistance (q) 1ampere
(C) Resistivity (r) zero resistance
(D) Super conductor (s) ohm–meter

Q.2 Column -A Column-B

(A) Electric potential a. Transistor
(B) Commercial unit of electrical energy b. ohm-meter
(C) Resistance c. E = E1 + E2
(D) Superconductor d. Q = I2Rt
(E) 1 ohm e. Black
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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

(F) Non-ohmic conductor f. V = W/Q

(G) Resistivity g. kW h
L
(H) Cells connected in series h.
A
(I) Heat produced in a conductor i. zero resistance
(J) Neutral wire j. 1 volt/1 ampere

Q.3 Column II gives order of resistivity for materials in column I.

Column I Column II
(A) Semi–conductor (p) 3 × 103 -m
(B) Conductor (q) 10–8 -m
(C) Insulator (r) 1016 -m
(D) Super conductor (s) 1 -m

Multiple Matching Type Questions (One to Many) :

Direction for question : Match the entries in the column A with appropriate more then ones
from column B.
Q.4 Column I Column II
(A) Ohm's Law (p) Materialistic property
(B) Resistivity (q) Voltage  current
charge
(C) For Ohmic–conductor (r)
time
(D) Electric current (s) V = IR

Q.5 Column I Column II

0.5  0.5 

(A) (p) Req = 1 , I = 12 A

I
+ –
12V

2
2
(B) (q)  Length
I I
+ –
12V
(C) Resistance (r) Req = 1, I = 6A

3
3 1
(D) (s) 
3 Area
I I
+ –
6V

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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

Q.6 Column I Column II

(A) 1 Ohm (p) 1 Volt / 1 Amp
(B) Current (q) Depends on matter of conductor
charge
(C) Resistivity (r)
time
(D) Super conductor (s) Resistance = 0

Q.7 Column I Column II

(A) Ohm’s law (p) Nichrome wire
(B) Heating effect (q) Battery
(C) EMF (r) V = IR
(D) Terminal potential difference (s) Ohmic resistance
(t) v =  ± Ir

Section - D
Multiple choice question with one correct answers :
Q.1 A cylindrical rod is reformed to twice its length with no change in its volume. If the resistance of the
rod was R, the new resistance will be :
(A) R (B) 2 R (C) 4 R (D) 8 R

Q.2 A wire carries a steady current of 1.0 A over a period of 20s. What total charge passes through the
wire in this time interval :
(A) 200 C (B) 20 C (C) 2.0 C (D) 0.20 C

Q.3 The length of a wire is doubled and the radius is doubled. By what factor does the resistance change
:
(A) 4 times as large (B) twice as large (C) unchanged (D) half as large

Q.4 A 24 V potential difference is applied across a parallel combination of four 6 ohm resistor. The
current in each resistor is :
(A) 1 A (B) 4 A (C) 16 A (D) 36 A

Q.5 Three resistances of 2, 3 and 5  are connected in parallel to a 10 V battery of negligible internal
resistance. The potential difference across the 3  resistance will be :
(A) 2 V (B) 3 V (C) 5 V (D) 10 V

Q.6 You are given n identical wires, each of resistance R. When these are connected in parallel, the
equivalent resistance is X. When these will be connected in series, then the equivalent resistance will
be :
(A) X/n2 (B) n2X (C) X/n (D) nX

Q.7 Charge on an electron is 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb. Number of electrons passing through the wire per
second on flowing of 1 ampere current through the wire will be :
(A) 0.625 × 10–19 (B) 1.6 × 10–19 (C) 1.6 × 10–19 (D) 0.625 × 1019

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Q.8 Three resistors of 4.0, 6.0 and 10.0 are connected in series. What is their equivalent
resistance :
(A) 20  (B) 5  (C) 6.0  (D) 4.0 

Q.9 Ampere-second stands for the unit of :

(A) Power (B) Charge (C) e.m.f. (D) Energy

Q.10 Three resistors are connected to form the sides of a triangle ABC as shown below.
B 60  C

40  100 

A
The resistance of side AB is 40 ohms, of side BC 60 ohms and of side CA 100 ohms. The effective
resistance between A and B will be :
(A) 50 (B) 64 (C) 32 (D) 100

Q.11 If one micro-amp. current is flowing in a wire, the number of electrons which pass from one end of the
wire to the other end in one second is :
(A) 6.25 × 1012 (B) 6.25 × 1015 (C) 6.25 × 1018 (D) 6.25 × 1019

Q.12 If the temperature of a conductor is increased, its resistance will :

(A) Not increase (B) Increase
(C) Decrease (D) Change according to the whether

Q.13 There are two wires of the same length and of the same material and radius r and 2r. The ratio of their
specific resistance is :
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 1 : 1 (C) 1 : 4 (D) 4 : 1

Q.14 The resistance 4 R, 16 R, 64 R, ..........  are connected in series, their resultant will be :
(A) 0 (B)  (C) 43 R (D) 34 R

Q.15 Resistance R, 2 R, 4 R, 8 R, ..........  are connected in parallel. Their resultant resistance will be :
(A) R (B) R/2 (C) 0 (D) 

Q.16 The equivalent resistance between points X & Y :

X 30  10  Y
10  30  20 
30 

20  30 

(A) 5  (B) 10  (C) 15  (D) 60 

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Q.17 The equivalent resistance between points X & Y :

X 7 5 Y
2 6

(A) 4  (B) 4.5  (C) 2  (D) 20 

Q.18 A certain wire has a resistance R. The resistance of another wire identical with the first except having
twice its diameter is :
(A) 2 R (B) 0.25 R (C) 4 R (D) 0.5 R

Q.19 Masses of 3 wires of same metal are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 and their lengths are in the 3 : 2 : 1. The
electrical resistances are in ratio :
(A) 1 : 4 : 9 (B) 9 : 4 : 1 (C) 1 : 2 : 3 (D) 27 : 6 : 1

Q.20 A solenoid is at potential difference 60 V and current flows through it is 15 ampere, then the
resistance of coil will be :
(A) 4  (B) 8  (C) 0.25  (D) 2 

Q.21 In the circuit shown in the figure, the current through

3 2 2

8 8 4
9V
2 2 2

(A) The 3  resistor is 0.50 A (B) The 3  resistor is 0.25 A

(C) The 4  resistor is 0.50 A (D) The 4  resistor is 0.25 A

Q.22 Which of the following has a negative temperature coefficient?

(A) C (B) Fe (C) Mn (D) Ag

Q.23 Which two circuit components are connected in parallel in the following circuit diagram?

+ V –

Resistor
–
A
+
+ –
K

(A) Rheostat and voltmeter (B) Voltmeter and resistor

(C) Voltmeter and ammeter (D) Ammeter and resistor

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Q.24 To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series, a student arranged
the circuit components as shown in the diagram. But he did not succeed to achieve the objective.

+ – + A –
K

+ V –

Which of the following mistakes has been committed by him in setting up the circuit?
(A) Position of ammeter is incorrect.
(B) Position of voltmeter is incorrect.
(C) Terminals of ammeter are wrongly connected.
(D) Terminals of voltmeter are wrongly connected.

Q.25 The following circuit diagram shows the experimental set-up for the study of dependence of current
on potential difference. Which two circuit components are connected in series?

+ V –

–
A
+
+ –
K

(A) Battery and voltmeter (B) Ammeter and voltmeter

(C) Ammeter and Rheostat (D) Resistor and voltmeter

Q.26 Which of the circuit components in the following circuit diagram and connected in parallel?

+
R2 V
–
– R1
A
+
+ –
K
(A) R1 and R2 only (B) R1, R2 and V (C) R2 and V only (D) R1 and V only

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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

Section - E
Multiple choice question with one or more than one correct answers :
Q.1 The terminal potential difference of a cell of EMF ‘E’ and internal resistance ‘r’ is given by the formula
(A) V = E – Ir (B) V = E (C) V = 0 (D) V = E + Ir

Q.2 The voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing across it under constant
conditions of
(A) Pressure (B) Humidity (C) Temperature (D) Density

Q.3 Choose all correct alternatives

(A) 1 volt × 1 coulomb = 1 joule
(B) 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 J/s
(C) 1 volt × 1 watt = 1 HP
(D) Watt-hour can be measured in terms of electron-volt

Q.4 A current passes through a wire of non-uniform cross-section. Which of the following quantities are
independent of the cross-section?
(A) The charge crossing in a given time interval
(B) Drift speed
(C) Current density
(D) Free-electron density

Q.5 Two conductors made of the same material have length L and 2L, but have equal resistances. The two
are connected in series in a circuit in which current is flowing. Which of the following is / are correct?
(A) The potential difference across the two conductors is the same.
(B) The electron drift velocity is larger in the conductor of length 2L.
(C) The electric field in the first conductor is twice than that in the second.
(D) The electric field in the second conductor is twice than that in the first.

Q.6 Electric current arises from the flow of charged particles.

Now :
(A) In metals it is dominant due to flow of electrons.
(B) In semiconductor it is jointly due to flow of holes and electrons.
(C) In electrolytes it is due to flow of negative ions only.
(D) In discharged tubes containing gases at low pressure it is due to flow of positive ions only.

Q.7 Electric current is due to flow of charge carriers in the conductor. Which of the following is / are
correct?
(A) The drift speed of charge carriers is a very small fraction of the mean thermal agitation speed of
the same charge carriers.
(B) The number of charge carriers per unit volume is always the same as the number of atoms of the
conductor per unit volume.
(C) The drift velocity is proportional to the electric field applied ordinarily.
(D) In an intrinsic semiconductor, the charge carriers are either electrons only or holes only; both of
them may not participate in conduction.

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Q.8 When some potential difference is maintained between A and B, current I enters the network at A and
leaves at B.
20  C 5

A B
5 20 
D
(A) The equivalent resistance between A and B is 8 .
(B) C and D are at the same potential.
(C) No current flows between C and D.
(D) Current (3l / 5) flows D to C.

Q.9 Three voltmeters, all having different resistances, are joined as shown in the figure. When some
potential difference is applied across A and B, their readings are V1, V2, V3 :

V1 V2

A B
V3

(A) V1 = V2 (B) V1  V2 (C) V1 + V2 = V3 (D) V1 + V2 > V3

Q.10 In the circuit, the battery is ideal. A voltmeter of resistance 600  is connected in turn across R1 and
R2, giving readings V1 and V2 respectively :

R1 = 600 
E= +
120 V –
R2 = 300 

(A) V1 = 80 V (B) V1 = 60 V (C) V2 = 30 V (S) V2 = 40 V

Section - F
Comprehension – 1
A battery of EMF 10 V having internal resistance of 2 is connected to an external resistance of 3.
The battery is first in charging mode and then in discharging mode.

1. The current flowing through the external resistance is :

(A) 1A (B) 3A (C) 2A (D) 10A

2. The terminal potential difference during discharging mode of battery :

(A) 6V (B) 2V (C) 1V (D) 10V

3. The terminal potential difference during the charging mode of battery :

(A) 5V (B) 10V (C) 14V (D) 9V

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CH-1 : ELECTRICITY PHYSICS / CLASS-X

Comprehension – 2
Answer the following questions based on the given circuit.

4 3
A 6 B

3V
Q.1 The potential drop across the 3  resistor is :
(A) 1 V (B) 1.5 V (C) 2 V (D) 3 V

Q.2 The equivalent resistance between points A and B is :

(A) 7  (B) 6  (C) 13  (D) 5 

Q.3 The current flowing through in the given circuit is :

(A) 0.5 A (B) 1.5 A (C) 6 A (D) 3 A

Comprehension – 3
A B
12  3.0  5.0  4.0 
I
12V

Q.1 The equivalent resistance between points A and B, is :

(A) 12  (B) 36  (C) 32  (D) 24 

Q.2 The current through each resistor is :

(A) 1 A (B) 2.3 A (C) 0.5 A (D) 0.75 A

Q.3 The potential drop across the 12  resistor is :

(A) 12 V (B) 6 V (C) 8 V (D) 0.5 V

Section - G
Assertion & Reason
Instructions: In the following questions as Assertion (A) is given followed by a Reason (R). Mark your
responses from the following options.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of ‘Assertion’
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is not the correct explanation of ‘Assertion’
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false
(D) Assertion is false but Reason is true

Q.1 Assertion : Current is a vector quantity.

Reason : Current is charge flowing per unit time.

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Q.2 Assertion : Current flows from positive to negative terminal of the battery.
Reason : This is the conventional direction of current.

Q.3 Assertion : The resistance of a conductor is proportional to the square of its length.

l
Reason : R   .
A

Q.4 Assertion : Resistivity changes when conductor is stretched or contracted.

Reason : Resitivity is a material property.

Q.5 Assertion : Kirchoff’s current law states that the net current at a junction is zero.
Reason : This law is based on the conservation of charge principle.

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ANSWER KEY
Try yourself :
1. Potential difference = 1 V & Current = 1/2 A. 2. 2 .

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III

Section - A

1. False 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. True

Section - B
1. Voltage, current 2. Live 3. Electric power
4. Electroplating 5. Resistance 6. EMF

Section - C
Q.1 (A)-(q), (B)-(p), (C)-(s), (D)-(r)
Q.2 (A)-(f), (B)-(g), (C)-(h), (D)-(i), (E)-(j), (F)-(a), (G)-(b), (H)-(c), (I)-(d), (J)-(e)
Q.3 (A)-(p), (B)-(s), (C)-(r), (D)-(q)
Q.4 (A)-(q,s), (B)-(p), (C)-(q,s), (D)-(r) Q.5 (A)-(p), (B)-(p), (C)-(q,s), (D)-(r)
Q.6 (A)-(p), (B)-(q,r), (C)-(q), (D)-(s) Q.7 (A)-(r,s), (B)-(p), (C)-(q), (D)-(r,t)

Section - D
Q.1 C Q.2 B Q.3 D Q.4 B Q.5 D Q.6 B Q.7 D
Q.8 A Q.9 B Q.10 C Q.11 A Q.12 B Q.13 B Q.14 B
Q.15 B Q.16 C Q.17 B Q.18 B Q.19 D Q.20 A Q.21 D
Q.22 A Q.23 B Q.24 C Q.25 C Q.26 B

Section - E
Q.1 AD Q.2 AC Q.3 ABD Q.4 AD Q.5 AC Q.6 AD Q.7 AC
Q.8 ABD Q.9 BC Q.10 BC

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Section - F
Comprehension – 1
Q.1 C Q.2 A Q.3 C

Comprehension – 2
Q.1 A Q.2 B Q.3 A

Comprehension – 3
Q.1 D Q.2 C Q.3 B

Section - G
Q.1 D Q.2 A Q.3 D Q.4 D Q.5 A

********

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CHEMISTRY
CH-1 : CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS CHEMISTRY / CLASS-X

CHEMICAL REACTION
1 AND EQUATION
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
THEORY
CONCEPT TREE

Balanced & Unbalanced

chemical equation

Chemical
Reaction
Combination reaction
Decomposition reaction
Types of chemical Displacement reaction
reaction
Double displacement reaction
Oxidation & Reduction reaction
1.1 INTRODUCTION :
Any change with the formation of new substance is called chemical reaction. There are many type of
chemical reaction e.g. displacement reaction, combination reaction etc. A chemical equation represents
a chemical reaction. In a chemical reaction balancing is very important. It can be done by various
methods. Oxidation and reduction reaction are also the types of chemical reaction. These reactions
can be balanced by ion electron method and oxidation number method. Corrosion and rancidity are
the effects of oxidation reactions.
Change is the law of nature.
There are so many situations of daily life, where we can observe various changes.
Like,
(i) Conversion of tea into vapours from a cup of hot tea.
(ii) Corrosion of iron articles (rusting) if exposed to humid atmosphere.
(iii) Cooking of food.
(iv) Digestion of food in our body.
(v) Breaking
(vi) Combustion of fuel in our vehicle.

Scientist classify these changes as :

 Physical changes
 Chemical changes.

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(1) Physical changes : A change in which physical properties of the substance changes but the
chemical composition does not change.
Examples
Freezing, melting, boiling, condensation etc.
Characteristic features of physical changes :
(i) The identity of the substances is maintained.
(ii) The change may or may not take place.
(iii) Heat change may or may not take place.
(iv) Only the physical state or some of the physical properties of the substances are changed.

(2) Chemical Changes : A change in which one of more substances changes into new substances
with a different chemical composition.
Examples.
Burning of candle, rusting of iron, calcination of lime stone etc.
Characteristic features of chemical changes :
(i) The identity of original substance is completely lost.
(ii) The change is permanent.
(iii) The change is generally accompanied by energy change.
(iv) The change cannot be reversed.

1.2 CHEMICAL REACTION :

A chemical reaction is a process which transforms one or more substances into new substances.
During chemical reactions, new substances with new properties are formed . The substances which
take part in chemical reactions are called reactants and the substances which are formed as a result
of chemical reactions are called products. For example, in the reaction between sodium hydroxide
and hydrochloric acid to give sodium chloride and water.
NaOH + HCl aCl + H2O
Sodium Hydroxide Hydrochloric acid Sodium Chloride Water
(Reactants) (Products)

The chemical reactions involves the breaking of bonds between the atoms of the reacting substances
and making of new bonds between atoms of products.

Reactant : Substances which take part in a chemical reaction.

Product : The new substances which is formed as a result of chemical reaction.

The following observation helps us to determine whether a chemical reaction has taken place.
 change in state  change in colour
 evolution of a gas  change in temperature
 formation of precipitate
The important characteristics of a chemical reaction : -
(i) Change in state : The physical state of the substance normally changes.
e.g. (a) Formation of solid MgO from solid Mg and gaseous O2.
(b) Formation of solid PbI2(ppt) from liquid solutions of Pb(NO3)2 and KI.
(c) Formation of H2 gas form the reaction of solid Zn with liquid H2SO4.

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(d) Two volumes of hydrogen gas react with one volume of oxygen gas to form two volume
of water.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O ()
or when electric current is passed through water it splits into its elements .
Electric current
2H2O ()    2H2(g) + O2 (g)
(e) NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl (s)
Ammonia Hydrochloric Ammonium
acid chloride

(ii) Change in colour : In some of the chemical reactions change in colour can be observed.
e.g. (a) Formation of brown rust on black iron nails.
(b) Formation of yellow ppt. of lead iodide from colourless solution of Pb(NO3)2 and KI.
(c) When red lead oxide is heated strongly it forms yellow coloured lead monoxide and
gives of oxygen gas.

(d) When copper carbonate (green) is heated strongly it leaves behind a black residue.

Other such examples are -

2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Lead (II) nitrate Lead (II) oxide Nitrogen
(White ) (Yellow) dioxide
(Brown)

C12H22O11(s) 12C(s) +11H2O(g)

White Carbon Water
sugar black

(iii) Evolution of a gas : In some cases, a gas may be evolved.

(a) Reaction between a metal such as zinc, magnesium, or iron and dilute sulphuric acid
produces hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (dil)  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
zinc sulphuric acid zinc sulphate hydrogen gas
(b) Reaction between iron sulphide and dilute sulphuric acid produces hydrogen sulphide
gas.
FeS (s) + H2SO4(dil)FeSO4 (aq) + H2S (g)
iron sulphide ferrous sulphate
(c) Heating a mixture of potassium chlorate (KClO3) and manganese dioxide (MnO2)
gives oxygen gas.
heat
2KClO3 (s) 

MnO2
2KCl (s) + 3O2(g)
Potassium chlorate potassium chloride oxygen gas
MnO2 is used as a catalyst in this reaction.
This reaction is used for the preparation of oxygen in the laboratory.

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(iv) Change in energy : Most of the reactions are accompanied by energy change i.e. gain
(endothermic) or release(exothermic) energy during a chemical reaction.
On the basis of energy changes, there are two types of reactions :
(A) Endothermic reaction : A chemical reaction which is accompanied by the absorption of
energy is called an endothermic reaction.
(a) N2(g) + O2(g) + Heat  2NO(g)
(Nitrogen) (Oxygen) (Nitric oxide)
(b) Light energy is essential for biochemical reaction, photosynthesis, by which green
plants prepare their food from carbon dioxide & water.
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

(B) Exothermic reaction : A chemical reaction which is accompanied by the release of energy
is called exothermic reaction.

(a) When magnesium wire is heated from its tip in a bunsen flame, it catches fire and
burns with a dazzling white flame with release of heat and light energy.
Heat
2Mg (s) + O2 (g)   2MgO (s) + Energy

(b) When quick lime (calcium oxide) is placed in water, the water becomes very hot and
sometimes starts boiling. It is because of release of heat energy during the reaction.
CaO (s) + H2O Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat energy
Calcium Water Calcium
oxide hydroxide

(v) Formation of precipitate : Some chemical reactions are characterised by the formation of
precipitate (an insoluble substance), when the solutions of two soluble chemical compounds
are mixed together.
(a) When silver nitrate solution is mixed with a solution of sodium chloride, a white
precipitate of silver chloride is formed.
AgNO3 (aq)+ NaCl (aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl (s)
Silver Sodium Sodium Silver
nitrate chloride nitrate chloride
(Colourless) (Colourless) (White
precipitate)

(b) A dirty green precipitate of ferrous hydroxide is formed, when a solution of ferrous
sulphate is mixed with sodium hydroxide solution .
FeSO4 (aq)+ 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4(aq) + Fe(OH)2 (s)
Ferrous Sodium Sodium Ferrous
sulphate hydroxide sulphate hydroxide
(Green
precipitate)

(c)

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CH-1 : CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS CHEMISTRY / CLASS-X

1.3 CHEMICAL EQUATION :

Symbolic representation of chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulas of reactants and the
products which will give idea about true chemical change.
Chemical Equations or Equations for Chemical Reaction
We have seen that all chemical changes are accompanied by chemical reactions. These reactions can
be described in sentence from but the description is quite long. Chemical equations have been framed
to describe the chemical reactions.
A chemical equation links together the substances which react (reactants) with the new substances
that are formed (product)
The chemical equation are of two types :
(i) Word Equation
(ii) Symbol Equation
Let us briefly describe these two types of equations.
 Writing Word Equations : A word equation links together the names of the reactants with those
of the products. For example, the word equation when magnesium ribbon burns in oxygen to form a
white powder of magnesium oxide, may be written as follows :
Magnesium + Oxygen 
 Magnesium oxide
(reactants) (product)
Similarly, the word equation for the chemical reaction between granulated zinc and hydrochloric acid
may be written as :
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid 
 Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
(reactants) (products)
In a word equation :
 The reactant are written on the left hand side with plus sign (+) between them.
 The product are written on the right hand side with plus sign (+) between them.
 An arrow ( 
 ) separates the reactants from the products.
 The direction of the arrow head points towards the products.

 Writing Symbol Equations : A chemical equation can also be described in terms of symbols and
formulae of the reactants and products taking part in a particular reaction. This is known as symbol
equation.
In the symbol equation, the symbols and formulae of the elements and compounds are written instead
of their word names.
For example, burning of magnesium in oxygen to form magnesium oxide may be written as follows :
Mg + O2 
 MgO
The symbol equation for the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid is :
Zn + HCl 
 ZnCl2 + H2
Both the symbol equations are not balanced which means that the number of different atoms on both
sides of the equation are not equal.

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Essentials of Chemical Equations :

Essentials of chemical equations are :
(i) It must represent a true chemical change.
(ii) All the reactants and the products of the chemical reaction must be in the form of their
representative chemical formulae or symbols.
(iii) The total number of atoms of all elements must be same on both sides.
(iv) It must be molecular.
If equation is not satisfying any of the above conditions it cannot be termed as chemical equation.
For example
Pt + 4HCl  PtCl4 + 2H2, though a balanced equation algebraically, is not a true chemical reaction
and hence, not a chemical equation since platinum does not react with hydrochloric acid to give
hydrogen.
KClO3  KCl + 3O2 is a true chemical reaction and balanced too, yet oxygen is not shown its
molecular form, hence, it is yet an incomplete chemical equation.

1.4 UNBALANCED AND BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS :

In an unbalanced equation, the number of atoms of different element on both sides of the equation are
not equal. For example, in the first equation, the number of Mg atoms on both sides of the equation is
one (same). But the number of oxygen atoms are not equal. It is known as unbalanced equation.
Mg + O2   MgO (Unbalanced equation)
An unbalanced equation is also called skeletal equation.
In a balanced equation, the number of atoms of different elements on both sides of the equation are
always equal. The balanced equation for the burning of magnesium ribbon in oxygen may be written
as:
2Mg + O2   2MgO (Balanced equation)
The atoms of one element do not change into the atoms of the other element. Similarly, the atoms
neither disappear from the reaction mixture nor do they appear from somewhere. Actually a chemical
reaction simply involves an exchange of partners during the reaction. As a result, no change in mass
occurs and the law of conservation of mass hold good. This can be illustrated by the reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen to form water.
Hydrogen + Oxygen   Water

+
+ +
O

Each molecule of water (H2O) contains one atom of oxygen (O) and two atoms of hydrogen (H).
This means that one molecule of oxygen (O2) which contains two atoms will combine with two
molecules of hydrogen (2H2) to form two molecules of water (2H2O).
2H2 + O2 
 2H2O

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This represents a balanced chemical equation.

In a skeletal equation law of conversation of mass is not followed.

The balancing of a chemical equation is essential or necessary to fulfil the
requirement of the law of Conservation of Mass. The law may be stated as :
The total mass of all the products of reaction in a chemical reaction is equal
to the total mass of all the reactants.
Keep in mind that the key feature of balanced chemical equation is the
conservation law.
Reactant Product

Equal

 Balancing of Chemical Equations :

The process of making the number of different element on both sides of the equation equal.
The balancing of a chemical equation can be done with the help of Hit and Trial method. In this
method, the coefficients before the symbol or formulae of the reactants and products are adjusted in
such a way that the total number of atoms of each element on both the sides of the arrow head
become equal. This balancing is also known mass balancing because the atoms of elements on both
sides are equal and their masses will also be equal.
The major steps involved in balancing a chemical equation are as follows :
1. Write the chemical equation in the form of a word equation. Keep the reactants on left side and
the products on right side. Separate them by an arrow head (  ) pointing from the reactants
towards the products.
2. Convert the word equation into the symbol equation by writing the symbols and formulae of all
the reactants and products.
3. Make the atoms of different elements on both sides of the equation equal by suitable method.
This is known as balancing of equation.
4. Do not change the formulae of the substances while balancing the equation.
To understand this, let us consider the following word equation.
Zinc + Sulphuric acid  Zinc Sulphate + Hydrogen
Chemical equation for the above word equation will be,
Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2
Let us examine the number of atoms of different elements on both sides of the arrow.

Number of atoms in Number of atoms in

Element
reaction (L.H.S.) products (R.H.S)
Zn 1 1
H 2 2
S 1 1
O 4 4

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As the number of atoms of each element is same on both sides of the arrow the equation can be said,
a balanced chemical equation.
Let us balance some of the chemical reactions by following the above steps.
(1) Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen.
 Step-1 : Word equation.
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid  Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen

 Step-II : Chemical equation,

Mg + HCl   MgCl2 + H2
 Step-III : Enclose all formulae into boxes.
Mg + HCl 
 MgCl2 + H2
 Step-IV : Count the number of atoms for all elements.

Number of atoms in Number of atoms in

Element
reaction (L.H.S.) products (R.H.S)
Mg 1 1
Cl 1 2
H 1 2

We can see that number of Mg is same on both side but Cl and H atoms differs on both sides.
 Step - V : As the number of atoms is deficient at reactant side, lets begin from here. At reactant
side HCl is the bigger formula, so we will start with it.
 Step-VI : Put coefficient 2 before HCl to make chlorine equal to reactant side
Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
Here, we can seen that H automatically gets balanced.
 Step-VII : Now check the number of atoms of different elements on both sides of the equation.
These are equal.
This means that the equation is balanced.

(2) Steam is passed over heated iron to form Iron oxide and hydrogen,
 Step-I : Iron + Steam  Iron Oxide + Hydrogen
 Step-II : Fe + H2O  Fe3O4 + H2
 Step-III : Fe + H2O 
 Fe3O4 + H2

Number of atoms on Number of atoms on

Element
(L.H.S.) (R.H.S)
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4

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 Step-IV : Formula selected Fe3O4 to start balancing oxygen,

(i) To balance O-atoms, multiply H2O on LHS by 4.
Fe + 4 H2O 
 Fe3O4 + H2
(ii) Now balance Fe atoms.
3 Fe + 4 H2O 
 Fe3O4 + H2
(iii) Balance H atoms.
3 Fe + 4 H2O 
 Fe3O4 + 4 H2
 Step-V : On checking the number of all elements we found that equation is balanced now,
3Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 + 4H2
Note : Fe3O4 is also known as magnetic oxide of iron.

Illustration 1 : Balance the given equation

(i) CH4 + O2 — CO2 + H2O (not balanced)
(ii) Fe + O2 — Fe2O3 (not balanced)
Solution : (i) CH4 + 2O2 — CO2 + 2H2O (balanced)
(ii) 4Fe + 3O2 — 2Fe2O3 (balanced)

Illustration 2 : Why it is necessary to balance a chemical equation ?

Solution : In order to make law of conservation of mass, applicable on the given chemical
equation, it is necessary to make number of atoms of all elements equal on
L.H.S. & R.H.S. Thus balancing is required.

 Making a chemical equation more informative :

We have studied that a chemical equation is the true representation of a chemical reaction. It is always
better to make the equation is informative as possible to get a better picture of the chemical reaction.
The various steps in this direction are :
1. Write the state symbols for the reactions and products participating in the reaction.
Writing Symbols of Physical States : The chemical equations or symbol equations which we
have enlisted donot mention the physical states of the reactant and product species involved in
the reaction. In order to make the equation more informative, the physical states are also mentioned
with the help of certain specific symbols known as ‘state symbols’. These symbols are :
 (s) for solid state
 () for liquid state
 (g) for gaseous state
 (aq) for aqueous solution i.e. solution prepared in water.
2. Indicate the gas evolved in the reaction by an arrow pointing upwards ( )
3. Represent the precipitate if formed in the reaction by an arrow pointing downwards ( ) or by
using the abbreviation ‘ppt’.
4. Mention the actual heat evolved in the exothermic reaction by plus (+) sign and heat absorbed in
the endothermic reaction by negative (–) sign on the product side.
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + 393.5 kJ (Exothermic reaction)
C(s) + 2H2(g)  CH4(g) + 74.8 kJ (Exothermic reaction)
N2(g) + O2(g)  2NO(g) – 180.0 kJ (Endothermic reaction)
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5. In some chemical reactions conditions of temperature, pressure, catalyst etc. are mentioned
either above or below the arrow head that separates the reactants from products. For example,

500ºC, 200 atm

N2(g) + 3H2(g)     2NH3(g)
Fe (catalyst)

Sun light
6CO2(g) + 6H2O()    C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
Chlorophyll
6. Certain chemical reactions can proceed in both the directions. The reactants change into products
in forward reaction. The products are converted into reactants in the backward reaction. For
example :
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 
 2NH3(g) (Forward reaction)
2NH3(g) 
 N2(g) + 3H2(g) (Backward reaction)
Such reaction are also called reversible reactions and are indicated by the symbol ( ).
Forward
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Backward

 Significance or Important Information Conveyed by a Chemical Equation :

A balanced chemical equation conveys a lot of other informations, in addition to its telling about the
feasibility of a reaction.
Some important information conveyed by a chemical equation is given below :
1. An equation, tells us the names of the reactants and the products. For example, chemical equation.
CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
2. It conveys to us the relative number of molecules of the reactants and the products.
Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2
3. It conveys to us the relative number of moles of reactants and the products.
4. Relative masses of reactants and the products become known to us.
5. It also tells about the relative volumes of reactants and the products, if they happen to be gaseous.
Now Consider the following chemical equation :
N2 + 3H2  2NH3
 It tells us that nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia.
 Formulas of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia are N2, H2 and NH3 respectively.
 One mole of nitrogen reacts with three moles of hydrogen to form two moles of ammonia.
 28 g of nitorgen react with 6 g of hydrogen to form 34 g of ammonia.
 1 volume of nitrogen reacts with three volumes of hydrogen to form two volumes of ammonia.
N2 + 3H2  2NH3
Nitrogen Hydrogen Ammonia
1 mole 3 mole 2 mole
14 × 2 = 28 g 3 × 2 = 6 g 2 × (14 + 3) = 34 g
1 volume 3 volume 2 volume

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 Limitations of a Chemical Equation :

A chemical equation does not gives the following informations :
1. Physical state of reactants and products : It is not possible to know the physical state of
reactants and products whether these substances are solid, liquid or a gas.
2. Conditions necessary for a chemical reaction : A chemical equation does not indicate about
the condition necessary for the reaction i.e., about temperature, pressure or presence of a catalyst.
3. Rate of reaction : It does not give any idea about the rate of the reaction whether slow or fast.
4. Change of heat : An equation fails to give any indication whether the heat is absorbed or
evolved.
5. Concentration : It does not give any indication about the concentration of the reactants.
6. Mechanism : It fails to give any idea about the mechanism of the reaction.
7. Nature of reaction : An equation fails to give any indication about the nature of reaction whether
it is reversible or irreversible reaction.
 Removal of Drawbacks of a Chemical Equation :
Limitations of chemical reactions have been partially removed.
1. To express the concentration of the substances the word ‘conc.’ for concentrated and ‘dil’ for
dilute are written just below the reactant.
Cu + 2H2SO4   CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
(conc.)
2. If a substance formed in the reaction is gas, it is indicated putting an arrow pointing upwards after
the formula.
CaCO3   CaO + CO2 
If a substance is precipitated in the reaction, it is indicated by putting arrow pointing downwards
after the formula.
NaCl + AgNO3   AgCl  + NaNO3
3. Physical states of the reactants and products are specified by the letter s, g and l denoting solid,
gas or liquid respectively. The word aq (aqua-water) is usually placed within small brackets after
the formula to indicate that the water solution of the compound is used.
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l)   2NaOH (aq) + H2(g) 
4. Reversible reaction is indicated by the sign of reversibility ( )
N2(g) + O2 (g) 2NO(g) 
5. If a reaction take place at a particular temperature or pressure, it is expressed by writing on or
below the arrow head.
200 atm
N2 + 3H2     2NH3
450ºC
6. If the reaction is exothermic the energy released is expressed by plus (+) sign and if the
reaction is endothermic, it is expressed by putting minus (–) sign.
C + O2   CO2 + 94300 calories. (exothermic)
N2 + O2 
 2NO – 83200 calories. (endothermic)

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1.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS :

During a chemical raection some bonds break and some new bonds are formed this result in
redistribution of atoms in different ways.
Accordingly the reactions are classified in different types.
Displacement Decomposition
Reaction Reaction

Chemical Reactions

Double Combination
Displacement Oxidation and Reaction
Reaction Reduction
Reaction

 Combination Reactions :
Those chemical reactions which involve the combination of two or more substances to form a single
new substance are called combination reactions. Combination reactions may involve either :
(i) Combination of two elements.
(ii) Combination of an element and a compound to form a new compound or
(iii) Combination of two compounds.
Let us now discuss all these types of combination reactions one by one.

(i) Combination reactions involving two elements : Some examples of combination reactions
involving two elements are :
(a) Carbon (charcoal) burns in air to form carbon dioxide
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
Carbon + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide
(Charcoal)
(b) Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water
2H2(g) + O2(g) Electric spark
    2H2O(l)
Hydrogen Oxygen Water

(c) Buring of magnesium in air

2Mg (s) + O2(g)  2MgO(g)
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
(ii) Combination reactions involving an element and a compound : Some examples of
combination reactions involving an element and a compound are :
(a) Nitric oxide combines with oxygen at room temperature to form brown fumes of nitrogen
dioxide (NO2)
2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g)
Nitric oxide Oxygen Nitrogen dioxide

(b) Carbon monoxide combines with oxygen to produce corbondioxide (CO2)

2CO(g) + O2(g)  2CO2(g)
Carbon monoxide Oxygen Carbondioxide

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(c) Sulphur oxide raect with oxygen to yield sulphur trioxide (SO3)
2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g)
Sulphur dioxide Oxygen Sulphur trioxide

(iii) Combination reactions involving two compounds : Some examples of such reactions are :
CaO(s) + H2O()   Ca(OH)2(s)
Quick lime Slaked lime

 Activity :
In order to illustrate a combination reaction, take about 2g to 3g of calcium oxide (also called quick
lime) in a glass beaker. Pour water over it very slowly. What will you observe ?
The reaction will be highly vigorous as well as exothermic. It will be accompanied by hissing noise and
bubbles. In fact, solution will initially start boiling. In this reaction, calcium hydroxide (also known as
slaked lime) will be formed as a result of combination between two compounds.
CaO(s) + H2O() 
 Ca(OH)2(s)
Quick lime Slaked lime /Calcium hydroxide
Slaked lime is used for white wash. Slaked lime or calcium Beaker

hydroxide formed in the above reaction will be in the form of water

a white suspension. It is filtered and solution containing soluble Quick lime
Slaked
calcium hydroxide is applied on the wall with a brush. Carbon lime
Fig : Formation of
dioxide present in air will come into its contact and as a result, slaked lime
a thin layer of calcium carbonate (white) will be deposited
on the wall. This is known as white wash.
Quick lime (CaO) reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)   CaCO3(s) + H2O()

(Calcium hydroxide) (from air) (Calcium
carbonate)
Some more Examples of combination reactions :
1. Combination between hydrogen and chlorine :
Hydrogen and chlorine gases combine in the presence of sun light to form hydrogen chloride gas.
Sun light
H2(g) + Cl2(g)    2HCl (g)
Hydrogen chloride gas is highly soluble in water and forms hydrochloric acid.
2. Formation of iron sulphide :
Iron sulphide is formed, when fine pieces of iron are heated with sulphur powder (yellow in
colour). It is in the form of a black mass.
Fe(s) + S(s) Heat
  FeS(s)
3. Formation of ferric chloride :
When vapours of dry chlorine gas are passed through iron in the form of a fine wool, a chemical
reaction takes place.
A brown mass of ferric chloride or iron (III) chloride is formed as a result of the combination
reaction.
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g)  2FeCl3(s)

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Iron
wool Brown
colour
Unreacted
Dry chlorine
chlorine

Figure : Formation of Ferric Chloride

KNOWLEDGE ENHANCER
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions :
Exothermic Reactions: The chemical reactions in which formation of products is accompanied by
evolution of heat are known as exothermic reactions.
Some examples of exothermic reactions are :
(i) Burning of coal :
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + Heat
(ii) Burning of natural gas :
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Heat
(iii) Formation of slaked lime from quick lime :
CaO(s) + H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat
Quicklime Slaked lime
(iv) Respiration
This energy is generally supplied by food we eat. Bread, potatoes and rice etc. which we eat all
contains carbohydrates.
C6Hl2O6 (aq) + 6O2(aq)  6CO2(aq) + 6H2O(l) + Energy
The reaction is known by a special name respiration.
(v) Decomposition of vegetable matter on a compost heap is also an example of exothermic reaction.
Endothermic Reactions: The chemical reactions in which formation of products is accompanied by
the absorption of heat are known as endothermic reactions.
Some examples of endothermic reactions are :
(i) N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) – Heat
(ii) H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) – Heat
(iii) C(s) + 2S(g)  
 CS2(l) – Heat
(iv) C(s) + H2O(g)  
 CO(g) + H2(g) – Heat

 Decomposition Reactions :
(i) Those chemical reactions in which a compound breaks down to produce two or more simpler
substances are known as decomposition reactions.
(ii) These reactions take place when the energy is supplied in the form of heat, light or electricity.
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(iii) It may be noted that decomposition reactions are just the reverse of combination reactions.
(a) Thermal Decomposition Reactions: Chemical reactions in which the decomposition is
achieved by supplying heat energy are called thermal decomposition reactions.
(i) Decomposition of ferrous sulphate. Ferrous sulphate on heating decomposes as given
below:
2FeSO4(s) Heat
 Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
Ferrous sulphate Ferric oxide Sulphur dioxide Sulphur trioxide
(Dirty white) (Brown)

Ferrous SO2 & SO3 gases

sulphate
crystals

Figure : Decomposition of Ferrous sulphate crystals

(ii) Decomposition of lead nitrate
Heat
2Pb(NO3)2(s) Decomposit
   
ion
2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Lead nitrate Lead oxide Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen

NO2 & O2 gases

Lead nitrate
crystals

Figure : Decomposition of Lead nitrate crystals

(iii) Decomposition of calcium carbonate
Heat
CaCO3(s) Decomposit
   
ion
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(Calcium carbonate) (Calcium oxide) (Carbon dioxide)
Calcium oxide obtained in this process is called lime or quick lime, it has many uses. The most
important is in the manufacture of cement.
(b) Electrolytic Decomposition Reactions : Chemical reactions in which decomposition is
achieved by passing electric current are called electrolytic decomposition reactions.This
process of electrolytic decomposition of a substance is also known as electrolysis.
Note : In electrolysis, electro refer to electricity and lysis refers to break down.
Electrolytic decomposition of water  When electric current is passed through acidulated water,
it decomposes to give hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.

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 Activity :
The electrolysis of water resulting in hydrogen and
oxygen gases is a common example of
decomposition reaction carried by passing electric H2 O2
current. Water as such is a poor conductor of
electricity but water containing a few drops of
sulphuric acid (acidulated water) is a good conductor.
In a plastic mug, drill two holes at the base and insert Carbon
graphite (carbon) electrodes into these holes. Connect electrodes Acidulated
these electrodes to a 6 volts battery. The plastic mug water
will act as voltameter. Fill the mug with water to nearly
half and add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid.
Invert graduated test tubes containing water on both
the electrodes as shown in the figure. Pass current Electrolysis of Acidulated Water
slowly through the voltameter. Bubbles of gases will
appear above the electrodes in both the tubes. As a
result, water level will be pushed downwards.
The gases are hydrogen and oxygen and are formed by the decomposition of water on passing
electric current.
2H2O(l) Electric
 current
 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Water Hydrogen Oxygen
The volume of hydrogen collected will be double than that of oxygen. This is quite expected as well
according to the chemical equation. These gases can be tested later on.
(c) Decomposition in the presence of sun light: Some compounds decompose when placed
in sun light.
2AgCl (s) Sunlight
  2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)
(Grey) (Chlorine)
(Decomposition reactions are generally endothermic in nature.)
(i) If we take silver bromide in place of silver chloride, it is also converted into grey coloured
silver.
Sunlight
2AgBr   2Ag + Br2
Silver bromide Silver metal Bromine
(Yellow) (Grey)

Sun

China Silver
Dish chloride

Figure : Action of sun light on silver chloride crystals

(ii) Photolytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
2H2O2 Light 2H2 O + O2 

Hydrogen peroxide Water Oxygen

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Silver halides are sensitive to sunlight and are decomposed by it. This forms
the basis of black & white photography. Silver halides are generally kept in
coloured bottles.
Photolysis of AgBr is used in black and white photography.
During photosynthesis liberations of O2 takes place because of photolysis
of water.
Hydrogen peroxide is kept in coloured bottles so as to cut off light.

 Advantages of Decomposition Reactions :

Decomposition reactions find a large number of its advantages in industry and our daily life. Some
important advantages of decomposition reactions are :
(i) Extraction of metals : Metals like sodium, potassium, aluminium, calcium, magnesium, etc.
can be extracted by the electrolytic decomposition of their molten salts. When fused (molten)
metal chloride or oxide is decomposed by passing electricity, the metal is produced at the
cathode (negative electrode).
(ii) Isolation of some non-metals : Some non-metals like hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine etc.
can be obtained on large scale by the electrolytic decomposition of their respective compounds.
For example, hydrogen and oxygen can be obtained by the electrolysis of acidulated water.
(iii) Digestion of food in our body : For example, starch which we take in the form of food like
rice, wheat, potatoes, etc. decomposes in our bodies to produce simple sugars like glucose.
Similarly, proteins consumed by us in different forms decompose to form amino acids.
 Displacement Reactions :
Those reactions in which a more active element displaces or removes another less active
element from a compound are called displacement reactions.
Relative reactivity of metals :
Different metals possess different reactivities. The arrangement of metals in a vertical column in order
of their decreasing reactivity from top to bottom is called reactivity series or activity series of metals.

Most Reactive
Potassium K
DECREASING REACTIVITY

Sodium Na
Barium Ba
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Least Reactive

Activity series of some metals

(i) Displacement of copper by iron : When a piece of iron metal is dipped in a solution of
copper sulphate, deep blue colour of copper sulphate starts fading and starts converting into

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green colour. This is due to displacement of copper from copper sulphate solution by more
reactive iron metal which results in the formation of green coloured ferrous sulphate solution
along with the deposition of reddish brown copper metal on the surface of iron metal.
Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) 
 FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Iron Copper sulphate Iron (II) sulphate Copper
(Blue) (Green)

(ii) Displacement of copper by zinc : If we dip a strip of zinc metal in copper sulphate solution,
zinc displaces copper from copper sulphate forming zinc sulphate and copper metal
Zn(s) + CuSO 4(aq) 
 ZnSO4(aq) + Cu (s)
Zinc Copper sulphate Zinc sulphate Copper
solution (Blue) (Colourless)
As zinc sulphate solution is colourless, therefore, the blue colour of copper sulphate solution
goes on fading with the passage of time. At the same time, a reddish brown deposit of copper
metal is formed on the zinc strip.
One more example of displacement of copper from its salt solution is given below :
Pb(s) + CuCl2(aq) 
 PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
Lead Copper chloride Lead chloride Copper
Let us now consider a reaction in which more reactive copper displaces less reactive metal
from its salt solution.
(iii) Displacement of less reactive non metal by more reactive metal :
Like metals a more reactive non-metal also displaces a less reactive non-metal from its
compound. For example, more reactive chlorine gas when bubbled through a colourless
solution of potassium iodide, displaces iodine from it as violet vapours.
2KI(aq) + Cl2(g)  2KCl (aq) + I2(g)
Potassium iodide Chlorine Potassium chloride Iodine
(Colourless) (Violet)

 Double Displacement Reactions :

Double Displacement Reactions are also known as METATHESIS REACTIONS.
The reaction in which two different atoms or groups of atoms are displaced by other atoms or
groups of atoms or in which two compounds react by an exchange or displacement of ions to
form new compounds are called double displacement reactions.
The double decomposition reactions can be further classified in two types :
(a) Precipitation reactions (b) Neutralisation reactions
Let us discuss these double decomposition reactions, individually.
(a) Precipitation reaction : Those reactions in which two clear and transparent solutions on
mixing result in the formation of an insoluble product are known as precipitation reactions and
the insoluble product is known as precipitate.
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)   2NaCl(aq) + BaSO4(s) 
Sodium sulphate Barium chloride Sodium chloride Barium sulphate
(White ppt.)

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Sodium
Sulphate
solution

Barium
chloride
solution
Barium
sulphate
(white ppt)
Figure : Formation of BaSO4 by double displacement reaction

In this reaction, SO 24 – ions displace Cl– ions and Cl– ions displace SO 24– ions. Since the
reactions involves the displacement of two chemical species, therefore, it is known as double
displacement reaction.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s)  + NaNO3(aq)
Silver nitrate Sodium chloride Silver chloride Sodium nitrate
These reactions usually occur in ionic compounds. (white ppt)
(b) Neutralisation Reactions :
Reactions in which an acid and a base react with each other to produce salt and water are
known as neutralisation reactions.
When an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid is mixed with an aqueous solution of sodium
hydroxide in equivalent amounts, a reaction takes place to form sodium chloride and water
(i) HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) 
 NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Hydrochloric acid Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride (Water)
(Acid) (Base) (Salt)
(ii) KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) 
 KNO3(aq) + H2O()
(Base) (Acid) (Salt) (Water)
(iii) Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 
 BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O()
(Base) (Acid) (Salt) (Water)
(iv) 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) 
 Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O()
(Base) (Acid) (Salt) (Water)
Such a reaction is termed as a neutralisation reaction. The hydrogen (H+) ions which were responsible
for the acidic properties of HCl have reacted with hydroxyl (OH–) ions which were responsible for
the basic properties of NaOH to produce neutral water. The Na+ and Cl– ions have undergone no
chemical change and appear in the form of crystalline sodium chloride on evaporation.
Since HCl, NaOH and NaCl are all soluble strong electrolytes, therefore, the above equation can
also be written in an ionic form as under:
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)   Na+(ag) + Cl–(aq) + H2O(l)
Cancelling the common ions on both sides, the net ionic equation is :
H+(aq) + OH–(aq)   H2O(l)
Neutralisation reaction is infact a combination of H+ ions of the acid and OH– ions of the base to
produce H2O.
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 Application of neutralization reaction in daily life :

(i) The most important use of neutralization reaction is in the form of antacids. The substances
which remove excess acid in our stomach are called antacids.
(ii) In other words, antacids are simple bases that neutralize digestive acids. Their ability to neutralize
acids is due to the hydroxide, carbonate or bicarbonate they contain.

Illustration 3 : Identify the type of chemical reaction

(a) 2KNO3   2KNO2 + O2
(b) N2 + 3H2 
 2NH3
(c) CuSO4 + Fe 
 FeSO4 + Cu
(d) AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)  AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Solution : (a) Decomposition (b) Combination
(c) Displacement (d) Double displacement reaction
Illustration 4 : What are condition required for decomposition reaction.
Solution : Heat, light and electricity.

 Oxidation and reduction reactions :

Oxidation : (i) The addition of oxygen to a substance is called oxidation.
(ii) The removal of hydrogen from a substance is also called oxidation.
Reduction : (i) The addition of hydrogen to a substance is called reduction.
(ii) The removal of oxygen from a substance is also called reduction.
The process of reduction is just the opposite of oxidation. Moreover, oxidation and reduction occur
together.
Oxidising agent : (i) The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an oxidising agent.
(ii) The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an oxidising agent.
Reducing agent : (i) The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a reducing agent.
(ii) The substance which removes oxygen is also called a reducing agent.
The oxidation and reduction reactions are also called redox reactions (In the name ‘redox’,
the term ‘red’ stands for ‘reduction’ and ‘ox’ stands for oxidation). We will now give some examples
of oxidation and reduction reactions.
Example 1 : When copper reacts with oxygen, copper oxide is obtained.
Sol. : Heat a china dish containing about 1 g copper powder.
It is observed that the brown copper powder gets coated with black copper (II) oxide.
Conclusion
Copper (brown in colour) on heating combines with oxygen to form black copper (II) oxide.
2Cu(s) + O2(g)  2CuO(s)
Copper (Brown) Oxygen Copper (II) oxide (Black)
Here, we can say that copper is being oxidised, as it is gaining oxygen. In the above activity if hydrogen
gas is passed over product (CuO) and the black coating on the surface becomes brown because
reverse reaction take place.
Heat
CuO(s) + H2(g)  Cu(s) + H2O()
Here, we can say that copper oxide is being reducing, as it is loosing oxygen and hydrogen is being
oxidised.

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Or
One reactant (H2) gets oxidised and other (CuO) gets reduced during the reaction.
Oxidation

CuO + H2 Heat
 Cu + H2O

Reduction
Such reactions where both oxidation and reduction reactions takes place are called oxidation
reduction reactions or redox reactions.
Example 2 : When zinc oxide is heated with carbon, then zinc metal and carbon monoxide are
formed:
Oxidation

ZnO + C Heat
 Zn + CO

Reduction
In this reaction,
(i) zinc oxide (ZnO) is losing oxygen, so it is being reduced to zinc (Zn).
(ii) carbon (C) is gaining oxygen, so it is being oxidised to carbon monoxide (CO). In this reaction,
zinc oxide is the oxidising agent whereas carbon is the reducing agent. Carbon is used in the
form of coke for the extraction of zinc metal.
Example 3 : When manganese dioxide reacts with hydrochloric acid, then manganese dichloride,
chlorine and water are formed :
Oxidation

MnO2 + 4HCl Heat

 MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Reduction
In this reaction, MnO2 is losing oxygen to form MnCl2 so manganese dioxide (MnO2) is being reduced
to manganese dichloride (MnCl2). On the other hand, HC1 is losing hydrogen to form Cl2, so
hydrochloric acid (HC1) is being oxidised to chlorine (Cl2). In this reaction, manganese dioxide
(MnO2) is the oxidising agent whereas hydrochloric acid (HCl) is the reducing agent.

Reduction
reaction
Oxidation Combination
reaction reaction

Chemical
Reaction

Double displacement Displacement

reaction Decomposition reaction
reaction

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1.6 MODERN CONCEPT OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION :

Electronic concept : This concept is applicable when reactants are ionic in nature.
Oxidation is defined as a process in which an atom, ion or molecule looses one or more eletrons.
Mg  Mg2+ + 2
Na  Na+ +
Cu  Cu2+ + 2
Reduction is defined as a process in which atom, ion or molecule gains one or more electrons.
Cl +  Cl–
Zn2+ + 2  Zn
Sn4+ + 2  Sn2+
Oxidising agent : A substance i.e. atom, ion or molecule that oxidises other one and in return gets
reduced itself by gain of electron is called Oxidising agent.
Examples of Oxidising agent
(i) Non-metals such as halogens and oxygen, ozone are good oxidising agents. Among halogens
fluorine is the strongest oxidising agent.
(ii) Oxides of elements such as CaO, MgO, CuO, P4O10, Na2O etc.
(iii) Acidified K2Cr2O7
Cr2 O 27 – + 14H+ + 6  2Cr3+ + 7H2O
(iv) Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2 
 2H O
2
(v) Potassium permangnate KMnO4
(a) In acidic medium
MnO4– + 8H+ + 5  Mn2+ + 4H2O
i.e. Mn7+ + 5  Mn2+
(b) In alkaline medium
MnO4– +  MnO 2–
4
i.e. Mn7+ +  Mn6+
(c) In neutral medium
MnO 4– + 2H2O + 3   MnO + 4OH–
2
i.e. Mn7+ + 3  Mn4+
Reducing agent : A substance i.e., atom, ion or molecule which reduces the other one and gets
oxidised it self by loss of electrons is called a reducing agent.
Example :
(i) All the metals are strong reducing agents. For e.g. , Na, K, Zn, Al, V, Cr, Fe etc.
(ii) Metallic hydrides such as, CaH2, NaH, LiH etc.
(iii) Strongest reducing power is shown by Lithium in its solution state.
(iv) Compounds such as FeSO4, HI, HCl, HBr, H2S, SnCl2, O3 and H2O2 etc. also show strong
reducing power.
(v) In the reaction of stannous chloride and mercuric chloride, stannous chloride acts as a reducing
agents as it oxidation state is increased from +2 to +4
Oxidation
SnCl2 + 2HgCl2 — SnCl4 + Hg2Cl2

Reduction
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Sn2+  Sn4+ + 2e– (Oxidation)

2Hg2+ + 2e–  2Hg1+ (Reduction)
The overall reaction can be written as
Sn2+ + 2Hg2+  2Hg1+ + Sn4+

 COOH 
(vi) Oxalic acid  |   C O 2– + 2 H 
2 4
 COOH 
 

C2O42–  2CO2 + 2e–

The substance which act as both oxidising and reducing agents are O3, H2O2, H2SO3, HNO2,
NaNO2, SO2, Na2S2O3 etc.

1.7 VALENCY, OXIDATION STATE AND OXIDATION NUMBER

Valency of an element is defined as number indicating its combining capacity.
For example,
(i) It represents the number of hydrogen atoms which can combine with a given atom.
(ii) It also represents the number of single bonds which an atom can form.
(iii) It is also defined as a number of electrons its atom is able to lend, borrow or share.
(iv) In any case valency is a pure number and has no plus or minus sign associated with it.
In ionic compounds the hereby oxidation state of an element is the same as the charge on the
ion formed from an atom of the element. For example, in potassium bromide potassium is
said to be in the + 1 oxidation state and bromine in – 1 oxidation state. It ionizes as
KBr  K+ + Br–
(v) Oxidation state of aluminium in Al2O3 is +3 and the total oxidation number of two aluminium
atoms is +6.
(vi) Thus oxidation state of an element is its oxidation number per atom.
Difference between the magnitude of valency and the oxidation number :
For example, consider the following compounds of carbon:
CH4 CH3Cl CH2Cl2
Methane Methyl chloride Methylene chloride
CHCl3 CCl4
Chloroform Carbon tetrachloride
In each case one atom of carbon shares a total of 4 pairs of electrons with other atoms. Carbon atom
is, therefore, tetravalent in each case.
Oxidation number for carbon in CH4, CH3Cl, CH2Cl2, CHCl3 and CCl4 is –4, –2, 0, +2 and +4
respectively.
Difference between oxidation number and valency :
Thus while valency of carbon remains constant (=4) in each one of the five compounds, its oxidation
number varies from –4 to +4.
 Oxidation and Reduction in terms of Oxidation Number :
The term oxidation refers to any chemical change involving increase in oxidation number
whereas the term reduction applies to any chemical change involving decrease in oxidation
number

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Consider the following chemical changes :

(i) 2H2 + O2  2H2O
Here in oxidation number of hydrogen changes from 0 (in H2) to + 1 (in H2O). It is, therefore,
a case of oxidation of hydrogen.
(ii) Sugar (C12H22O11) burns to give CO2 and water. In this oxidation number of carbon increases
from 0 (in C12H22O11) to +4 in CO2. The sugar is, therefore, said to have undergone oxidation.
(iii) When oxygen reacts with hydrogen to give water [example (i)] the oxidation number of
oxygen decreases from 0 (in O2) to –2 (in H2O). It is, therefore, a case of reduction of
oxygen.
In the same reaction, oxidation number of hydrogen increases, and that of oxygen decreases,
i.e., hydrogen undergoes oxidation while oxygen undergoes reduction. Thus oxidation and
reduction occur together.
An oxidising agent is a substance which brings about oxidation. It contains an atom which
undergoes a decrease in oxidation number. It can also be defined as a substance which
picks up electrons and thus brings about de-electronation.
 Oxidation Number or Oxidation State :
Definition of Oxidation Number : The oxidation number is defined as a positive or negative number
that represents a charge that an atom appears to have in a given species when the bonding electrons
are counted as per the certain prescribed set of rules.
Rules for assigning oxidation number : Oxidation number for atoms & ions can be assigned using
the following set of rules.
 Rule 1 : The oxidation number of an atom in an element in its free uncombined state is zero,
regardless of whether the element exists as monoatomic or polyatomic molecule. For
example, each fluorine atom in F2, each phosphorus atom in P4 & the silver atom in Ag,
is assigned as oxidation number of zero.
 Rule 2 : The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is same as the charge on the ion. For example,
the oxidation number of calcium ion is +2, in sulphur S–2 ion has oxidation number of –2.
 Rule 3 : Oxidation numbers conventionally assigned to atoms in their chemical compounds are as
follows :
(a) Oxygen = –2 (except in peroxides where it is –1). For example, the oxidation state of
oxygen in SO2, KClO3 and KMnO4 is –2. In Na2O2 & H2O2, the oxidation number
of oxygen is –1. In the very rare instance when oxygen is bound to an element that is
more electronegative than itself, such as in OF2, Oxygen exhibits an oxidation number
of +2 and in O2F2, oxygen shows +1 oxidation number.
(b) Hydrogen = +1 (except in metallic hydrides where it is –1). For example the oxidation
number of hydrogen atom in H2O, H2O2NH3, CH3COOH is +1. In LiH, it is –1.
(c) Group IA elements (alkali metals) = +1.
(d) Group IIA elements (alkaline earth elements) = +2.
(e) Halogen atoms in binary ionic compounds (halides) = –1. The halogen atom in Na+,
KBr, CsI has an oxidation number of –1.
 Rule 4 : The algebric sum of the positive & negative oxidation numbers in a compound is
zero.
The oxidation number of a specified atom in a compound can therefore be determined as
illustrated below.

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Oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4

Let oxidation number of Mn be x
Oxidation number of oxygen is –2
& Oxidation number of K is +1
 +1 + x + 4 (–2) = 0
 x = + 7
Therefore, the oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4 is +7
 Rule 5 : The algebraic sum of the positive and negative oxidation states or numbers of the atoms
in a polyatomic ion is equal to charge on the ion.
(i) Let us find out the oxidation number of chromium in Cr2 O 72
Let the oxidation number of chromium be x and oxygen as –2,
Sum of oxidation numbers = 2 x + 7 (–2) = – 2
2 x – 14 = – 2
x=+6
Thus the oxidation number of chromium in Cr2 O 72 ion is +6.
(ii) Oxidation number of S in H2SO4 is as,
Let oxidation number of S be x.
Sum of oxidation numbers of various atoms in H2SO4 = 2x (+1) + x + 4 x (–2)
=2+x–8=x–6
This sum must be zero. Hence
x–6=0
when x=6
or oxidation number of S in H2SO4 = +6
Putting oxidation number of S in Na2S2O3
2 + 2x – 6 = 0
2x – 4 = 0, we have
x = +2
 Oxidation number of S in Na2S2O3 = +2
(iii) Oxidation state of Mn in Mn2O7 is as,
Let the oxidation state of manganese be x.
Sum of oxidation numbers of various atoms in Mn2O7 is as,
2(x) + 7 (–2) = 0
 2 x = + 14
x = +7
 Rule 6 : The oxidation numbers of atoms in covalent compounds can be derived by assigning the
electrons of each bond to the more electromagnetic atom of the bonded atoms.
(i) Oxidation state of S in per monosulphuric acid (H2SO5).
Let the oxidation number S be x, oxygen –2, hydrogen +1 and the oxidation state of
oxygen in peroxylinkage is – 1.
Sum of oxidation number of various atoms is,
O
+ 2 + x + 3 (–2) – 2 = 0 
+2+x–6–2=0 H — O — S —O — O — H
x=+6 
O

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 Distinction between valency and oxidation state / oxidation number :

(i) Valency is always a whole number, on the other hand the oxidation number of the element
may be a whole number or fractional.
(ii) Valency of the element is never zero except of noble gases but the oxidation number of the
element may be zero.
(iii) Valency is the combining power of an element with no plus or minus sign. On the other hand
oxidation number is the charge present on the atom of the element while being in combination.
It may have plus or minus sign.

Note : The oxidation number changes with the following cases.

Oxidation  Oxidation number increases
Reduction  Oxidation number decreases
Oxidizing agent  Oxidation number decreases
Reducing agent  Oxidation number increases

 Oxidation State / Oxidation number in Complex molecules :

(i) Carbon in Glucose (C6H12O6)
Let the oxidation number of carbon be x, hydrogen +1 and oxygen –2
Sum of oxidation number of various atoms in C6H12O6 is
6x + 12 (+1) + 6 (–2) = 0
6x + 12 – 12 = 0
6x = 0
x=0
In glucose the oxidation state of carbon is zero.
(ii) Ni in [Ni(CO)4]
The oxidation state of CO is zero, hence the oxidation state of nickel will also be zero.
(iii) Sulphur in (CH3)2 SO i.e., dimethyl sulphoxide.
Let the oxidation state of S be x, oxygen –2, and each methyl group is +1
Sum of oxidation numbers of various atoms in (CH3)2SO is
+2 + x – 2 = 0
x=0
Thus the oxidation state of sulphur in (CH3)2SO is zero.
(iv) Boron in Li BH4
In metal hydrides, the oxidation state of hydrogen is –1 and the metal Lithium is +1
Sum of oxidation number of various atoms in LiBH4 is,
+1 + x – 4 = 0
x = +3
Thus the oxidation state of B in LiBH4 is +3

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 Fractional values of Oxidation numbers are possible with the following components :
(i) Hydrazoic acid N3H
Let the oxidation no. of nitrogen be x and hydrogen +1.
3x + 1 = 0
3x = – 1
1
x=
3
x = – 0.333
The oxidation number of N in N3H is –1/3.

(ii) Na2 S4 O6
Let the oxidation no. of sulphur be x, sodium +1 and oxygen –2,
2 + 4x + 6(–2) = 0
2 + 4x – 12 = 0
4x = + 10
x = 10/4= 2.5
The oxidation number of S in Na2S4O6 is 2½
Try your self :
Find out the oxidation number / oxidation state of :
(a) S in H2S2O7 (b) S in Na2S2O3 (c) Cr in Cr(CO)6
(d) Fe in Fe2(CO)9 (e) Fe in Fe3O4 (f) Mn in MnO4–

1.8 BALANCING OF REDOX REACTIONS

The redox reactions can be balanced by following methods
(i) Oxidation number method
(ii) Ion-electron method
Balancing by oxidation number method :The various steps involved in balancing a redox equation
by oxidation number method are:
(i) Write the skeleton equation.
(ii) Indicate the oxidation numbers of all the atoms involved in the equation above their symbols.
(iii) Identify the elements which undergo change in oxidation number.
(iv) Calculate the increase and decrease in oxidation number per atom with respect to the reactants.
If more than one atom is involved, then multiply with the number of the atoms undergoing the
change to calculate the total change in oxidation number.
(v) Equate the increase and decrease in oxidation number on the reactant side by multiplying the
formulae of the oxidising and reducing agents suitably.
(vi) Balance the equation with respect to all the atoms except hydrogen and oxygen.
(vii) Finally balance hydrogen and oxygen atoms also.
(viii) In the reactions taking place in the acidic medium, balance the O atoms by adding required
number of H2O molecules to the side deficient in O atoms. Then balance the H atoms by
adding H+ to the side deficient in H atoms.
(ix) In the basic medium, first balance the number of negative charges by adding required number
of OH– ions to the side deficient in the magnitude of the charges. Then add H2O molecules on
the other side in order to balance the OH– ions added.
Let us try to balance a few chemical equations by oxidation number method.

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IIllustration 5 : Balance the following chemical equations by the oxidation number

method
CuO + NH3 — Cu + N2 + H2O
Solution : The balancing is done in the following steps:
1. Write the O.N. of each atom in the skeleton equation
2 – 2 3 1 0 0 1 2
Cu O + N H — Cu + N 2 + H 2 O
3

2. Identify the atoms which undergo change in O.N.

2 3 0 0
Cu O + N H3 — Cu + N 2 + H2O

3. Calculate the increase and decrease in O.N. w.r.t. reactant atoms

4. Equate the increase and decrease in O.N. on the reactant side.

3CuO + 2NH3 — Cu + N2 + H2O
5. Balance the number of Cu and N atoms on both sides of the equation.
3CuO + 2NH3 — 3Cu + N2 + H2O
6. Now balance H and O atoms by hit and trial method
3CuO + 2NH3 — 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O

Try your self :

(i) Cu + NO3  NO2 + Cu2+ (Acidic medium)
(ii) C6H6 + O2  CO2 + H2O
(iii) SnO2 + C  Sn + CO

Balancing by Ion-electron method (or half reaction method) :

Balancing can also be done by another method known as ion-electron method. It is
based on the principle that the electrons lost during oxidation half reaction in a
particular redox reaction is equal to the electrons gained in the reduction half
reaction. The method is, therefore, called half reaction method. The balancing is
completed in the following steps :
(i) Write the redox reaction in ionic form.
(ii) Find out species which are getting oxidised and also which are getting reduced.
(iii) Split the whole equation into two half reactions i.e. oxidation half reaction and
reduction half reaction.

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(iv) While balancing each half reaction add electrons for the number of atoms of
each element.
(v) In the acidic medium, and neutral medium add water molecules to the side dificient
in O and H+ to the side deficient in hydrogen.
(vi) In the basic medium, for each excess of oxygen, add one water molecule to the
same side and two OH+ ions to the other side. If hydrogen is still unbalanced,
add on OH- ion for each excess hydrogen on the same side and one water
molecule to the other side.
(vii) Multiply one or both half reactions by suitable number so that the number of es
become equal in both the equation.
(viii) Add the two balanced half reactions and cancel any term common to both sides.
Illustration 6 : Balance the following chemical equation by ion-electron method.
Cr2 O 27 + Fe2+ + H+ — Cr3+ + Fe3+ + H2O
Solution : Step I. Separation of the equation in two half reactions
(i) Write the O.N. of all the atoms involved in the skeleton equation
6 2 3 3+ 21
( Cr2 O7 )2– + ( Fe
2 2+
) + ( H1 )+ — ( Cr ) + ( Fe
3 3+
) + H2 O
(ii) Identify the atoms which undergo change in O.N.
6 3 3+
( Cr2 O7)2– + ( Fe
2 2+
) + ( H1 )+ — ( Cr ) + ( Fe
3 3+
) + H2O
(iii) Find out the species involved in the oxidation and reduction half reactions.

Thus, the two half reactions are:

Oxidation half reaction: Fe2+ — Fe3+
Reduction half reaction: (Cr2O7)2– — Cr3+
Step II. Balancing of oxidation half reaction:
The oxidation half reaction is: Fe2+ — Fe3+
(i) As the increase in O.N. as a result of oxidation is 1, add one e– on the product side
to balance change in O.N.
Fe2+ — Fe3+ + e–
(ii) The charge is already balanced, and thus the equation is alo balanced
Fe2+ — Fe3+ + e– .....(i)
Step III. Balancing of reduction half reaction :
6 3 3+
The reduction half reaction is: ( Cr2 O7)2– — ( Cr )
(i) The decrease in O.N. per Cr atom is 3 and the total decrease in O.N. for two Cr
atoms is 6. Therefore, add 6e– on the reactant side
(Cr2O7)2– + 6e– — Cr3+
(ii) Balance Cr atoms on both sides of the equation
(Cr2O7)2– + 6e– — 2Cr3+

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(iii) In order to balance O atoms add seven H2O molecules on the product side and then
to balance H atoms add 14 H+ on the reactant side.
(Cr2O7)2– + 6e– + 14H+ — 2Cr3+ + 7H2O .....(ii)
Step IV. Adding the two half reactions :
In order two equate the electrons, multiply the equation
(i) by 6 and then add to equation (ii) in order to get the final equation.
[Fe 2  Fe 3  e  ]  6
(Cr2 O 7 ) 2  14H   6e   2Cr 3  7H 2 O
6Fe 2  Cr2 O 27  14H   6Fe 3  2Cr 3  7 H 2O
Try your self :
Q.1 Pb(NO3)2 (s)  PbO (s) + NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Q.2 MnO2 + C2O4  Mn2+ + CO2
2–

Q.3 MnO2 + Al — Mn + Al2O3

Q.4 Fe2O3 + CO — Fe + CO2
Q.5 Al + CuCl2 — AlCl3 + Cu
Q.6 C2H6 + O2 — CO2 + H2O
Q.7 NH3 + O2 — NO + H2O
Q.8 K2Cr2O7 + KOH — H2O + K2CrO4
Q.9 Na2CO3 + HCl — NaCl + H2O + CO2
Q.10 As2O3 + H2S — As2S3 + H2O
Q.11 KI + H2O2 — KOH + I2
Q.12 Zn(NO3)2 — ZnO + NO2 + O2
Q.13 NaOH + H2SO4 — Na2SO4 + H2O
Q.14 NH3 + O2 — N2 + H2O
Q.15 SO2 + H2S — H2O + S
Q.16 H2S + O2 — SO2 + H2O
Q.17 Al(OH)3  Al2O3 + H2O
Q.18 Al2(SO4)3 + NaOH — Al(OH)3 + Na2SO4
Q.19 NH3 + O2 — NO + H2O
Q.20 Peramanganate (VII) ion, Mn O 4 in basic solution oxidises iodide ion, I– to produce molecular
iodine (I2) and manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2). Write a balanced ionic equation to represent
this redox reaction.

1.8 EFFECTS OF OXIDATION REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE :

We are all aware of the fact that oxygen is the most essential for sustaining life. One can live without
food or even water for a number of days but not without oxygen. It is involved in variety of reactions
which have wide range of effects on our daily life. Most of them are quite useful while a few may be
harmful in nature. Some of these effects are briefly discussed.
Respiration :
Respiration is the most important biochemical reaction which releases energy in the cells. When we
breathe in air, oxygen enters our lungs and passes into thousands of small air sacs (alveoli). These air
sacs occupy a large area of membranes and oxygen diffuses from the membranes into blood. It binds
itself to haemoglobin present in red blood cells and is carries to millions of cells in the body. Respiration

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occurs in these cells and is accompanied by the combustion of glucose producing carbon dioxide and
water. Since the reaction is of exothermic nature, the energy released during respiration carries many
cell reactions and keeps our heart and muscles working. It also provides the desired warmth to the
body. Both carbon dioxide and water pass back into the blood and we ultimately breathe them our.
Please note that respiration takes place in the cells of all living beings.
C6H10H6(s) + 6O2(g)   6CO2(g) + 6H2O() + energy
Glucose

 Combustion Reactions :
A chemical reaction in which a substance burns or gets oxidised in the presence of air or oxygen is
called combustion reaction. For example, kerosene, coal, charcoal, wood etc. burn in air and thus,
undergo combustion. Methane (CH4), a major constituent of natural gas, undergoes combustion in
excess of oxygen upon heating.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)   CO2(g) + 2H2O()
Methane
Similarly, butane (C4H10), the main constituent of L.P.G. also undergoes combustion.
13
C4H10(g) + O (g)   4CO2(g) + 5H2O()
2 2
Butane
Remember that all the combustion reactions are oxidation reactions in nature.
The human body may be regarded as a furnace or machine in which various food stuff that we eat undergo
combustion or oxidation or oxidation. The heat energy evolved keeps our body working. Carbohydrates
such as glucose, fructose, starch etc. are the major source of energy to the human body. They undergo
combustion with the help of oxygen that we inhale to form carbon dioxide and water. For example,
C6H10H6(s) + 6O2(g)   6CO2(g) + 6H2O() + energy
Glucose
 Harmful Effects of Combustion :
We have discussed the utility of combustion in releasing energy which our body needs to keep it warm
and working. However, combustion has harmful effect also. The environmental pollution is basically
due to combustion. Poisonous gases like carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), sulphur
trioxide (SO3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) etc. are being released into the atmosphere as a result of
variety of combustion reaction which are taking place. They pollute the atmosphere and make our
lives miserable. In addition to these, other harmful effect of combustion are through corrosion and
rancidity. These are briefly discussed.

1.9 CORROSION & RANCIDITY :

Oxidation has damaging effect on metals as well as on food. The damaging effect of oxidation on
metals is studied as corrosion and that on food is studied as rancidity. Thus, there are two common
effects of oxidation reactions which we observe in daily life. These are :
1. Corrosion of metals , and 2. Rancidity of food.
Corrosion : Corrosion is the process in which metals are eaten up gradually by the action of air,
moisture or a chemical (such as an acid) on their surface. Corrosion is caused mainly by the oxidation
of metals by the oxygen of air. Rusting of iron metal is the most common form of corrosion. When an
iron object is left in damp air for a considerable time, it gets covered with a red-brown flaky substance
called ‘rust’. This is called rusting of iron.
3
2Fe + O + xH2O 
 Fe 2 O3 .xH 2O
2 2
Hydrated ferric
oxide (rust )
Rusting involves unwanted oxidation of iron metal which occurs in nature on its own.
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Rust is a soft and porous substance which gradually falls off from the surface of an iron object, and
then the iron below starts rusting. Thus, rusting of iron (or corrosion of iron) is a continuous process
which, if not prevented in time, eats up the whole iron object. Corrosion weakens the iron and
steel objects and structures such as railings, car bodies, bridges and ships, etc., and cuts
short their life. A lot of money has to be spent every year to prevent the corrosion of iron and steel
objects, and to replace the damaged iron and steel structures.The black coating on silver and the
green coating on copper are other examples of corrosion.

Rancidity : When the fats and oils present in food materials get oxidised by the oxygen (of air),
their oxidation products have unpleasant smell and taste. The condition produced by aerial oxidation
of fats and oils in foods marked by unpleasant smell and taste is called rancidity. Rancidity
spoils the food materials prepared fats and oils which have been kept for a considerable time and
makes them unfit for eating.

(i) Rancidity can be prevented by adding anti-oxidants to foods containing fats and oils.
Anti-oxidant is a substance (or chemical) which prevents oxidation. The two common
anti-oxidants used in foods to prevent the development of rancidity are BHA (Butylated
Hydroxy Anisole) and BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene).

Common antioxidants are :

(a) BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole)
(b) BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene)
Vitamin-E and vitamin-C (ascorbic acid) are the two antioxidants occuring in natural
fats.

(ii) Rancidity can be prevented by packaging fat and oil containing foods in nitrogen
gas. When the packed food is surrounded by an unreactive gas nitrogen, there is no oxygen
(of air) to cause its oxidation and make it rancid. The manufacturers of potato chips (and
other similar food products) fill the plastic bags containing chips with nitrogen gas to prevent
the chips from being oxidised and turn rancid.

(iii) Rancidity can be retarded by keeping food in a refrigerator. The refrigerator has a low
temperature inside it. When the food is kept in a refrigerator, the oxidation of fats and oils in
it is slowed down due to low temperature. So, the development of rancidity due to oxidation
is retarded.

(iv) Rancidity can be retarded by storing food in air-tight containers. When food is stored
in air-tight containers, then there is little exposure to oxygen of air. Due to reduced exposure
to oxygen, the oxidation of fats and oils present in food is slowed down and hence the
development of rancidity is retarded.
(v) Rancidity can be retarded by storing foods away from light. In the absence of light, the
oxidation of fats and oils present in food is slowed down and hence the development of
rancidity is retarded.

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KNOWLEDGE ENHANCER
No doubt, there is a huge loss of lives and materials that is taking place every year on account of
corrosion and rusting. However, there are some cases where corrosion plays a useful role. We all
know that aluminium is placed high in the activity series and is expected to be quite reactive. It
combines with oxygen present in air to form its oxide called aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and this is a case
of corrosion. The metal oxide formed slowly gets deposited on the surface of aluminium. It forms a
protective coating on the surface. This coating makes the metal passive to the attack by water, air,
acids and alkalies etc. As a result, aluminium articles and containers are not corroded. Aluminium foils
are commonly used for packing food preparations, cigarettes etc.

Food industry has picked up very fast throughout the world and also in India. The manufactures are
adding certain substances called anti-oxidants to the food materials. As the name suggests, these
check their oxidation. When anti-oxidants are added to foods, the fats and oils present in them do not
get oxidised easily and thus, do not get rancid. This means that the role of anti-oxidants is to act as
reducing agents. Two commonly used anti-oxidants are BHA (Butylated hydroxyanisole) and BHT
(Butylated hydroxytoluene). These are both organic compounds and it is not possible to give more
information about these at the present level of the students.

FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. A chemical reaction involves a chemical change in which substances react to form new substances
with entirely new properties.Substances that react or take part in the reaction are known as
reactants and the substances formed are known as products.
2. During a chemical reaction, there is a breaking of bonds between atoms of the reacting molecules to
give products.
3. A chemical reaction can be observed with the help of any of the following observations:
a. Evolution of a gas b. Change in temperature
c. Formation of a precipitate d. Change in colour e. Change of state
4. Physical change : If a change involves change in colour or state but no new substance is formed,
then it is a physical change.
5. Chemical change : If a change involves formation of new substances, it is a chemical change.
6. Exothermic and endothermic reactions : If heat is evolved during a reaction, then such a reaction
is known as Exothermic reaction. If heat is absorbed from the surroundings, then such a reaction is
known as endothermic reaction.
7. Chemical equation: The symbolic representation of a chemical reaction is called a chemical equation.
8. Features of a chemical equation :
a. The reactants are written on the left hand side with a plus sign between them.
b. The products are written on the right hand side with a plus sign between them.
c. An arrow separates the reactants from the products.

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9. Skeletal chemical equation : A chemical equation which simply represents the symbols and formulae
of reactants and products taking part in the reaction is known as skeletal chemical equation for a
reaction.
For example : For the burning of Magnesium in the air, Mg + O2  MgO is the skeletal equation.
10. Balanced chemical equation: A balanced equation is a chemical equation in which number of atoms of
each element is equal on both sides of the equation i.e. number of atoms of an element on reactant
side = number of atoms of that element on the product side.
11. As per the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of element in the products of a chemical
reaction is equal to the total mass of the elements present in the reactants.
12. The process of equating the number of atoms on both the sides of a chemical equation is known as
balancing of a chemical equation.
a. The first step in balancing a chemical equation is to write the number of atoms of each element
present on the left hand side and right hand side.
b. We should always start balancing with the compound that contains maximum number of atoms.
It can be reactant or a product. Then in that compound select the element which has the maximum
number of atoms.
c. While balancing a chemical equation, the molecular formulae of the reactants and products
should not change. The molec ular formulae are simply multiplied by suitable coefficients.
d. To make a chemical equation more informative, the reaction conditions such as temperature,
pressure or catalyst are written on the arrow separating the reactants and products.
e. The evolution of gas is indicated by an upward arrow.
f. The formation of precipitate is indicated by a downward arrow.
g. Heat evolved during the reaction is written as + Heat on the product side.
h. Heat absorbed during the reaction is written as + Heat on the reactant side.

13. Types of chemical reactions :

a. Combination reaction b. Decomposition reaction
c. Displacement reaction d. Redox reaction
e. Double displacement reaction
14. Combination reaction is a reaction in which 2 or more substances combine to give a single product.
Combination reaction can be between 2 elements, between an element and a compound or between
2 compounds.
15. Decomposition reaction: In a decomposition reaction, a single reactant decomposes to give 2 or
more products. Decomposition reactions require energy in the form of heat, light or electricity
16. Types of decomposition reactions :
a. Decomposition reactions which require heat are known as thermolytic decomposition reactions.
b. Decomposition reactions which require light are known as photolyticdecomposition reactions.
c. Decomposition reactions which require electricity are known as electrolytic decomposition
reactions.
17. Displacement reaction: A reaction in which a more active element displaces less active element
from its salt solution.
18. The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of decreasing reactivity. The most reactive
metal is placed at the top and the least reactive metal is placed at the bottom.
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19. Double displacement reaction: A chemical reaction in which there is an exchange of ions between
the reactants to give new substances is called double displacement reaction.

20. Precipitation reaction: An insoluble solid known as precipitate is formed during a double displacement
reaction. Such reactions are also known as precipitation reactions.

21. Redox reaction: A reaction in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously in a reaction,
is known as a redox reaction.

22. Oxidation is a chemical process in which a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.

23. Reduction is a chemical process in which a substance gains hydrogen or loses oxygen.

24. If a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised.

25. If a substance gains hydrogen or loses oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be reduced.

26. A substance that loses oxygen or gains hydrogen is known as an oxidising agent.

27. A substance that loses hydrogen or gains oxygen is known as a reducing agent.

28. An oxidising agent gets reduced whereas a reducing agent gets oxidised.

29. In terms of electronic concept, Oxidation is defined as a loss of electrons while reduction is defined as
a gain of electrons.

30. Corrosion is the slow eating up of metals by the action of air and moisture on their surfaces.
Corrosion in case of Iron is known as Rusting.

31. Chemically, rust is hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3.xH2O)

32. Advantages of corrosion: Though corrosion is undesirable, it can be advantageous in case of

aluminium which on exposure to air, gets coated with a protective layer of aluminium oxide. This
protects the metal underneath from further corrosion and damage.

33. Rancidity: When oils and fats or foods containing oils and fats are exposed to air, they get oxidised
due to which the food becomes stale and gives a bad taste or smell. This is called Rancidity.

34. Rancidity can be prevented by :

a. Adding antioxidants i.e. the substances which prevent oxidation.
b. Refrigeration.
c. Storing the food in air-tight containers

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-I [NCERT Question]

Q.1 Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air?

Ans. Magnesium is very reactive metal. When stored it reacts with oxygen to form a layer of magnesium
oxide on its surface. This layer of magnesium oxide is quite stable and prevents further reaction of
magnesium with oxygen. The magnesium ribbon is cleaned by sand paper to remove this layer so that
the underlying metal can be exposed to air.

Q.2 Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions.
(i) Hydrogen + Chlorine  Hydrogen chloride
(ii) Barium chloride + Aluminium sulphate  Barium sulphate + Aluminium chloride
(iii) Sodium + Water  Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Ans. (i) H2(g) + Cl2(g)  2HCl(g)
(ii) 3BaCl2(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq)  3BaSO4(s) + 2AlCl3(aq)
(iii) 2Na(s) + 2H2O()  2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Q.3 Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the following reactions.
(i) Solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water react to give insoluble barium
sulphate and the solution of sodium chloride.
(ii) Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution (in water) to
produce sodium chloride solution and water.
Ans. (i) BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
(ii) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O()

Q.4 A solution of a substance ‘X’ is used for white washing.

(i) Name the substance ‘X’ and write its formula.
(ii) Write the reaction of the substance ‘X’ named in (i) above with water.
Ans. (i) The substance ‘X’ is calcium oxide. Its chemical formula is CaO.
(ii) Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to form calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).
CaO(s) + H2O()  Ca(OH)2(aq)
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)

Q.5 Why is the amount of gas collected in one of the test tubes on electrolysis of H2O, double of the
amount collected in the other? Name this gas.
Ans. Water (H2O) contains two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen. Therefore, the amount of
hydrogen and oxygen produced during electrolysis of water is in a 2 : 1 ratio. During electrolysis,
since hydrogen goes to one test tube and oxygen goes to another, the amount of gas collected in one
of the test tubes is double of the amount collected in the other.

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Q.6 Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is dipped in it?
Ans. When an iron nail is placed in a copper sulphate solution, iron displaces copper from copper sulphate
solution forming iron sulphate, which is green in colour.
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq)  FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Iron Copper sulphate Iron sulphate Copper
(Blue colour) (Green colour)
Therefore, the blue colour of copper sulphate solution fades and green colour appears.
Q.7 Give an example of a double displacement reaction.
Ans. Sodium carbonate reacts with calcium chloride to form calcium carbonate and sodium chloride.
Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)   CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Sodium Calcium Calcium Sodium
carbonate chloride carbonate chloride
In this reaction, sodium carbonate and calcium chloride exchange ions to form two new compounds.
Hence, it is a double displacement reaction.

Q.8 Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances that are reduced in the following
reactions.
(i) 4Na(s) + O2(g)  2Na2O(s)
(ii) CuO(s) + H2(g)  Cu(s) + H2O()
Ans. (i) Sodium (Na) is oxidised as it gains oxygen and oxygen gets reduced.
(ii) Copper oxide (CuO) is reduced to copper (Cu) while hydrogen (H2) gets oxidised to water
(H2O).

Q.9 Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect?
2PbO(s) + C(s)  2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(a) Lead is getting reduced.
(b) Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised.
(c) Carbon is getting oxidised.
(d) Lead oxide is getting reduced.
(A) (a) and (b) (B) (a) and (c) (C) (a), (b) and (c) (D) all
Ans. (A) (a) and (b)

Q.10 Fe2O3 + 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Fe

The above reaction is an example of a
(A) combination reaction. (B) double displacement reaction.
(C) decomposition reaction. (D) displacement reaction.
Ans. (D) The given reaction is an example of a displacement reaction.
Q.11 What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron filings? Tick the correct answer.
(A) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.
(B) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.
(C) No reaction takes place.
(D) Iron salt and water are produced.
Ans. (A) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced. The reaction is as follows:
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) 
 FeCl2(aq) + H2(g) 
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Q.12 What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be balanced?
Ans. A reaction which has an equal number of atoms of all the elements on both sides of the chemical
equation is called a balanced chemical equation. The law of conservation of mass states that mass can
neither be created nor destroyed. Hence, in a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants should be
equal to the total mass of the products. It means that the total number of atoms of each element should
be equal on both sides of a chemical equation. Hence, it is for this reason the chemical equations
should be balanced.
Q.13 Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.
(a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
(b) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give water and sulphur dioxide.
(c) Barium chloride reacts with aluminium sulphate to give aluminium chloride and a precipitate of
barium sulphate.
(d) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Ans. (a) 3H2(g) + N2(g)  2NH3(g)
(b) 2H2S(g) + 3O2(g)  2H2O() + 2SO2(g)
(c) 3BaCl2(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3BaSO4(s)
(d) 2K(s) + 2H2O()  2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Q.14 Balance the following chemical equations.

(a) HNO3 + Ca(OH)2  Ca (NO3)2 + H2O
(b) NaOH + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + H2O
(c) NaCl + AgNO3  AgCl + NaNO3
(d) BaCl2 + H2SO4  BaSO4 + HCl
Ans. (a) 2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2  Ca (NO3)2 + 2H2O
(b) 2NaOH + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(c) NaCl + AgNO3  AgCl + NaNO3
(d) BaCl2 + H2SO4  BaSO4 + 2HCl

Q.15 Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
(a) Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide  Calcium carbonate + Water
(b) Zinc + Silver nitrate  Zinc nitrate + Silver
(c) Aluminium + Copper chloride  Aluminium chloride + Copper
(d) Barium chloride + Potassium sulphate  Barium sulphate + Potassium chloride
Ans. (a) Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
(b) Zn + 2 AgNO3  Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag
(c) 2Al + 3CuCl2  2AlCl3 + 3Cu
(d) BaCl2 + K2SO4  BaSO4 + 2KCl

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Q.16 Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type of reaction in each case.
(a) Potassium bromide(aq) + Barium iodide(aq)  Potassium iodide(aq) + Barium bromide(s)
(b) Zinc carbonate(s)  Zinc oxide(s) + Carbon dioxide(g)
(c) Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g)  Hydrogen chloride(g)
(d) Magnesium(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq)  Magnesium chloride(aq) + Hydrogen(g)
Ans. (a) 2KBr(aq) + Bal2(aq)  2KI(aq) + BaBr2(s) ; Double displacement reaction
(b) ZnCO3(s)  ZnO(s) + CO2(g) ; Decomposition reaction
(c) H2(g) + Cl2(g)  2HCl(g) ; Combination reaction
(d) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) ; Displacement reaction

Q.17 What does one mean by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.
Ans. Chemical reactions that release energy in the form of heat, light, or sound are called exothermic
reactions.
Example: Mixture of sodium and chlorine to yield table salt
1
Na(s) + Cl (g)  NaCl(s) + 411 kJ of energy
gy
2 2
In other words, combination reactions are exothermic.
Reactions that absorb energy or require energy in order to proceed are called endothermic reactions.
For example: In the process of photosynthesis, plants use the energy from the sun to convert carbon
dioxide and water to glucose and oxygen.
Sunlight
6CO2(g) + 6H2O()     C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
Glucose
Q.18 Why is respiration considered as an exothermic reaction? Explain.
Ans. Energy is required to support life. Energy in our body is obtained from the food we eat. During
digestion, large molecules of food are broken down into simpler substances such as glucose. Glucose
combines with oxygen in the cells and provides energy. The special name of this combustion reaction
is respiration. Since energy is released in the whole process, it is an exothermic process.
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)  6CO2(g) + 6H2O() + Energy
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water
Q.19 Why are decomposition reactions called the opposite of combination reactions? Write equations for
these reactions.
Ans. Decomposition reactions are those in which a compound breaks down to form two or more sub-
stances. These reactions require a source of energy to proceed. Thus, they are the exact opposite of
combination reactions in which two or more substances combine to give a new substance with the
release of energy.
Decomposition reaction : AB + Energy  A + B
2H2O() Electrolysis
   2H2(g) + O2(g)
Combination reaction : A + B  AB + Energy
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O() + Energy
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Q.20 Write one equation each for decomposition reactions where energy is supplied in the form of heat,
light or electricity.
Ans. (a) Thermal decomposition :

2FeSO4(s)  Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
Ferrous sulphate Ferric oxide Sulphur ioxide Sulphur trioxide

(b) Decomposition by light :

Light
2AgCl(s)  2 Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
Silver chloride Silver Chlorine

(c) Decomposition by electricity :

2Al2O3(aq) Electricity
    4 Al(s) + 3O2(g)
Aluminium oxide Aluminium Oxygen
Q.21 What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions? Write equations for
these reactions.
Ans. In a displacement reaction, a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from a com-
pound.
A + BX  AX + B ; where A is more reactive than B
In a double displacement reaction, two atoms or a group of atoms switch places to form new
compounds.
AB + CD  AD + CB
For example:
Displacement reaction :
CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s)  ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Double displacement reaction:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O()
Q.22 In the refining of silver, the recovery of silver from silver nitrate solution involved displacement by
copper metal. Write down the reaction involved.
Ans. 2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Silver nitrate Copper Copper nitrate Silver
Q.23 What do you mean by a precipitation reaction? Explain by giving examples.
Ans. A reaction in which an insoluble solid (called precipitate) is formed is called a precipitation reaction.
For example:
Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)  CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Sodium carbonate Calium chloride Calcium carbonate Sodium chloride
In this reaction, calcium carbonate is obtained as a precipitate. Hence, it is a precipitation reaction.
Another example of precipitation reaction is :
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) 
 BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Sodium sulphate Barium chloride Barium sulphate Sodium chloride
In this reaction, barium sulphate is obtained as a precipitate.
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Q.24 Explain the following in terms of gain or loss of oxygen with two examples each.
(a) Oxidation (b) Reduction
Ans. (a) Oxidation is the gain of oxygen.
For example :
CO2 + H2 CO + H2 O 2Cu + O2 2CuO
(i) (ii)
Addition of oxygen Gain of oxygen-oxidation
– oxidation
In equation (i), H2 is oxidized to H2O and in equation (ii), Cu is oxidised to CuO.
(b) Reduction is the loss of oxygen.
For example :

CO2 + H2 CO + H2O 
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
(i) (ii)
Removal of oxygen Loss of oxygen - reduction
– reduction
In equation (i), CO2 is reduced to CO and in equation (ii), CuO is reduced to Cu.
Q.25 A shiny brown-coloured element ‘X’ on heating in air becomes black in colour. Name the element ‘X’
and the black coloured compound formed.
Ans. ‘X’ is copper (Cu) and the black-coloured compound formed is copper oxide (CuO). The equation
of the reaction involved on heating copper is given below.
Heat
2Cu + O2  2CuO
(Shiny brown in colour) (Black in colour)
Q.26 Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
Ans. Iron articles are painted because it prevents them from rusting. When painted, the contact of iron
articles from moisture and air is cut off. Hence, rusting is prevented.
Q.27 Oil and fat containing food items are flushed with nitrogen. Why?
Ans. Nitrogen is an inert gas and does not easily react with these substances. On the other hand, oxygen
reacts with food substances and makes them rancid. Thus, bags used in packing food items are
flushed with nitrogen gas to remove oxygen inside the pack. When oxygen is not present inside the
pack, rancidity of oil and fat containing food items is avoided.
Q.28 Explain the following terms with one example each.
(a) Corrosion (b) Rancidity
Ans. (a) Corrosion : Corrosion is defined as a process where materials usually metals deteriorate as a
result of a chemical reaction with air, moisture, chemicals, etc.
For example, iron in the presence of moisture reacts with oxygen to form hydrated Ferric oxide.
4Fe + 3O2 + x.H2O  2Fe2O3.x.H2O
Hydrated Ferric oxide
This hydrated iron oxide is rust.
(b) Rancidity : The process of oxidation of fats and oils that can be easily noticed by the change in
taste and smell is known as rancidity.
For example, the taste and smell of butter changes when kept for long. Rancidity can be avoided by :
1. Storing food in air tight containers 2. Storing food in refrigerators
3. Adding antioxidants 4. Storing food in an environment of nitrogen

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-II

Section - A

(OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS)
Q.1 When quick lime is reacted with water, calcium hydroxide is formed, it is a
(A*) combination reaction (B) displacement reaction
(C) double displacement reaction (D) decomposition reaction

Q.2 When water is added in a vessel containing lumps of quick lime, it is observed that
(A) the vessel becomes hot
(B) a hissing sound is produced
(C) lump of quick lime breaks and dissolves partially in water
(D*) All the above.

Q.3 In a beaker 5 g of calcium oxide (quick lime) is mixed with some water, it is observed that
(A) it dissolves completely (B) it does not dissolve at all
(C*) it is sparingly soluble (D) it forms a transparent mixture

Q.4 Quick lime is a

(A) red coloured solid (B) green coloured solid
(C) blue coloured solid (D*) colourless or white coloured solid

Q.5 Calcium oxide (CaO) is also known as

(A*) quick lime (B) slaked lime (C) milk of lime (D) lime water

Q.6 The products of reaction between water and quick lime are
(A) calcium, hydrogen and oxygen (B) calcium and hydrogen
(C*) calcium hydroxide (D) calcium hydroxide and oxygen

Q.7 When Quick lime reacts with water

(A) heat is absorbed (B*) heat is released.
(C) no change of temperature takes place (D) none of these

Q.8 When we heat ferrous sulphate crystals we observe that

(A) no gas is evolved
(B) a brown coloured gas is evolved
(C*) a gas having smell of burning sulphur is evolved
(D) no residue is left after heating.

Q.9 When crystals of ferrous sulphate are heated strongly red coloured residue is obtained. It is an example
of:
(A) combination reaction (B*) decomposition reaction
(C) displacement reaction (D) double displacement reaction

Q.10 The colour of ferrous sulphate crystals is

(A) Blue (B) Yellow (C*) Green (D) Brown

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Q.11 When we heat crystals of ferrous sulphate in a test tube which one of the following is NOT
obtained ?
(A) Brown solid is formed (B) A gas having smell of burning sulphur is evolved
(C*) A brown gas is evolved (D) Oxides of sulphur are produced

Q.12 A student while heating some ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry boiling tube will observe:
(A) water droplets near the mouth of boiling tube (B) colour change of the crystals
(C) smell of burning sulphur (D*) All of the above

Q.13 When we heat ferrous sulphate crystals a gas evolves which has a smell of:
(A) rotten eggs (B) pleasant smell
(C*) irritating smell (D) burning smell

Q.14 The colour changes observed when the ferrous sulphate crystals are heated in a dry boiling tube is
(A) green  orange  brown (B*) green  white  brown
(C) blue  green  white (D) green  brown  black

Q.15 A student heated small amount of ferrous sulphate in a test tube. She made the following observations:
(i) Ferrous sulphate colour changes to brown
(ii) A gas having a smell of burning sulphur is evolved
(iii) Water droplets collect on the upper side of the test tube
(iv) Brown coloured gas is evolved.
The correct set of observation is
(A) (i), (ii), (iv) (B*) (i), (ii), (iii) (C) (i), (iii), (iv) (D) (ii), (iii), (iv)

Q.16 To a solution of copper sulphate in a beaker, some iron filings are dropped.
After a few minutes it is observed that
(A) a white precipitate is formed
(B) the colour of the solution becomes darker
(C*) a reddish brown coating starts appearing on the iron filings
(D) the solution becomes colourless.

Q.17 When an iron nail rubbed with sand paper is dipped in copper sulphate solution, we observe that
copper gets deposited.
(A) first on the lower part of the nail and proceeds to the upper part
(B) first on the upper part of the nail and proceeds to the lower part
(C*) on the entire surface of the nail
(D) on the nail in small patches

Q.18 Reaction of iron nails with copper sulphate solution is an example of

(A) combination reaction (B) decomposition reaction
(C*) displacement reaction (D) double displacement reaction

Q.19 Iron filings were added to an aqueous solution of copper sulphate solution. After sometime on
observation it was found that the colour of the solution has changed from :
(A*) blue to pale green (B) blue to dark green
(C) blue to colourless (D) blue to reddish brown

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Q.20 Four groups of the students were assigned separately the experiment of interaction of iron nail with a
solution of copper sulphate. Each group recorded the observations as given below in the table. Which
group of students recorded all the observations correctly?
Group of Initial colour of solution Final colour of solution Change in the iron nail
Students
(A) Blue Colourless Grey coat
(B) Green Green Brown coat
(C) Blue Blue Brown coat
(D*) Blue Light green Brown coat

Q.21 To show that iron is more reactive than copper, the correct procedure is to :
(A) prepare ferrous sulphate solution and dip copper strip in it
(B*) prepare copper sulphate solution and dip iron strip in it
(C) add dil. nitric acid on both strips
(D) heat iron and copper strips both

Q.22 Four students were asked to study the reaction between aqueous solutions of barium chloride and
sodium sulphate. They reported that their experiment as follows. On mixing the solutions of the two
salts in a test tube
(i) the colour of the mixture becomes brown
(ii) the solutions form separate layer
(iii) a colourless mixture is obtained
(iv) a white substance settles at the bottom.
The correct report is
(A) (i) (B) (ii) (C) (iii) (D*) (iv)

Q.23 White ppt obtained when aqueous solutions of BaCl2 and Na2SO4 are mixed, is that of
(A) NaCl (B*) BaSO4 (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these

Q.24 Reaction between a solution of sodium sulphate in water and barium chloride in water is an example
of
(A) combination reaction (B) decomposition reaction
(C) displacement reaction (D*) double displacement reaction

Q.25 Barium sulphate is

(A) colourless and soluble in water (B*) colourless and insoluble in water
(C) green colour and soluble in water (D) None of these

Q.26 The insoluble product (precipitate) formed when barium chloride is mixed with sodium sulphate solu-
tion is
(A) barium (B*) barium sulphate (C) sodium chloride (D) barium sulphide

Q.27 To study the reaction between barium chloride and sodium sulphate, the two compounds are mixed in
the form of:
(A) dry powders (B) molten liquids (C*) aqueous solutions (D) None of these

Q.28 A solution of barium chloride in water is

(A*) colourless (B) sky blue incolour (C) pale green in colour(D) reddish brown in colour

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Q.29 A solution of sodium sulphate in water is-

(A) sky blue in colour (B) pale green in colour
(C) yellow in colour (D*) colourless

Q.30 When a solution of barium chloride in water is added to an aqueous solution of sodium sulphate, the
following happens:
(A*) a white precipitate is formed (B) a red precipitate is formed
(C) the colour of the solution turns blue (D) a pungent smelling gas is evolved

Section - B

(VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS) [1 MARKS]

Q.1 What is the colour of fresh crystals of ferrous sulphate?
Ans. It is light green coloured.

Q.2 Name the type of reaction when ferrous sulphate is heated.

Ans. Decomposition.

Q.3 What is the formula of crystalline ferrous sulphate?

Ans. FeSO4.7H2O.

Q.4 Name the gases evolved when ferrous sulphate crystals are heated strongly.
Ans. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3).

Q.5 What is the colour of the residue obtained when crystals of ferrous sulphate are heated strongly in air?
What is its chemical composition?
Ans. The residue is red in colour. Chemically it is iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3.

Q.6 What are thermal decomposition reactions?

Ans. When a decomposition reaction is carried out by heating, it is called thermal decomposition reaction.

Q.7 Give an example of thermal decomposition reaction.

Ans. Decomposition of ferrous sulphate on heating is an example of thermal decomposition.

2FeSO4   Fe2O3+SO2 +SO3

Q.8 Can the heating of ferrous sulphate be classified as redox reaction?

Ans. Yes, it is a type of redox reaction.

Q.9 What is the smell of the gases evolved when crystals of ferrous sulphate are heated strongly?
Ans. The mixture of gases so produced has a pungent suffocating smell of burning sulphur.

Q.10 What happens when crystals of ferrous sulphate are kept exposed to atmosphere for a long time ?
Ans. Ferrous sulphate is oxidised to ferric sulphate by atmospheric oxygen.

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Q.11 State an example of each an endothermic and exothermic reaction. [SAI-2013,14,15]

Sol. (a) N2(g) + O2(g) + Heat  2NO(g)
(Nitrogen) (Oxygen) (Nitric oxide)
Heat
(b) 2Mg (s) + O2 (g)   2MgO (s) + Energy

Q.12 To prevent rancidity of foods containing fats and oils, some substances are added to them. What are
these substances called. [SAI-2012,15]
Sol. Substances which are added to prevent rancidity are called antioxidants as they prevent oxidation of
fats and oils.
Common antioxidants are :
(a) BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole)
(b) BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene)
Vitamin-E and vitamin-C (ascorbic acid) are the two antioxidants occuring in natural fats.

Q.13 Why burning of a candle wax is considered a chemical change? [SAI-2015]

Ans. Because when candle burns new products are formed, i.e., hydrocarbons combine

Q.14 Give reason that moist air and acidic gases are not good for some metals. [SAI-2015]
Ans. Moist air causes corrosion of iron while acidic gases cause corrosion of copper and silver.

Q.15 Why does white coloured silver chloride turn grey when kept in sunlight ? [SAI-2015]
Ans. This is due to the decomposition of silver chloride into silver and chlorine by light.

Q.16 Give one industrial application of reduction. [SAI-2015]

Ans. It is used in metallurgical processes of refining metals.

Section - C
(SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS) [2 MARKS]
Q.17 Identify the type of chemical reaction and also write the chemical equation for the reaction that takes
place when a solution of potassium chloride is mixed with silver nitrate solution. Write the chemical
name of one of the products obtained. [SAI-2013, 2015]
Ans. AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
It is double displacement reaction. Silver chloride/Potassium nitrate.

Q.18 Identify the type of each of the following reactions. Also write balanced chemical equation for each.
(a) The reaction mixture becomes warm. [SAl-2015]
(b) An insoluble substance is formed.
Sol. (a) It is a combination reaction.
CaO(s) + H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(aq) + Heat
(b) It is a double displacement reaction.
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

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Q.19 Write the balanced chemical equation for the following reaction and identify the type of reaction and
define it.
‘Iron(III) oxide reacts with aluminium and gives molten iron and aluminium oxide.’ [SAl-2014, 2015]
Sol. Fe2O3 + 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Fe
Displacement reaction -One element displaces another element.
Q.20 Write two observations that you will make when an iron nail is kept in an aqueous solution of copper
sulphate. Write the chemical equation for this reaction. [SAl-2012, 2015]
Ans. Blue colour changes to light green. Reddish-brown deposit on the iron nail.
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq)  FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Q.21 Identify the type of each of the following reactions : [SAl-2012]
(a) A reaction in which a single product is formed from two or more reactants.
(b) The reaction mixture becomes warm.
(c) An insoluble substance is formed.
(d) External surface of the container in which reaction takes place becomes freezing/cold.
Sol. (a) Combination reaction
(b) Exothermic reaction
(c) Precipitation reaction
(d) Endothermic reaction
Q.22 Explain giving chemical equation any two uses of chemical decomposition reaction in industry.
[SAl-2013,2015]
Sol. In manufacturing cement, quicklime is used and it is obtained by thermal decomposition of limestone.
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)
In manufacturing photochromic glass, silver chloride/bromide is used which turns grey in sunlight.
2AgCl(s) Sunlight
  2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
2AgBr(s) Sunlight
  2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
Q.23 Classify the following as exothermic and endothermic reactions:
(a) Photosynthesis (b) Respiration
(c) Burning of natural gas (d) Electrolysis of water. [SAl-2015]
Sol. (a) Photosynthesis -Endothermic reaction.
(b) Respiration - Exothermic reaction.
(c) Burning of natural gas -Exothermic reaction.
(d) Electrolysis of water -Endothermic reaction.
Q.24 Write two examples of everyday life, where redox reactions are taking place. [SAI-20l5]
Sol. (i) Silver jewellery tarnishes due to reaction of H2S gas of the air and silver is oxidised to silver
sulphide.
(ii) In rusting of iron, iron is oxidised to iron oxide.
Q.25 (i) When a metal 'X' is added to salt solution of a metal 'Y', following chemical reaction takes place :
Metal X + Salt solution of 'Y'  Salt solution of 'X' + Metal'Y'
(ii) Mention the inference you draw regarding the reactivity of metal 'X' and 'Y' and also about the
type of reaction. State the reason of your conclusions. [SAl-2012, 2013, 2015]
Sol. It is a displacement reaction.
(i) Metal X is more reactive than metal Y.
(ii) Metal X is displacing metal Y from its salt solution. A more reactive metal displaces less reactive
one from its salt solution, hence X is more reactive than Y.
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Q.26 On heating blue coloured powder of copper (II) nitrate in a boiling tube, copper oxide (black),
oxygen gas and a brown gas X is formed. [SAl-2015]
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation of the reaction.
(b) Identify the brown gas X evolved.
(c) Identify the type of reaction.
(d) What could be the pH range of aqueous solution of the gas X ?
Sol. (a) Balanced chemical equation :
2Cu(NO3)2(s) Heat  2CuO(s) + O2(g) + 4NO2(g)

(b) The brown gas X evolved is nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
(c) This is a decomposition reaction.
(d) Nitrogen.dioxide dissolves in water to form acidic solution because it is an oxide of non-metal.
Therefore, pH of this solution is less than 7.

Q.27 MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2 Identify the substance in the above reaction which is :
(i) Oxidised (ii) reduced (iii) oxidising agent (iv) reducing agent [SAl-2013]
Sol. (i) HCl (ii) MnO2 (iii) MnO2 (iv) HCl.

Section - D
(LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS) [3 MARKS]
Q.28 What is meant by balanced chemical equation ? Why chemical equations are balanced? Balance the
chemical equation given below :
Al2O3 + NaOH  NaAlO2 + H2O [SAI-2012, 2013, 2015]
Ans. • A chemical equation in which the numbers of atoms of each type involved in it are the same on
the reactants and products is called balanced chemical equation.
• To follow the law of conservation of mass in a reaction, we need to balance a chemical
equation.
• Al2O3 + 2NaOH  2NaAlO2 + H2O
Q.29 What is meant by a skeletal chemical equation? [SAI-2010, 2011]
What does it represent? Using the equation for electrolytic decomposition of water, differentiate
between a skeletal chemical equation and a balanced chemical equation.
• Skeletal chemical equation is an unbalanced chemical equation.
• It represents a chemical reaction.
H2O Electricit
 y  H2 + O2  Skeletal
2H2O Electricit
 y  2H2 + O2  Balanced
Q.30 Write two observations each for the following chemical reactions : [SAI-2015]
(a) Dilute sulphuric acid is poured over zinc granules.
(b) Potassium iodide solution is added to lead nitrate solution
(c) Lead nitrate is strongly heated in a hard glass test tube.
Ans. (a) Zn(s) + dil. H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2
(i) The container of the reaction mixture becomes hot as it is an exothermic reaction.
(ii) Bubbles are seen with the evolution of H2 gas, which is combustible gas.
(b) 2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)  PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Yellow
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(i) Yellow colour of potassium iodide solution disappears.

(ii) Yellow precipitate of lead iodide is formed.
(c) 2Pb(NO3)2 Strongly  2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
 heated
(i) Yellow fumes of NO2 gas are observed.
(ii) Light yellow residue of lead oxide is left.

Q.31 Consider the following reaction :

Pb(NO3)2(s) Heat  PbO(s) + NO2(g) + O2(g)
 [SAI-2015]
(a) Name the gases produced in the above reaction.
(b) Balance the above chemical equation.
(c) Name the type of chemical reaction.
Ans. (a) Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
(b) 2Pb(NO3)2(s) Heat 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(c) Decomposition reaction.

Q.32 Give three examples to indicate the role of decompositon reactions in metal industries. [SAI-2015]
Ans. (i) CaO is obtained from CaCO3 by thermal decompositon.
(ii)Sodium (Na) metal is obtained from NaCl (sodium chloride) by electrolytic decomposition.
(iii) Aluminium (Al) metal is obtained from Al2O3 by electrolytic decomposition.

Q.33 In the electrolysis of water : [SAI-2012]

(i) Name the gas collected at the cathode and anode respectively.
(ii) Why is the volume of one gas collected at one electrode double that at the other ? Name this gas
(iii) How will you test the evoled gases ?
Ans. (i) At cathode – Hydrogen gas (H 2 ) At
anode-Oxygen gas (O2) Plastic mug
Electric
(ii) Since 2H2O Current
 2H2 + O2 Oxygen Hydrogen
Test tube
Hydrogen gas is double of that of oxygen gas beause Water

2 molecules of hydrogen are liberated while only 1 Graphite rod

Water
molecule of oxygen is liberated.
Rubber stoper
(iii) When a burninng splinter is brought near the
Anode Cathode
mouth of the liberated gases, the burning splinter ( ) 6V
Switch Battery
extinguishes near H2 gas while the burning splinter
keeps burning more near the O2 gas.

Q.34 A magnesium ribbon is burnt in oxygen to give a white compound X accompained by emission of
light. If the burning ribbon is now placed in an atmosphere of nitrogen, it continues to burn and forms
a compound Y. [SAI-2012]
(a) Write the chemical formulae of X and Y.
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation when X is dissolved in water.
Ans. 2Mg + O2  2MgO
3Mg + N2  Mg3N2
(a) X is MgO, Y is Mg3N2
(b) MgO + H2O  Mg(OH)2

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Q.35 Point out the oxidising and reducing agents in the following reactions:
SO2 + 2HNO3 — H2SO4 + 2NO2

Ans. (i)

HNO3 is an oxidising agent decrease in O.N. because N atom undergoes decrease in O.N.
SO2 is a reducing agent, because S atom undergoes increase in O.N.

(ii)

SO2 is an oxidising agent because S atom undergoes decrease in O.N.

H2S is a reducing agent, because S atom undergoes increase in O.N.
Q.36 “Oxidation and reduction processes occur simultaneously.” Justify this statement with the help of an
example. [CBSE Sept. 2010]
Ans. If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised. If a substance loses oxygen
during a reaction, it is said to be reduced.
For example : Consider the following reaction :
CuO + H2 Heat
  Cu + H2O
Copper ( II ) Hydrogen Copper metal
oxide ( Black ) (Re ddish brown )

During this reaction, the copper (II) oxide is losing oxygen and is being reduced. The hydrogen is
gaining oxygen and is being oxidised. In other words, one reactant gets oxidised while the other gets
reduced during a reaction. Such reactions are called oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reac-
tions. (It will act as reducing agent)
Oxidation
Heat
CuO + H 2 Cu + H2O
Copper (II) oxide

(It will act as an oxidising agent)

Section - E
(VERY LONG QUESTIONS) [5 MARKS]
Q.37 Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions and identify the type of reaction in
each case.
(a) Nitrogen gas is treated with hydrogen gas in the presence of a catalyst 773 K to form ammonia
gas.
(b) Sodium hydroxide solution is treated with acetic acid to form sodium acetate and water.
(c) Ethanol is warmed with ethanoic acid to form ethyl acetate in the presence of concentrated H2SO4.
(d) Ethene is burnt in the presence of oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and release heat and light.
(e) Thermit reaction, iron (III) oxide reacts with aluminium and gives molten iron and aluminium oxide.
[SAI-2014,15]
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Ans. (a) N2(g) + 3H2(g) Catalyst

 2NH3(g)
Combination reaction.
(b) NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)  CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
Double displacement reaction / Neutralisation reaction.
(c) C2H5OH(l) + CH3COOH(l)  CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
Double displacement reaction / Esterification reaction.
(d) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + Heat + Light
Redox reaction / Combustion reaction
(e) Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s)  Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(l) + Heat
Displacement reaction / Redox reaction.
Q.38 List three effects of oxidation in our daily life. Are these effects useful or harmful ? Justify.
[SAl-20l2, 2015]
Ans. (i) Corrosion :
It is harmful, as it loses shine of some metals such as copper and silver. Corrosion of iron called rusting
is a serious problem as enormous amount of money is spent to replace damaged iron.
(ii) Rancidity :
It is also harmful because when fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid and their smell and
taste change.
(iii) Burning of fuels :
It is useful. As these are exothermic reactions, large amount of heat energy is evolved.

Q.39 What happens when zinc granules are treated with dilute solution of H2SO4, HCl, HNO3, NaCl and
NaOH, also write the chemical equations if reaction occurs. [SAI-2015]
Ans. The reaction of Zn granules with :
(a) Dilute H2SO4
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(b) Dilute HCI
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(c) Dilute HNO3
Reaction with dilute HNO3 is different as compared to other acids because nitric acid is an
oxidising agent and it oxidises H2 gas evolved to H2O.
4Zn(s) + 10HNO3 (aq) 4Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 5 H2O(l) + N2O(g)
(d) NaCl solution
Zn(s) + NaCl(aq)  No reaction
(e) NaOH solution
Zn(s) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium zincate
Q.40 (i) Solid calcium oxide was taken in a container and water was added slowly to it :
(a) Write the observation.
(b) Write the chemical formula of the product formed.
(ii) What happens when carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through lime water:
(a) in small amount?
(b) in excess?
(iii) Why do you apply paint on iron articles? [SAI-2014, 2015]

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Ans. (i) (a) Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water and releases a large amount of heat.
(b) Calcium hydroxide (Slaked lime), i.e., Ca(OH)2 is formed.
(ii) (a) In small amount, solution becomes milky due to the formation of calcium carbonate.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
(b) In excess, milkiness disappears because calcium carbonate changes to calcium hydrogen
carbonate which is colourless in nature.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2  Ca(HCO3)2

(iii) Paint forms a protective coating on the surface of iron. Then oxygen and moisture present in the
air cannot have a direct contact with paint.
Q.41 Balance the following chemical equations and identify the type of chemical reaction:
(a) Mg(s) + Cl2(g)  MgCl2(s)
(b) HgO(s) Heat Hg(l) + O2(g)
(c) Na(s) + S(s) Fuse Na2S(s)
(d) TiCl4(l) + Mg(s)  Ti(s) + MgCl2(s)
(e) H2O2(l)  UV H2O(l) + O2(g) [SAI-2013]
Ans. (a) Balanced ; Combination reaction.
(b) 2HgO(s) Heat  2Hg(l) + O2(g)
Decomposition reaction.
(c) 2Na(s) + S(s) Fuse  Na2S(s)

Combination reaction.
(d) TiCl4(l) + 2Mg(s) Ti (s) + 2MgCl2(s)
Displacement reaction.
(e) 2H2O2(l)  UV 2H2O(1) + O2(g)
Decomposition
reaction

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III

Q.1 Dilute sulphuric acid is poured on zinc granules. Which of the following statements is false regarding
this reaction ?
(A) Hydrogen gas is released (B*) It is an endothermic reaction
(C) It is a chemical reaction (D) There will be rise in temperature
Q.2 Which of the following is false about chemical reaction ?
(A) A new substance with entirely different properties is formed.
(B) Old chemical bonds are broken while some new ones are formed.
(C) Atoms are rearranged to form new substance.
(D*) Atoms of reactants are destroyed and products are formed with double the number of atoms
of reactants.
Q.3 Which of the following pairs of reactions is not opposite to each other.
(A) Combination - decomposition (B*) Displacement - Double displacement
(C) Reduction - Oxidation (D) Endothermic - Exothermic
Q.4 The metal which can displace copper from copper sulphate solution.
(A) Hg (B) Au (C*) Fe (D) Ag

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Q.5 Which of the following is an example of endothermic reaction ?

(A) burning of paper (B) respiration
(C*) decomposition of limestone (D) slaking of lime

Q.6 Which of the following is not correct about the balanced chemical equation ?
(A) Short hand representation of a chemical reaction
(B) How much amount of reactants required to produce the given amount of products.
(C) How much amount of product will be obtained from given reactants.
(D*) Rate of reactions can be known by chemical equation

Q.7 The CO2 gas is produced during

(A) Complete combustion of fuel (B) Incomplete respiration
(C*) Complete combustion and respiration (D) incomplete combustion and respiration

Q.8 The substance reduced in the MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2 reaction is :
(A*) MnO2 (B) HCl (C) MnCl2 (D) H

Q.9 Which of the following on dissolution in water, will rise the temperature ?
(A) sodium chloride (B) ammonium chloride
(C) glucose (D*) sodium hydroxide.

Q.10 During double displacement reaction :

(A) exchange of ions take place (B) precipitate is formed
(C) colour change may take place (D*) all of these
Q.11 The rate of corrosion depends upon
(A) temperature (B) presence of electroyte
(C) electropositive nature of the metal (D*) all of these
Q.12 In which of the following, heat energy is not released ?
(A) C + O2  CO2 (B) CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
(C) C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O (D*) NH4OH  NH3 + H2O

Q.13 Digestion is the example of

(A) displacement reaction (B) Combination reaction
(C) neutralisation reaction (D*) Decomposition reactions

Q.14 2 Na + Cl2  2NaCl this reaction is the example of

(A) Combination reaction (B) exothermic reaction
(C) redox reaction (D*) all of these

Q.15 2H2S + SO2  3S + 2H2O, In this reaction the substance which gets reduced is :
(A) H2O (B) S (C*) SO2 (D) H2S

Q.16 When a black and white photographic film is exposed to light, the gray colour on the film appears due
to the presence of
(A) Silver oxide (B) Bromine (C*) Silver (D) All of these

Q.17 A metal ‘M’ produces white ash of ‘N’ and dazzling white light on burning in the presence of oxygen
gas. The metal ‘M’ and ash ‘N’ would be
(A) magnesiumoxide,manganese respectively (B) manganese dioxide, magnesium respectively
(C*) magnesium, magnesium oxide respectively (D) magnesium carbonate, magnesium respectively
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Q.18 A student heated lead nitrate with an aqueous solution of potassium iodide. He would be getting
(A) white precipitate of lead (B*) yellow precipitate of lead iodide.
(C) white precipitate of potassium (D) yellow coloured gas of lead.

Q.19 Green coating on copper utensils in rainy season is due to the presence of
(A) CuCO3 (B*) CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 (C) Cu(OH)2 (D) CuS

Q.20 An acid which can decolourise purple colour of potassium permagnate solution is
(A) H2SO4 (B*) KI (C) MnO3 (D) K2Cr2O7.

Q.21 In order to prevent the spoilage of potato chips, they are packed in pouches filled with
(A*) nitrogen gas (B) oxygen gas (C) sulphur gas (D) none of these

Q.22 When we add common salt in AgNO3 (silver nitrate) solution the precipitate formed will be
(A) black coloured (B) blue coloured (C) yellow coloured (D*) white coloured

Q.23 Which of the following can be decomposed by the action of light ?

(A*) AgCl (B) KCl (C) CuCl2 (D) NaCl

Q.24 Give the number of molecules of carbon-dioxide formed upon complete oxidation of glucose.
(A) 1 (B) 3 (C*) 6 (D) 4

Q.25 Chemical equation for the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas is ZnS + xHCl  ZnCl2 + H2S.
What is the value of “x and y” in the equation, respectively ?
(A*) 2 and 1 (B) 1 and 2 (C) 2 and 2 (D) 3 and 1
Q.26 Chemical equation for the combustion of methanol is as follows :
xCH3OH(g) + yO2(g)  zCO2(g) + 4H2O(g). What is the value of ‘x, y and z” in the equation,
respectively ?
(A) 1, 2 and 3 (B) 1, 2 and 4 (C) 2, 3 and 4 (D*) 2, 3 and 2.

Q.27 The reaction between aqueous solutions of sodium chloride and silver nitrate is
(A) displacement reaction (B) synthesis reaction
(C*) double displacement reaction (D) analysis reaction

Passage (Q.28 to Q.30)

In a double displacement reaction between aqueous potassium iodide and aqueous lead nitrate, a
yellow precipitate of lead iodide is formed.
Q.28 While performing the activity if lead nitrate is not available, which of the following can be used in place
of lead nitrate ?
(A) Lead sulphate (insoluble) (B*) Lead acetate
(C) Ammonium nitrate (D) potassium sulphate

Q.29 Which of the following statements is true regarding precipitates ?

(A*) Product formation after saturation point
(B) Product formation before saturation point
(C) Precipitation does not relate to saturation point of a solution
(D) Product with higher concentration in a reaction is precipitate.

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Q.30 Which of the following is a double displacement reaction ?

(A) 2KI + Cl2  2KCl + I2 (B) Al + Fe2O3  Al2O3 + 2Fe
(C*) BaCl2 + H2SO4  BaSO4 + 2HCl (D) Mg + CuSO4  MgSO4 + Cu

Q.31 The reaction that releases energy is


(A) 2FeSO4(s)  Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)

(B) 3Pb(NO3)2(s)  2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(C) 2AgBr(s)   2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
Sunlight

(D*) CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Q.32 CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl reaction is an example of

(A) synthetic (B) analytical (C*) displacement (D) neutralisation

Q.33 A brown and bright element “x” when heated in presence of air turns into black substance “y”. If
hydrogen gas is passed over this heating material again “x” is obtained. “x” and “y” are
(A*) Cu and CuO (B) S & SO2 (C) C & CO2 (D) Na and NaH

Q.34 Displacement reaction is :

(A) CaO(s) + H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(aq)
(B*) Pb(s) + CuCl2(aq)  PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
(C) MnO2(s) + 4HCl(l)  MnCl2(s) + 2H2O + Cl2(g)
(D) C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
Q.35 The Chemical reaction HNO3 + KOHKNO3 + H2O is an example of :
(A) neutralization (B) double displacement
(C*) neutralization and double displacement (D) Combination

Q.36 Magnesium ribbon is rubbed with sand paper before making it to burn. The reason of rubbing the
ribbon is to
(A) remove moisture condensed over the surface of ribbon.
(B) generate heat due to exothermic reaction.
(C*) remove magnesium oxide formed over the surface of magnesium.
(D) Mix silicon from sand paper (silcon dioxide) with magnesium for lowering ignition temperature
of the ribbon.
Q.37 The reaction that differs from the rest of the reactions given is :
(A) Formation of calcium oxide from limestone
(B*) Formation of aluminium from aluminium oxide.
(C) Formation of sodium carbonate from sodium hydrogen carbonate
(D) Formation of mercury from mercuric oxide.
Q.38 Statement 1 : Calcium carbonate when heated decomposes to give calcium oxide and water.
Statement 2 : Calcium carbonate when heated decomposes to give calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide.
(A) Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1is true, Statement-2 False.
(D*) Statement-1is False, Statement-2 True.

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Q.39 Statement 1 : Brown fumes are produced when lead nitrate is heated because a displacement
reaction takes place and lead is formed.
Statement 2 : Nitrogen dioxide gas is produced as a by product.
(A) Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1is true, Statement-2 False.
(D*) Statement-1is False, Statement-2 True.
Q.40 Statement 1 : Iodine can’t displace bromine from a solution because the reactivity of bromine is
higher as compared to iodine.
Statement 2 : Iodine is smaller than bromine and the outermost electrons are not influenced by the
force of attraction exerted by the nucleus.
(A) Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(C*) Statement-1is true, Statement-2 False.
(D) Statement-1is False, Statement-2 True.
Q.41 Statement 1 : Balance the following equation with the smallest whole number coefficients. Choose
the answer that is the sum of the coefficients, in the balanced equation. Do not forget coefficients of
“one”.
Cr + H2SO4  Cr2(SO4)3 + H2
The sum of the coefficients, representing the smallest whole number coefficient is 9.
Statement 2 : The equation can be balanced in many ways.
(A) Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(B*) Statement-1 and Statement-2 are true but Statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation of
Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1is true, Statement-2 False.
(D) Statement-1is False, Statement-2 True.
Q.42 Match the following :
Column-I Column-II
(A) Neutralisation (1) 2Mg + O2  2MgO
(B) Precipitation (2) H2SO4 + NaOH  Na2 SO4 + H2O
(C) Gas-formation (3) ZnS + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2S
(D) Oxidation (4) PbNO3 + Na2SO4  PbSO4 + 2NaNO3.
(A) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4 (B) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
(C) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1 (D*) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
Q.43 Match the following :
Column-I Column-II
(A) AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO3 (1) Double displacement
(B) 2KI + Br2  2KBr + I2 (2) No reaction
(C) Zn + 2NaCl  2Na + ZnCl2 (3) Single displacement.
(A) A-1, B-2, C-3 (B*) A-1, B-3, C-2
(C) A-3, B-1, C-2 (D) A-2, B-1, C-3
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Q.44 Column II gives type of reaction mention in column I, match them correctly.
Column-I Column-II
(A) C + O2   CO2 (1) Displacement
light
(B) AgBr  Ag + Br (2) Combination
(C) Zn + CuSO4 
 ZnSO4 + Cu (3) Decomposition
(D) CH3CH2OH Cu
 CH3CHO + H2 (4) Oxidation
(A*) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4 (B) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
(C) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1 (D) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
Q.45 Column I Column II
(A) Double displacment (1) CuO + H2  heat
   Cu + H O
2
(B) Decomposition (2) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) BaSO4 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq)
(C) Precipitation (3) CaCO3  heat
  CaO + CO2
(D) Redox (4) NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
(A) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4 (B) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
(C*) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1 (D) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1

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ANSWER KEY

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-II

Section - A

(OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS)
Q.1 A Q.2 D Q.3 C Q.4 D Q.5 A Q.6 C Q.7 B
Q.8 C Q.9 B Q.10 C Q.11 C Q.12 D Q.13 C Q.14 B
Q.15 B Q.16 C Q.17 C Q.18 C Q.19 A Q.20 D Q.21 B
Q.22 D Q.23 B Q.24 D Q.25 B Q.26 B Q.27 C Q.28 A
Q.29 D Q.30 A

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III

Q.1 B Q.2 D Q.3 B Q.4 C Q.5 C Q.6 D Q.7 C

Q.8 A Q.9 D Q.10 D Q.11 D Q.12 D Q.13 D Q.14 D
Q.15 C Q.16 C Q.17 C Q.18 B Q.19 B Q.20 B Q.21 A
Q.22 D Q.23 A Q.24 C Q.25 A Q.26 D Q.27 C Q.28 B
Q.29 A Q.30 C Q.31 D Q.32 C Q.33 A Q.34 B Q.35 C
Q.36 C Q.37 B Q.38 D Q.39 D Q.40 C Q.41 B Q.42 D
Q.43 B Q.44 A Q.45 C

********

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BIOLOGY
CH-1: LIFE PROCESS BIOLOGY/CLASS-X

PRECISE
Life Process
Process required for maintenance of life

Definite Indefinite
Clearly Define Not Clearly Define

Nutrition Mode of uptake Visible movement

of nutrients - not seen in plants
but they are livings
Transportation
Mainly by blood Reproduction
Many living things
Respiration Process that do not reproduce
release energy from food but they can not be
classified as non
Metabolism Sum total of all livings on this
chemical reactions in body basis

Self consciousness i.e.

Response to stimuli

Internal Growth

Excretion i.e. biological

removal of nitrogenous waste

Molecular movements are

essential for repair and
maintenance

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1 LIFE PROCESS

FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

THEORY

INTRODUCTION
• Life : Life is a self regulated complex system of molecules where chemical reactions are going on all the
time that lead to its maintinance, growth, responsiveness and reproduction.
• Living organism : Living beings are organised self regulated discrete entities which exhibit the various
characteristic of life like movements, growth, responsiveness and reproduction.
• Life processes : All the living organisms including humans perform a number of activities such as
nutrition, respiration, excretion, growth & reproduction. These activities are characteristics of living
organism & help in maintenance of life. These maintenance functions of living organisms are known as
life processes.

Some Characteristic of living organisms

(i) Cellular organization : All organisms are made up of cells.
(ii) Sensitivity : Giving response to stimuli (Stimulus = change in environment) (Response = visible effect
because of stimulus) Consciousness is one of the most important definite life feature. eg. Plants grows
towards light, pupil dilate in dark etc.
(iii) Respiration & Energy utilization: Respiration is the process in which nutrients are converted into
useful energy in a cell. Energy produced during respiration is used to perform many kinds of works with
in the body.
(iv) Internal growth:It is characteristic feature of livings.
(v) Homeostasis: All organism maintain relatively constant internal conditions in different environments,
known as homeostasis.
(vi) Regulation: All organism have neural or chemical regulatory mechanism that co-ordinate internal
processes.
(vii) Reproduction: It is a process of producing young ones of their own kinds. Heredity character are
passed from parent to the offsprings during reproduction.
(viii) Metabolism: The sum total of all the chemical & physical changes that are constantly taking place in
living organisms & are necessary for life.
Types of metabolic pathways
(a) Anabolic pathways : Biosynthetic pathways, in which complex substances are synthesized from simpler
ones. Ex : Photosynthesis (Endothermic reaction – energy is used)
(b) Catabolic pathways : Break down of complex organic substances into simpler ones. Ex : Respiration.
(Exothermic – energy released)

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(ix) Excretion : A number of waste products are formed as by-products of metabolism. They are usually
toxic and removed from the body.
(x) Irritability : Every living organism is aware of its surroundings. It responds to changes in the environment.
The branch of biology that deals with the study of life process, activities and body functions is
called physiology.

NUTRITION

"Nutrition" is a process of intake as well as utilization of nutrients by an organism. It is the process of

breakdown of nutrients into smaller molecules and their absorption. Food provides us nutrition and
energy. It contains different types of nutrients in varying amounts according to the need of our body.

Nutrients :
These are the substances required by our body for its growth, repair, work and maintenance of the body.
Different types of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, mineral etc. Our daily energy
need may vary according to our occupation, age, sex and under some specific conditions.

Nutrients

Macro nutrients Micro nutrients

Fats Carbohydrate Proteins Vitamins Minerals

MODES OF NUTRITION :
• There are several modes of nutrition on the basis of which organisms are classified as follows :

1. Autotrophic : (Auto = self, trophic = food)

• It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food.
• Inorganic molecules like CO2 and H2O are converted into organic molecules like carbohydrates in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. e.g. Green plants. Autotrophs are further categorized. as:
(i) Photoautotroph : Those which utilize sunlight for preparing their food
(ii) Chemoautotroph : Those which utilize chemical energy for preparing their food.

2. Heterotrophic : (Hetero = different ; trophic = food)

• It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms derive their food from some other animals or plants.
• They cannot prepare their own food e.g. human being. Heterotrophs are further categorized depending
on the nature of food they consume :
(i) Herbivores : Animals which eat only plants, e.g. Cow, goat etc.
(ii) Carnivores : They feed on flesh of other animals, e.g. Lion, vulture etc.
(iii) Omnivores : They feed on plants and animals both e.g. Dog, human etc.
(iv) Detritivores : Feed on detritus or dead organic remains, e.g. Earthworm etc.
(v) Sanguivorous : Feed on blood e.g. Leech, female mosquito etc.

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(vi) Frugivorous : Feed on fruits, e.g. Parrot etc.

(vii) Insectivores : Feed on insects, e.g. Bats etc.
On the Basis of Mode of Feeding Organisms are Categorised As :
(i) Holozoic : They ingest mostly solid but sometimes liquid food. e.g., Amoeba, human etc.
(ii) Saprotrophic : They absorb organic matter from dead and decaying organisms with the help of their
enzymes. e.g., Bacteria, fungi etc.
(iii) Parasitic : They derive their nutrition from other living plants or animals e.g. Plasmodium, round worms,
etc.
Mode of Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Photosynthetic Chemosynthetic Parastitic Saprophytic Holozoic

Prepare food by prepare food by Derives food Derive food Feeds on
using solar energy using chemical energy from living from dead & solid food
e.g.: green plants e.g.: Sulphur bacteria tissues of host decaying matter e.g. Amoeba,
e.g. plasmodium e.g. Fungi man
Leech bacteria
• Nutrition can be divided into two categories on the basis of occurance.
1. Nutrition in plants 2. Nutrition in animals.

NUTRITION IN PLANTS
• Plant perform photosynthesis [Photo (light) and synthesis (Build up)]. Photosynthesis is a process
that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using sunlight in
presence of chlorophyll. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria.
It is represented by:
6CO2 + 12H2O + Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2  + 6H2O
• It takes place in every green part of plant mainly in the green leaves. Plants stores food in the form of
Starch.
[Different from animals which stores food in the form of Glycogen]

Factors involved in Photosynthesis

1. Sunlight :
• For plants, sun is the basic source of radiant energy.
• Plants utilize the light in the visible region of solar spectra (electromagnetic spectrum) which
comes under the range of 380 nm - 780 nm.
• Visible region consists of white light which is a mixture of 7 lights of different wavelengths.

380 nm 760 nm

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Note : Plants utilize carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, the intensity of light at which amount of CO2 used
during photosynthesis becomes equal to the amount of CO2 released during respiration by plants in
called as Compensation point.
Compensation point occurs at low light intensity that is during morning and during evening hours.

Sunlight VI B GYO R
Red/Orange  Maximum Photosynthesis
Blue/violet  Highest rate of absorption
Green  No Photosynthesis

Starch test : Requirement for photosynthesis can be tested by reaction between starch and iodine refer as
starch test.
Starch + I2  Blue Black Colour

Steps of starch test

1. Heat some water to boiling point in a beaker .
2. Use forceps to dip a leaf in the hot water for about 30 seconds. This kills the cytoplasm, denatures the
enzymes and makes the leaf more permeable to iodine solution.
3. Push the leaf to the bottom of a test tube and cover it with alcohol. Place the tube in the hot water (water
bath). The alcohol will boil and dissolve out most of the chlorophyll.
4. Remove the leaf and dip it once into the hot water to soften it.
5. Spread the decolorized leaf flat on a white tile and drop iodine solution onto it. The parts containing
starch will turn blue; parts without starch will stain brown or yellow with iodine.
• Covered part will show Brown/Yellow while uncovered part will show blue black colour
• This proves light is essential for photosynthesis.

2. Carbon-di-oxide :
• Terrestrial plants obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the small openings present on
leaves called as stomata.
• They help in exchange of gases and water.
• Stomata opening is guarded by the presence of guard cells (kidney shaped).
• Aquatic plants obtain CO2 dissolved in water through their general body surface so they perform more
photosynthesis than terrestrial plants.

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Test : To prove CO2 is essential for photosynthesis.

• Take a test tube and put some KOH(KOH absorbs CO2) inside the tube. Cover its mouth with perforated
cork.
• Insert half part of leaf inside tube (Inner portion is devoid of CO2 while outer part receive CO2).
• Make assembly air tight with help of vaseline.
• Perform starch test.
• Inner part will remain Brown/Yellow while outer part will show blue black colour.

• It can also be performed by Bell-Jars experiment.

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3. Chlorophyll :
These are the green pigments present in chloroplast. They are found in green leaves in a maximum
amount as well as in other green aerial parts of plant. There are six different types of chlorophyll, they are
chlorophyll a,b,c,d,e and bacteriochlorophyll, amongst them chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are the
most commonly occurring chlorophylls.
Besides chlorophyll certain other pigments are also present in plants like.
(i) Carotenes : Orange in colour e.g. Carrot.
(ii) Xanthophylls : Orange yellow in colour e.g. Maize.
(iii) Phycobilins : Different colour like red, violet e.g. Blue-green algae, brown algae etc.

Table – Kinds of Photosynthetic pigments in various groups of plants

Photosynthetic Pigment Colour Distribution
Chlorophyll
(i) Chlorophyll a yellow green All green plants except bacteria
(ii) Chlorophyll b blue green All higher plants and green algae
(iii) Chlorophyll c green Diatoms
(iv) Chlorophyll d green / red Red algae
(v) Bacteriochlorophylls pale blue Bacteria
Carotenoids
Carotenes and Xanthophylls orange Algae and higher plants
Phycobilins
Phycoerythrin red Red algae
Phycocyanin red Red algae and blue green algae

• Take a variegated (multi colour) leaf like Crotons. Mark green and non green areas.
• Perform starch test.
• Non green part will show Brown/Yellow while green part will show blue black colour.
• This proves chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.

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4. Water
Plants absorb water by root hairs from the soil by the process of osmosis which get transported upward
through xylem to the leaves. It act as an important raw material and helps in production of reducing
power that is NADH2 and FADH2.
 Besides that various enzymes are also involved in photosynthesis.

SITE OF PHOTOSYNETHESIS 
• The actual site of photosynthesis is chloroplast (cell organelle)
• Leaf  Mesophyll tissue  Palisade / Spongy parenchyma Chloroplast  Chlorophyll
• Green colour of plants appears because out of the seven colour of the white visible light, chlorophyll
absorb all excepts green colour. Green is totally reflected back. Hence, leaves look green in colour.

Site of photosynthesis is different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

• In prokaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in lamellar chromatophores.
• In eukaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast.
• Exception : Fungi ( It lacks chlorophyll so no photosynthesis occurs here).
• In higher plants chloroplast in the main site of photosynthesis.
• Chloroplast is also called as green plastid.
• Plastid was first observed by Haeckel.
• Plastids are of 3 different types on the basis of pigments present in them.
(i) Leucoplast : White in colour, found in underground parts, lacks coloured pigment. Helps in storage of
protein (Aleuroplst), oil (Elaioplast), starch (Amyloplast)
(ii) Chromoplast : Colour other than green found in aerial parts on the plants.
(iii) Chloroplast :
• Contain green pigment, called as chlorophyll.
• Chloroplast was discovered by Schimper.
• Number of chloroplasts is variable in different species of plants.
• In lower plants like algae they are 1 or 2 number.
• In higher plants their number varies from 40 - 100 per palisade cell or more.
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• Chloroplast also have variable shapes, for example cup shaped, ribbon shaped etc. in algae while it is
discoidal in higher plants.

• A typical structure of chloroplast is a double membranous structure having two parts.

(a) Grana :
• It is a lamellar system consisting of stacks of granum lamella each bounded by a membranous box called
as thylakoid.
• They are 40 - 60 per cell. Number of thylakoids per grana is 50 or more Chlorophyll molecules are
found inside the thylakoid membrane where they trap solar energy in the form of small energy packets
called 'photon' or 'quanta'.
• Grana are interconnected to each other by a channel called as stroma lamellae or Fret's channel.

(b) Stroma :
• It is a non pigmented proteinaceous matrix in which grana remain embedded. It contain enzymes for
dark reaction.

Structure of Chlorophyll molecule :

• A chlorophyll molecule has two parts.
(i) A tetrapyrrole ring or a porphyrin ring and
(ii) A long hydrocarbon tail called phytol.
– The porphyrin ring has four smaller pyrrole rings.
– In each small ring there is a nitrogen atom.
– All four rings bind with a metal atom magnesium (Mg++) present at the centre.
– A porphyrin ring called the head has a flat structure with alternate single and double bonds.
– The head joins with the tail by an ester linkage
– A porphyrin ring has number of side-chains.
– The side-chains differ in different chlorophylls like chlorophyll a has a methyl group (–CH3) and
Chlorophyll b has an aldehyde group (–CHO) Refer Fig. These side chains modify the absorption
spectrum also.
• Chlorophyll a is more abundant in green plants than chlorophyll b.

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Structure of Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b and  Carotene

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS :
(I) LIGHT REACTION :
• It is also called as photochemical process.
• It was discovered by 'Robert Hill' therefore it is also called as Hill's reaction.
• Site : Grana of chloroplast.
• Raw materials : Light and water.
• Regulation : This process is regulated by chlorophyll molecules.

It involves three basic steps :

(A) Photo excitation of chlorophyll molecule :
During this process chlorophyll molecule receives sunlight in the form of small energy bundles called as
photons and become excited to higher energy level.

(B) Photolysis :
• It is also called as photoxidation of water, this takes place in presence of Mn+2 and Cl¯ ions.

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• O2 is liberated as by product and H+ ions are used for reduction of NADP

2NADP + 4H  2NADPH2

(C) Photophosphorylation :
• During this process ATP are produced. It takes place in quantasomes.
• Mg+2 ions and inorganic phosphate is required to convert ADP into ATP, ADP + iP  ATP.

(II) DARK REACTION :

• It is also called as thermo chemical reaction.
• It was discovered by Melvin calvin and Benson therefore it is also called as
• Calvin cycle Site = Stroma of chloroplast.
• Raw materials : They require CO2, NADPH2, ATP and Enzymes.
• Regulated by : Light reaction and enzymes.

It involves three basic steps :

(A) Carboxylation :
In this step CO2 is captured by CO2 acceptors like RUBP (C3 Plants) PEP (C4 Plants) with the help of
carboxylase enzyme i.e. RUBISCO & PEPCO respectively.

(B) Synthesis :
This phase capture CO2 is assimilated into glucose in the presence of phosphatase and isomerease
enzymes and RUBP is regenerated back.

(C) Regeneration of RUBP

Phases of photosynthesis

Light dependent Light independent or Dark phase

(i) Occurs in presence of light in thylakoid. (i) Occurs in stroma or matrix.

Use products of light reaction.
(ii) Excitation of chlorophyll by light. (ii) RUBP* acts as acceptor of CO2
(iii) Electron moves in cytochrome system. (iii) Using ATP and *NADPH2, CO2
is reduced to carbohydrate.
(iv) Light energy in converted into
chemical energy (ATP).
(v) Photolysis of water (O2 is released).
(vi) ATP, NADPH2, O2 are the main end
products of light reaction.

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Diffirence between light reaction & Dark reaction

Light Reaction Dark R eaction
1. Light It is required for the reaction It is light independent.
2. Conversion The reaction converts light energy The reaction uses chemical energy in
into chemical energy. building organic.
3. Chlorophyll It is essential for the reaction. Chlorophyll is not required directly.
4. Occurance It occurs in thylakoids of chloroplasts. It occurs in stroma part of chloroplasts.
5. Products Its products are ATP and NADPH 2 Its main product is starch.
6. Oxygen Oxygen is liberated as a by product. Its does not produce oxygen.
7. Electron Light reaction involves movement of There is no involvem ent of an electron
transport electrons along a transport chain. transport chain.

OVERALL REACTION OF DARK PHASE :

12RUBP + 6CO2 + 12NADPH + 18ATP + 12H+  12RUBP + C6H12O6 + 18ADP + 18ip +
12NADP
* RUBP = Ribulose Bi Phosphate
* NADP = Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
* ip = Inorganic phosphate
• Desert plants are exception. They open stomata in night to absorb CO2 and form intermediate compound
i.e. malate. Which is stored in vacuole and during day it is converted into sugar.

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS :

(a) Light :
• Normally plants utilize sunlight but marine algae can perform photosynthesis even in the moon light.
• Plants can also perform photosynthesis in the artificial lights.
• Highest rate of photosynthesis : Red light
• Minimum photosynthesis : Green light
• Very high light intensity can cause reduction in the rate of photosynthesis by causing
(i) Decrease in transpiration rate (ii) Denaturation of chlorophyll molecule

(b) Temperature :
• Optimum range = 25ºC to 30ºC
• It ranges from 10ºC - 40ºC
• In some forms like algae of hot spring 60ºC - 70ºC is normal

(c) Carbon dioxide :

• It is the raw material for the formation of glucose. Land plants obtain CO2 from the atmosphere through
the stomata. The aquatic plants get their CO2 as bicarbonates through their general surface.
• CO2 used by the green plants during photosynthesis is released due to respiration in green plants and
other organisms.
• Hence, we say that photosynthesis and respiration are antagonistic to each other.
• It has been proved experimentally that an increases in CO2 concentration up to 0.5 percent may cause
increase in photosynthesis but only for a limited time period provided other conditions remain constant.
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(d) Oxygen :
• O2 acts as competitive inhibitor of CO2. Over concentration of O2 stops photosynthesis.

(e) Chlorophyll :
• Chlorophyll content is directly proportional to rate of photosynthesis. No photosynthesis occurs inetiolated
cells, In variegated leaves it occurs only at places where chlorophyll is present.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS :
• Photosynthesis is a boon to the nature and to the human beings. It has following significance :
(i) Production of food material
(ii) Atmospheric control and purification of air.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS :
• Animal are heterotrophs (consumers). They depend upon plants or animals for food and can not synthesize
their own food.

Holozoic nutrition :
• Holozoic nutrition is typical of most animals - all vertebrates and most invertebrates.
• The organisms take the whole food (animal or plant or their parts) into their body and then digest it to
smaller particles.
• They have a specialised digestive tract which has various parts modified for ingestion, digestion, absorption
and egestion.

Process of Nutrition in Animals : -

Ingestion  Digestion  Absorption  Assimilation  Egestion

1. Nutrition in Amoeba :
• Amoeba is holozoic (takes solid food). It is omnivorous i.e. it ingests all kinds of aquatic micro-organisms
like bacteria, diatoms, algae, other protozoans, etc.

Steps of Nutrition in amoeba

(i) Ingestion: Food is taken in with help of pseudopodia
(ii) Digestion: Intracellular with help of enzymes present in lysosomes.
(iii) Absorption and Assimilation
(iv) Egestion: Undigested food thrown out

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2. Nutrition in Human Being

Human Digestive System

Alimentary canal Associated Glands

Mouth – Anus – Salivary glands
– Gastric gland
– Liver
– Pancreas
– Intestinal gland

Mouth  Pharynx  Oesophagus  Stomach  Duodenum  Jejunum  Ileum  Ceacum  Colon  Rectum  Anus

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF MAN

• All the organs that are responsible for the intake of food, its digestion, assimilation and removal of the
undigested waste in an organism constitute the digestive system. It is made up of :
1. Alimentary canal
2. Associated digestive glands

1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
Buccal Cavity -
• It is an organ of ingestion, mastication and swallowing of food.
• It consists of teeth, tongue, palate and its muscles. It opens outside through the mouth aperture.
• It lies below the nasal cavity and is separated from it by the palate.
• The hard palate forms the roof of the mouth and continues posteriorly into soft palate.
• The extension of soft palate in the form of uvula can be seen in an open mouth.
• Internally the buccal cavity is lined with mucous membrane containing mucus glands.
• There are 3 pairs of salivary glands which pour their secretions in the form of saliva in the mouth i.e.
1. Parotid gland
2. Submandibular
3. Sub lingual

Fig. Buccal Cavity of Man

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Fig. Human Digestive System

Teeth -
Jaws present in buccal cavity are provided with four different types of teeth (Heterodont) :
Incisors : For cutting
Canines : For tearing
Premolars : For grinding
Molars : For grinding

• Dental formula of humans : In human beings two set of teeth appear during their life time (Diphyodont)-
(A) Milk teeth : These are temporary , arise at 6 – 11 month age, 20 in number
Half upper jaw 2 1 0 2
Half lower jaw
= i2 , c , pm , m
1 0 2

(B) Permanent teeth : In adults

Half upper jaw 2 1 2 3
Half lower jaw
= i , c , pm , m
2 1 2 3
Tongue-
• At the floor of the oral cavity is present a musculo-sensory organ, the tongue.
• It has voluntary muscles and is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensory neurons.
• On its surface are present tiny protuberances called papillae. These papillae have taste buds for
identifying the chemical nature of food.
• Tongue is not only an organ of taste but also helps in swallowing the food and is essential for speech.
Pharynx-
• It is a wide opening at the back of mouth.

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• Posteriorly it leads into two tubes - gullet (food pipe) and glottis (wind pipe).
• In front of glottis is a muscular flap epiglottis which closes the glottis when the food is swallowed.
• Pharynx has 2 openings of internal nares above and two opening of Eustachian tubes on the sides
Oesophagus-
• It is a long narrow muscular tube which connects mouth to stomach.
• Food passes through oesophagus by peristaltic movements of the muscular wall.
Stomach-
• It is a large muscular elastic bag situated below the diaphragm.
• Its walls are supplied with glandular epithelium secreting gastric juices and mucus.
• It is J shaped and is present on the left hand side of the abdomen. It has three parts- cardiac, fundus,
and pylorus. Cardiac end is towards the oesophagus and food passes into the duodenum through
the pylorus.

Fig. – Structure of Stomach (mammals)

Pyloric sphincter-
• It is a ring of smooth muscles and connective tissue surrounding an opening between the pyloric region of
the stomach and duodenum.
• It opens and closes several times. With each opening, a small amount of food (chyme) moves into the
duodenum.
Small Intestine-
• It consists of three parts.
(a) Duodenum (b) Jejunum (c) Ileum.
(a) Duodenum- It form the upper part of small intestine which is C shaped and about 9 inches long and is
only one inch in diameter. It gets pancreatic juice from pancreas and bile juice from liver through a
common bile duct.
(b) Jejunum- Duodenum leads into a coiled tube called jejunum that is about 7 feet long.
(c) Ileum- Jejunum leads to ileum. The internal wall is thrown into number of folds called villi which increase
the surface area for absorption.
Large Intestine-
It is much shorter than small intestine and is basically for absorption of water and discharging the undigested
wastes. It has three parts, caecum, colon and rectum.
(a) Caecum-
• Caeum is a blind sac and is present where ileum joins the large intestine (just below the opening of ileum).
• In case of humans, it is very small and from it extends a small finger like vermiform appendix which gets
infected during appendicitis (Fig.).
• Caecum is large and spacious and a food storage organ in herbivores where cellulose fermentation takes
place.

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(b) Colon-
• It may be 5-6 feet long and 3 inches in diameter and is present in the form of an inverted U in the
abdominal cavity (Fig.).

• Ascending colon is the first part present on the right side that moves upwards from the caecum.
• Transverse colon is the horizontal part placed transversely.
• Descending colon is the next region that moves down on the left side.
• Pelvic colon- It is S shaped and continues into rectum. Food can remain in the colon for a long time may
be as long as 36 hours before being passed out to rectum.
(c) Rectum -
It is a small muscular region at the end of the large intestine. It can store the undigested food for a very
short time before passing it out through anus.

2. DIGESTIVE GLANDS-
• Apart from large number of gastric and intestinal glands present in the lining of the stomach, there are
three main associated digestive glands which pour their secretions into the alimentary canal.
• They are salivary glands, gastric gland, liver, pancreas and intestine gland.

I. Salivary glands
• There are 3 pairs of salivary glands.

Human Salivary Glands

I. Salivary glands :
It produces saliva. In rabbit, 4 pairs of salivary glands are present while in man only three pairs of
salivary glands are present. They help in chemical digestion. They secrete an enzyme called salivary
amylase or ptyalin. It helps in digestion of starch.

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(A) Parotid glands : largest glands present just below the external ear. In this glands, virus causes mumps
disease. (Parotid duct/Stenson’s duct)
(B) Submaxillary glands / Submandibular glands : These lie beneath the jaw-angles. (Wharton’s duct)
(C) Sublingual glands : Smallest glands which lie beneath the tongue and open at the floor of buccal
cavity.(Duct of Rivinus)

II. Gastric glands :

• Present in stomach. They secrete hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes and mucus.
• These are of 3 types :
(A) Cardiac glands : secrete an alkaline mucus.
(B) Pyloric glands : secrete an alkaline mucus.
(C) Fundic glands : each gland has 5 type of cells.
1. Peptic / Zymogen cells : secrete pepsinogen, prorennin.
2. Oxyntic cells : Secrete HCl
3. Goblet cells : secrete mucus
4. Argentaffin cells : produces serotonin somatostatin and histamine
5. G-cells : secrete and store the hormone gastrin.

III. Liver-
• It is the largest gland of the body that lies in the upper right region of the abdomen just below the
diaphragm.
• It secretes bile -a brownish-green fluid that passes from liver through hepatic ducts (that form of a
shape) and is poured into the common bile duct that opens in the duodenum (Fig.).
• Bile contains bile pigments and organic salts called bile salts. It helps in digestion of fats.
Function of liver :
• Formation of glucose from excess organic acids.
• Storage of vitamins : A, D, E, B12 Synthesis of vitamin A from carotene.
• Secretions of blood anticoagulant named heparin.
• Synthesis of blood or plasma proteins, fibrinogen and prothrombin.
• Secretion of bile, detoxification of harmful chemicals.
• Elimination of pathogens and foreign particles through phagocytic cells called Kupffer’s cells.
• The bile juice is secreted through common bile duct into the duodenum, but if there is no food in the
intestine, it is passed to the gall bladder through cystic duct.
• The gall bladder a small sac below liver, stores and concentrates bile. During digestion it contracts to
release the stored bile into the duodenum.

Fig. The duct systems of liver, gall bladder and pancreas

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IV. Pancreas-
• It is a compound gland having dual function - exocrine as well as endocrine.
• The exocrine part secretes pancreatic juice.
• It is located in the bend of the duodenal loop.
• The pancreatic juice passes into the duodenum through pancreatic duct which joins the common bile
duct.
• Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes -(i) trypsin (ii) amylase and (iii) lipase.

V. Intestinal glands
• Throughout the internal lining of small intestine are present numerous unicelluar glands, called intestinal
glands, that secrete intestinal juice or succus entericus.
• It contains many enzymes that help in the digestion of food.

DIGESTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL :

1. Digestion in buccal cavity (Salivary phase of digestion)
• Digestion of food starts in the buccal cavity.
• The ingested food is masticated (chewed) in the buccal cavity with the help of grinding teeth.
• Saliva secreted by the salivary glands during mastication is mixed with the food.
• The saliva performs many functions, such as :
(i) It moistens and lubricates the internal lining of buccal cavity and tongue to facilitate swallowing and
speaking.
(ii) It moistes and lubricates the food.
(iii) It helps in binding the food particles and making a food bolus that helps in swallowing.
(iv) It acts as a solvent to dissolve some food particles that stimulates taste buds and allow us to know the
tastes of the food.
(v) Saliva contains two enzymes named salivary amylases (ptyalin) and maltase that help in the digestion of
food as follows :
Salivary amylase
Starch      Maltose
or Ptyalin

Maltase
Maltose   Glucose
Salivary enzymes act in neutral or slightly alkaline medium (pH = 7.2)
(vi) Saliva clean the mouth and also destroys bacteria to prevent tooth decay.

Swallowing
• The passage of food bolus from buccal cavity into the stomach through pharynx and oesophagus is
called swallowing.
• The process of swallowing involves many simultaneous actions.
• The tongue is pressed against the roof of buccal cavity (palate) to provide a push to the food bolus.
• As a result of this push, food bolus reaches the pharynx, from where it passes into the oesophagus and
finally into the stomach.
• Lubrication of internal lining of oesophagus facilitates the passage of food.
• During swallowing of food, its entry into the nasal chambers is prevented by the posterior part of palate.
• Similarly, food cannot enter into the wind-pipe. (larynx) because its opening is closed by the flap-like
epiglottis.
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Figure : Swallowing Showing Closure of glottis by epiglottis

and momentary stoppage of breathing
• In case the food enters into the windpipe due to any reason, there is spontaneous coughing which
forcibly removes the food from the wind-pipe.

Peristalsis
• The process of waves of contractions in the wall of alimentary canal pushing the food forward is called
peristalsis and the wave of contraction is called peristaltic movement.

Figure : Peristaltic movement

• Food bolus keeps on rolling from its anterior to posterior side due to the peristaltic movements as shown
in figure.
• Peristaltic movements occur because of the contraction of circular muscles present all along the length of
alimentary canal.
• Mucus lining the internal lining of gut facilitates in the passage of food because of lubrication.

2. Digestion in stomach (Gastric phase of digestion)

• Whatever food is taken by man, reaches in the stomach and stored there for about 3 hours. To
accommodate about 2-3 litres of food the elastic stomach gets disteneded.
Churning of food –
• When the stomach receives food, the highly muscular wall of stomach undergoes alternate contractions
and relaxations causing the churning of food.
• Churning of food breaks large particles of food physically into smaller ones.
Partial digestion of food –
• In the stomach, the food is mixed with gastric juice secreted by the gastic glands.
• Gastric juice contains large quantities of mucus which when mixed with the food liquefies the food.
• HCl kills bacteria that may accompany the food.
• HCl also converts inactive enzymes pepsinogen and prorennin present in the gastric juice into their
active forms.
• Various steps of digestion in the stomach can be summarised as follows :
HCl
Prorennin 
 Rennin

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Pepsinogen HCl
 Pepsin
Rennin
Casein  Paracasein
(Soluble milk protein) (Insoluble protein)
Pep sin
Proteins    Peptones + Proteoses
• Because of churning, mixing of gastric juice and partial digestion, the food in the stomach is converted
into a thick paste (pulp-like material) called chyme.
• The chyme enters into the small intestine in small amounts at a time.

3. Digestion in small intestine

• Digestion of food is complete in the small intestine.
• The food comes across three digestive juices in this part of the gut. These digestive juices are :
(a) Bile (b) Pancreatic juice and (c) Intestinal juice
(a) Bile :
• The important functions of bile are :
(i) It neutralizes acidity of chyme.
(ii) It prepares alkaline medium for the action of enzymes present in pancreatic and intestinal juices.
(iii) It emulsifies fats, i.e., breaks larger drops of fats into smaller droplets. It increases surface area for the
action of enzymes.
(b) Pancreatic juice :
• It is alakline in nature and contains three types of enzymes, i.e.
(i) Pancreatic amylase : It digests the left over straches into maltose.
(ii) Trypsin : It converts peptones and proteoses into small peptides and amino acids ; and
(iii) Lipase : Its acts on fats and converts them into fatty acids and glycerol.
These reactions are summarized as follow :
Amylase
Starch   Maltose
Tryspin
Peptone and proteoses   Peptides + Amino acids
Lipase
Fats   Fatty acids + Glycerol
(c) Intestinal juice :
The partially digested food now enters into the ileum where intestinal juice i.e. “Succus entericus”(Intestinal
juice ) is secreted. At this place digestion is completed.
• It contains many enyzmes that help in the completion of digestion of food. These enzymes are :
(i) Maltase which digests maltose and produces glucose.
(ii) Lactase converts milk sugar lactose into glucose and galactose.
(iii) Invertase (Sucrase) that splits sucrose into glucose and fructose and
(iv) Lipase which digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Maltose Maltase
  Glucose
Lactase
Lactose    Glucose + Galactose

Sucrose Sucrase
  Glucose + Fructose

Fats Lipase
  Fatty acids + Glycerol
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• In this way insoluble, indiffusible forms of food are converted into soluble and diffusible forms.
• This simple and diffusible food in the small intestine is present in the form of a liquid called chyle.
• Now digested food is absorbed from small intestine into the blood.

Summary of digestion of food in various parts of alimentary canal of man

Se cre tion Nutrie nt
Re gion Enzyme s Product of dige s tion
(Source gland) (Subs trate )
(i) P tyalin
Saliva
Buccal cavity (Salivary amylase Starch, Maltose Maltose, Glucose
(Salivary glands)
(ii) Maltase
O esophagus None – – –
Gastric juice & P epsin P roteins Milk P roteoses and peptones
Stomach Hydrochloric Rennin (Not found protein Crudling of milk,
and (Gastric glands) in adult humans) or casein caseinogen
Emulsifies fats,
Bile (Liver) None food made
alkaline
Duodenum Maltose
P ancreatic analayse Strach
P ancreatic juice P roteoses, peptones,
Trypsin P roteins
Small P ancrease) peptides
Lipase Emulsified fats
Intestine Fatty acids and glycerol

Maltase Maltose Glucose

Intestinal juice Sucrase (Invertase) Sucrose Glucose and frutose
Ileum (Intenstinal glands
between villi) Lactase Lactose Glucose and galactose
Lipase Fats Fatty acids & glycerol

A bsorbs water and some

Colon None – –
remnants of digested food
Large
Intestine Temporarily stores
Rectum None – – undigested food and
faeces.

ABSORPTION :
• Diffusion of digested food through the internal lining of alimentary canal into the blood is called absorption.
• Very little absorption takes place through the internal lining of stomach.
• Maximum absorption takes place through the internal lining of small intestine (ileum).
• To bring about efficient absorption, the small intestine contains longitudinal folds (villi) which increase
the surface area for absorption, Moreover, in each villus there is an elaborate network of blood capillaries
and an unbranched lymph vessel called lacteal.
• Glucose, fructose, galactose, amino acids, minerals and vitamins from the digested food diffuse through
the internal lining of ileum into the blood running through capillary network of each villus.
• All the blood vessels that collect blood from alimentary canal join to form the hepatic portal vein.
• It carries blood along with digested food to the liver.

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• Fatty acids and glycerol from the chyle diffuse into the lymph running in lacteal which finally pours it into
the blood stream.

Fig. A section of small intestinal mucosa showing villi

• After the absorption of digested food the remaining part of chyle in the form of liquid reaches the large
intestine.
Absorption of water in large intestine
• Almost liquid - like undigested materials pass into the large intestine.
• Water from the undigested material is absorbed into the blood through the internal lining of colon.
• The undigested material is converted into semi-solid faeces.
• Semi-solid faeces are pushed into the rectum fom where they are passed out of the body through the
anus. The process of passing out faeces is called egestion or defaecation.

ASSIMILATION OF FOOD :
• Conversion of digested food into the living protoplasm of cells is called assimilation.
• Digested food is supplied to every cell by the blood stream.
• From the digested food which reaches any cell, most of the glucose is oxidized during metabolic activities.
• The remaining monosaccharides are converted into polysacharides, the amino acids are converted into
proteins and fatty acid and glycerol into fats.

EGESTION
• Removal of undigested food out of the body is called egestion or defaecation.
• Undigested materials in the form of faeces are eliminated from the body.
• Undigested food- Which mainly consists of cellulose and other plants fibres.
• Dead bacteria- Intestine harbours many symbiotic bacteria which synthesise amino acids and some
vitamins like vitamin K.
• Mucus and dead mucosal cells from the gut wall- The gut lining is constantly shed off or wears off
and is replaced by new cells.
• Bile pigments and its derivatives give colour to faeces.

SOME DISEASES
1. Peptic Ulcer: A lesion on the inner membrane of the stomach, because of higher acidity of gastric juice.
2. Dental Caries: Gradual softening of enamel and dentine. Bacteria acts on sugars and produce acid
which demineralises the enamel.
Masses of bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque.

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RESIRATION

Metabolism :
• The sum total of all the vital activities is called as metabolism.
• Vital activities refer to all the physiochemical activities of a cell.
• It has two aspects :
(i) Anabolism : It includes metabolic process by which complex cellular compounds are synthesized from
simpler compounds, .e.g. Photosynthesis
(ii) Catabolism : It includes metabolic processes by which larger molecules are broken down into simpler
molecules, e.g. Respiration.
• Respiration is an important catabolic process responsible for the production of energy.

Definition :
• Respiration is a multistep, enzyme mediated biochemical process of oxidative breakdown of organic
compounds inside living cells releasing small packets of energy at various steps.
• It is, therefore, a catabolic and exergonic process.
• Energy liberated during oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate is partly stored in ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). The rest is dissipated as heat.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 enzymes
  6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP out of 686 kcal/2870 kJ.
Recent Equation :
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O enzymes
  6CO2 + 12H2O + 38ATP out of 686 kcal/2870 kJ.

Differences Between Respiration and combustion

Respiration Combustion
1. Cellular It is a cellular process which It is a non-cellular process.
occurs inside living cells.
2. Temperature Temperature does not rise above Combustion produces
40°C. temperature of 600-2000°C.
3 Control It is under biological control It is an uncontrolled process.
4. Steps It is a multistep reaction. It is single step involved
5. Enzymes A number of enzymes take part No enzyme is involed.
in reaction.
6. Energy It is released in small packets in It is released in large amount in
several steps. one step.
7. Heat and About 50% of energy is liberated Whole energy is produced as heat
Light as heat. Light is not produced. and light.
8. Storage of 50% of liberated energy is stored There is no storage of energy.
Energy as ATP molecules.
9. Intermediates Several intermediates are No intermediates are produced.
produced.
10. Oxidation It is terminal where oxygen Oxidation is direct where every
combines with hydrogen of oxidisable atom oxidized without
reduced coenzymes. relation to presence of hydrogen.

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ACTIVITY :–
Carbon Dioxide is produced during respiration.

Procedure :– Pour freshly prepared lime water into a test tube upto its one third. Blow air from mouth
into the lime water with the help of a glass tube. Pour a similar amount of lime water in another test tube.
Blow air into it with the help of small air pump or syringe fitted with a fine rubber tubing.
Observation :– Lime water turns milky within no time when air is blown from mouth. It takes a lot of air
and a long period for lime water to turn milky when fresh air is blown into it.
Inference :– Lime water turns milky only when carbon dioxide mixed with it to form calcium carbonate.
Air blown from mouth is actually breathed out air. Since it turns lime water milky within no time, the
exhaled air contains good concentration of carbon dioxide. It is several times more than normally present
in air because fresh air blown in lime water takes a long time to turn it milky. Therefore, carbon dioxide
is produced during respiration.

RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• Respiration and photosynthesis are the two antagonistic and complementary processes in plants involving
gaseous exchanges. The substrates in one process are the end-products of the other process.
Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Figure : Schematic diagram to show the flow of energy

in plants during photosynthesis

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Differences between Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis Respiration
1. Metabolism. Photosynethesis is a synthetic Respiration is a breakdown or catabolic process.
or anabolic
2. Energy Relation. It is an endergonic process It is an exergonic process.
3 Energy Conversion. It converts light energy It liberates chemical energy which is used as such
into chemical energy. or changed into other forms of energy.
4. Timing. Photosynthesis occurs during the Respiration occurs all the time.
daytime when light is available.
5. Cells. It occurs only in green cells. It occurs in all types of living cells.
6. Carbon Dioxide. It absorbs carbon dioxide. Respiration liberates carbon dioxide.
7. Oxygen. Photosynthesis liberates oxygen. Respiration consumes oxygen.
8. Raw Material. They are carbon dioxide and There is no storage of energy.
water.
9. End products. They are glucose, other End products are carbon dioxide and water.
organic substances and oxygen.
10. Weight. There is net gain of weight Oxidation is direct where every oxidisable atom
oxidized without relation to presence of
hydrogen.

Remember :
The low light intensity at which the rate of photosynthesis equals the rate of respiration is called
compensation point. At this point the gas evolved in one process is just sufficient for the other process
i.e. photosynthesis and respiration balance each other and there is no gaseous exchange.

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS :
• Like other living organisms, plants also exchange gases with their environment.
• However, plants do not posses any transport system for the gases.
• Different parts of plants exchange gases independently. The gases move entirely by diffusion.
• Respiration is rapid in meristematic regions (stem tips, root tips, cambia), floral buds, growing fruits and
germinating seeds.
• It is slower in mature regions.
(a) Young Roots :–
• Air occurs in soil interspaces.
• Root hairs as well as epiblem cells of the young roots are in contact with them.
• They are also permeable to metabolic gases.
• Oxygen of the soil air diffuses through root hair–epiblema cells and reaches all internal cells of the young
root.
• Carbon dioxide produced by root cells diffuses in the opposite direction.
• In water–logged conditions, soil air becomes deficient. In the absence of oxygen, metabolic activity of
the root declines and the plant may wither.

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Figure : Epiblema and root hair take part in

exchange of gases directly in young roots
(b) Older Roots and Stems :–
• In older roots and stems, the surface tissues are impermeable to gases.
• They have permanently open pores called lenticels.
• Each lenticel contains a mass of loosely arranged complementary cells that enclose a number of intercellular
spaces.
• Exchange of gases occurs through them.

(c) Leaves and Young Stems :–

• Leaves and young stems are ideally suited to quick exchange of gases.
• The organs have a covering of nearly impermeable epidermis for reducing loss of water.
• The epidermis bears a number of aerating pores called stomata.

Figure : Section of leaf to show intercellular spaces and stomata.

• Each aerating or stomatal pore is bordered by a pair of guard cells.

• In most of the plants, the guard cells are kidney or bean shaped with inner walls being thicker and less
elastic then the outer walls.
• Guard cells contain chloroplasts which are absent in other epidermal cells.
• Opening and closing of stomata are regulated.

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RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS :
Respiratory organs :–
• Various animals possess different organs for the exchange of gases. (Except endoparasites, such as,
Taenia (tape worm), Ascaris, etc. which respire anaerobically, most of the animals respire aerobically.)
• These respiratory organs found in different animals are designed to suit their habitat.
• The following organs act as respiratory organs in different animals.
(a) General body surface :
• In lower organisms, such as, protists, sponges, cnidarians (Protozoa, Hydra, Planaria, etc.) exchange
of gases occurs through the body surface via the cell membrane by simple diffusion.

Figure : Cell surface exchange of gases in Amoeba

(b) Skin or body surface :

• The skin or general body surface or epidermis acts as respiratory organ in some animals, such as,
annelids and amphibian that live in semiaquatic habitat.
• This type of respiration in which exchange of gases occurs through the skin is called cutaneous respiration.

Figure : Cutaneous exchange of gases in Earthworm

(c) Tracheae (air tubes) :

• Terrestrial arthropods, such as, insects, millipedes and centipedes have thick impermeable integument
to minimize loss of water from their body surface by evaporation.
• They have evolved a complex system of whitish, shining, intercommunicating air tubes called tracheae.
• The exchange of gases with the help of tracheae is termed tracheal respiration.

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(A) (B)

Figure : Tracheal respiratoty system in Cockroach.

A. Tracheal system. B. Branches of trachea

Gills :–
• Aquatic animals, such as, prawns, mussels, fishes and tadpoles, breathe water.
• They draw oxygen dissolved in water and release carbon dioxide into water.
• The organs used for breathing water are called gills.
• The exchange of gases in the gills is known as branchial respiration.

Figure : Gill respiration in Fish. A. gill chamber with operculum removed.

B. gill filaments. C. gill lamellae.

Activity :
Study of Branchial Respiration in Fish
Observe a fish in the aquarium. Find out that it is regularly opening and closing its mouth as well as
operculum. Place a few small crystals of potassium permanganate carefully in front of the mouth of a fish.
They enter the mouth of the fish. Coloured water is observed to come out from the lower part of
operculum indicating that water regularly enters the mouth, passes into gill chambers and comes out
through opening of operculum.
In gill chambers exchange of gases occurs between water and blood capillaries contained in gill lamellae.
Count the number of times the fish opens and closes its mouth per minute. Compare it with your breathing
rate. It is very rapid because water has low oxygen content than the content of oxygen present in air.

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Figure : Exchange of gases in alveolus.

LUNGS
• Land animals, namely, reptiles, birds and mammals breathe atmospheric air with lungs.
• Their skin is not respiratory because it is impermeable to minimise the loss of water by evaporation.
• The amphibians also have lungs for pulmonary respiration. But, they have cutaneous respiration too with
their permeable skin.
• Amphibians and reptiles have sac-like lungs with small infoldings that increases surface area for gas
exchange.
• Birds and mammals have spongy lungs, consisting of millions of microscopic, capillary-surrounding air
sacs. This maximizes the respiratory surface.
• Depending upon the oxidation of food in the presence or absence of oxygen, respiration is of two types:
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
• Both types of respiration have a common pathway called glycolysis.
• Glycolysis does not need oxygen and takes place in the cytoplasm.
• During glycolysis, the glucose molecule is broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
• Further breakdown of pyruvic acid depends on the presence or absence of oxygen.
• In the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration), the pyruvic acid enters the Kreb’s cycle and is broken
down to carbon dioxide and water.
• In the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration), pyruvic acid is broken down to ethyl alcohol or lactic
acid.

1. Anaerobic Respiration
• Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen and is catalysed by enzymes present in the
cytoplasm.

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• It results in incomplete oxidation of food (glucose).

• It takes place in lower organisms like yeast, certain bacteria and fungi.
• It also occurs in higher plants and animals under certain conditions, when O2 is limiting.
• In humans, during vigorous muscular exercise, when the demand of O2 is more than what is supplied by
respiration, muscle cells start respiring anaerobically temporarily.
• It is less efficient than aerobic respiration as only 2 ATP molecules are released from one glucose molecule.
• During anaerobic respiration, glucose is first broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid by glycolysis.
• Further breakdown of pyruvic acid continues but differs in plants and animals as they contain different
enzymes.
a. In yeast, bacteria (microbes) and plants, pyruvic acid is broken down to ethyl alcohol and carbon
dioxide is released. In these, anaerobic respiration is also known as fermentation.

b. In animals, pyruvic acid is broken down to lactic acid.

• The lactic acid produced accumulates in the muscles and causes muscle fatigue. During resting period,
when oxygen becomes available, slowly lactic acid is removed from the muscles.

2. Aerobic Respiration
• Aerobic respiration needs the presence of oxygen and occurs in mitochondria.
• The food (glucose) is completely broken down to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
• It occurs in all higher organisms (both plants and animals).
• It is highly efficient in comparison to anaerobic respiration and releases 38 ATP molecules from one
glucose molecule.
• Aerobic respiration is completed in two major phases given below:
A. Anaerobic phase or glycolysis :
• It is the first phase and does not require oxygen.
• It takes place in the cytoplasm.
• The glucose molecule is broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
B. Aerobic phase :
• It is the second phase that takes place in the presence of oxygen.
• It takes place in mitochondria.
• The pyruvic acid molecules formed during glycolysis are completely broken down to carbon dioxide and
water.
• It is also called as Krebs cycle.

An overall equation of aerobic respiration :

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF MAN

• All the organs in an animals that provide free O2 and help in the removal of CO2 collectively constitute
the respiratory system. When the respiratory organs are lungs, it is called pulmonary respiration.
• In man pulmonary respiration is present. The respiration in man and other animals having pulmonary
respiration can be studied in two parts :
1. Respiratory tract 2. Respiratory organs

1. RESPIRATORY TRACT
• The path through which O2 reaches up to the lungs and CO2 is removed from the lungs is called respiratory
tract. In man it consists of :
(a) Nose, (b) Pharynx, (c) Larynx, (d) Trachea (e) Bronchi.
(a) The Nose :– It consists of two nostrils which are lined with hair and mucous to filter dust and other small
particles.

Do you know :
Nose breathing is better than mouth breathing as in the nose occurs
(i) filtration of air by the hair. The dust particles and other large particles are not allowed to enter the
lungs.
(ii) Sterilization of air by trapping the bacteria and other pathogens in mucus.
(iii) Moistening of air by the addition of mucus and
(iv) Warming of air radiating heat.

(b) The Pharynx :– The nose opens into the pharynx which leads into two tubes, i.e., larynx and oesophagus,
through glottis and gullet respectively. The glottis is guarded by a flaplike epiglottis. It does not allow
anything other than air to enter into the larynx.
Pharynx serves as a common path both for the air and food.
(c) The larynx (Voice box) : It is the upper slightly swollen part of trachea or wind pipe. It is more
prominent in men as compared to women and is called “Adam’s apple”. In the larynx is present a pair of
vocal cords which help in the production of sound. Hence, it is also called voice box. During swallowing
of food or liquid, the larynx moves upwards, so that its opening – glottis is closed by epiglottis and food
does not enter into the larynx.
(d) The trachea : The trachea or wind pipe is a long, narrow, whitish tube. It extends through the neck. It
enters the thorax where it divides into a pair of branches called primary bronchi. The walls of trachea
are supported by “C”-shaped cartilagenous rings that keep it always distended.
(e) The primary bronchi : These are a pair of tubular structures formed as a result of bifurcation of the
trachea. These are right and left primary bronchi that enter into the corresponding lung. These are also
supported by cartilagenous rings.

2. RESPIRATORY ORGANS :
The Lungs :
• The respiratory organs in man are a pair of lungs.
• These are thin walled, elastic, spongy, pinkish, triangular and highly distensible structures known as left
and right lungs.
• The lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity.
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• They are well protected by bony thoracic cage.

• Each lung is enclosed in a double–walled pleural sac.
• In between the two layers is present a fluid called pleural fluid.

Figure. Human respiratory system.

• The pleural fluid is secreted by the pleural sac and performs the following functions:
(i) It protects the lungs from any kind of mechanical injury and shock.
(ii) It lubricates the lungs for free expansion and relaxation.
(iii) It keeps the lungs moist for proper functioning.

• Each lung is a conical triangular structure.

• The upper pointed side is called apex and the lower broad side is called base.
• The left lung is slightly smaller than the right lung.
• The left lung is differentiated into two lobes with the help of furrows.
• Each primary bronchus, after entering into the corresponding lung, divides repeatedly to form a network
of very fine tubes.
• The primary bronchus divides into secondary bronchi that give rise to tertiary bronchi.
• The tertiary bronchi divide into bronchioles which give rise to alveolar ducts that open into blind end sacs
called alveoli.

Figure. Branching of bronchion the lungs.

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PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION :
• The process of respiration is a complex and continuous process. It is completed in four steps :
(1) Breathing (2) External respiration
(3) Internal or tissue respiration, and (4) Cellular respiration.

1. Breathing :
• Have you felt that your thorax alternately expands and contracts.
• When it is expanding you are drawing fresh air into the lungs and when it is becoming normal, you are
releasing foul air from lungs.
• This movement of fresh air from outside into the lungs through respiratory tract and foul air in the opposite
direction is called breathing.
• The process of breathing is an apparent and mechanical part of respiration.
Mechanism of breathing :
• Breathing is brought about by changing the volume of thoracic cavity, where lungs are present.
• The mechanism of breathing can be studied in two steps :
(a) Inspiration (Inhalation) and
(b) Expiration (Exhalation)
(a) Inspiration or (Inhalation)
Movement of fresh air into the lungs is called inspiration. During inspiration volume of the thoracic cavity
is increased by the combined movements of sternum, ribs and diaphragm. The sternum and ribs move
upwards, forwards and outwards.

Figure. Process of breathing in man.

• Expansion of the thoracic cavity results in the expansion of lungs.

• Due to the increase in the volume of lungs pressure inside decreases as compared to the atmospheric
pressure.
• Therefore, fresh atmospheric air, which is at higher pressure, rushes into the lungs through the respiratory
tract to equalize the pressure.
• Exchange of O2 and CO2 will take place between the alveoli and blood. Now the lungs will be full of foul
air.

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(b) Expiration (or Exhalation)

• The movement of foul air from the lungs to outside is called expiration or exhalation.
• During expiration volume of the thoracic cavity is decreased by the inward and downward movements
of the ribs and sternum and by upward bulging of the diaphragm.
• All these movements are brought about by the simple relaxation of muscles that were contracted during
inspiration.
• An adult man breathes 12–14 times per minute at rest.

Do you know
• If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it is estimated that it would take 3 years for a molecule
of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs. Aren’t you glad that we have haemoglobin?
• Process of breathing and swallowing of food cannot go together.
• Rate of breathing is minimum when a person is sleeping.
• Painful breathing is called dyspnoea.
• Cessation of breathing is called apnoea.
• Normal comfortable breathing is called eupnoea.
• In the lungs of man are present 750 million alveoli.
• Total surface area of the alveoli is about 100 m2 which is 50 times more than the external surface area.

2. External respiration :
• Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the inhaled air and blood through the surface of respiratory
organ is called external respiration.
• Exchange of gases takes place because of higher partial pressure of O2 in the inhaled air and that of CO2
in the blood supplied to the lungs.
• As a result O2 diffuses into the blood from the alveoli of lungs and CO2 in the opposite direction.
• Exchange of gases always takes place in the solution form. That is why, surface of respiratory organ is
always kept moist.
Transportation of O2 :
• The O2 that diffuses into the blood from the lungs is transported to various body tissues in the following
form :
(i) About 97% of the O2 that diffuses into the blood combines with haemoglobin of RBCs forming an
unstable compound, oxyhaemoglobin.
(ii) The remaining 3% O2 dissolves into water of plasma.

3. Internal or Tissue respiration :

• Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and body tissues is called internal or tissue respiration.
• The O2 form the blood diffuses into the body tissues whereas CO2 from tissues to the blood because of
higher concentration of CO2 in the body tissues, produced due to cellular respiration.

4. Cellular Respiration :
• As this process is at cellular level so it is called cellular respiration.
• As this process is at cellular level so it is called cellular respiration.
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• It takes place in three steps :

• It refers to the oxidation of food taking place inside the cell.
• It takes place in three in 3 steps :
(i) Glycolysis (ii) Krebs Cycle (iii) Electron Transport System

(i) Glycolysis :
• Glycolysis also called EMP (Embden Meyerhof Parnas) pathway , site-cytoplasm of cell.
(i) In this cycle glucose is converted into pyruvic acid in presence of many enzymes and co-enzymes.
(ii) Oxygen in not required during glycolysis.
(iii) 1 molecule of glucose gives rise to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
(iv) In this process 4 molecules of ATP are formed among them 2ATP molecules are utilized thus net gain of
ATP is two molecules.
(v) 2NAD molecules are reduced to 2NADPH2 , which later produces 6ATP molecules.
(vi) Overall production of ATP in glycolysis is 2ATP + 6ATP = 8ATP
(vii) There is no production of CO2 during this process.

NOTE : After glycolysis, pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl Co-A with the release of CO2 and the process is
called as 'oxidative decarboxylation'. It occurs in mitochondria of the cell. Besides this 6ATP are also
formed during this step.

(ii) Krebs Cycle :

Site : Mitochondria of cell
(i) Also called aerobic oxidation.
(ii) Discovered by Sir Hans Kreb.
(iii) Another name TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or Citric acid cycle.
(iv) It brings about the conversion of pyruvic acid, fatty acids, fats and amino acids into CO2 and water by
oxidation.
(v) It is the common path for oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, proteins.
(vi) It accounts for 24ATP molecules.
(vii) It starts with acetyl Co-A which is then converted into several intermediate compounds with the release
of NADPH2, FADH2, ATP, hydrogen atoms and then Acetyl Co-A is regenerated back.
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(iii) Electron Transport System or ETS :

• In this hydrogen atoms produced during oxidation of various intermediates during Kreb cycle are first
broken into protons and electrons.
• These protons and electrons after passing through a series of coenzymes and cytochromes combine with
oxygen to form water molecules.
• During these series of events 1NADPH2 releases 3ATP molecules and 1FADH2 gives 2ATP molecules
which were produces during kreb cycle and glycolysis.

Do you know :
The net gain of ATP molecules during respiration in 38ATP molecules among them,
8ATP from glycolysis
6ATP from conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl CO. A
24ATP from kreb cycle
besides this CO2 and H2O are also released.

MECHANISM OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE BETWEEN TISSUES AND BLOOD :

• When the air enters into the lungs through nostrils, trachea and bronchi it enters into the bronchioles,
from bronchioles it moves into thin walled alveolar sacs or alveoli.
• Alveoli are rich in blood capillaries, at this place oxygen from air diffuses into the blood and reaches to
all the cells and tissues of body this oxygen now diffuses into the cell and is utilized for the oxidation of
food and production of energy in mitochondria as a result of this carbon dioxide is produced in cells, due
to this increased concentration of CO2, it diffuses into the blood and is brought back to alveoli and
expelled out of the lungs through trachea and nostrils.

Control of Respiration :
• Respiration is controlled by the respiratory centre situated in medulla oblongata of brain.
(i) Breathing occurs involuntarily.
(ii) Under normal conditions rate of breathing is 12-14 times per minute. During vigorous exercise the
demand for oxygen increases due to which rate of breathing increases by about 20-25 times.
(iii) The total area for gas exchange covered through 300 million alveoli is about 36-72 m2 in each lung.
(iv) Respiratory quotient : It is defined as the ratio of the volumes of CO2 liberated and O2 used during
respiration.

Some Respiratory Disorders :

• Emphysema : It occurs due to infection, smoking etc. It occurs due to obstructions in bronchioles
caused by breaking of alveolar septa. Bronchodilator and O2 therapy are used, for curing this disease.
• Asthma : Air passages are narrowed and lead to obstruction in breathing.
• Pneumonia : Lymph and mucous accumulate in alveoli and bronchioles. It occurs due to bacterial and
viral infection.
• Bronchitis : Swelling in living membranes of respiratory tract due to excessive smoking.
• Tuberculosis : Bacterial infection in lungs.
• Pleurisy : Inflammation of lung membrane called as pleurisy.
• Sudden contraction of diaphragm along with loud closure of glottis causes Hiccough.
• Sudden and violent expulsion of air through mouth and nose is called a sneezing.

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Difference Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1. Method. It is the common method of It occurs permanently only in a few organism.
respiration (Inhale and exhale). In others it may occur as a temporary measure
to overcome shortage of oxygen.
2. Steps. It is completed in 3 steps – There are two steps – glycolysis and anaerobic
glycolysis, Krebs cycle and terminal breakdown of pyruvic acid.
oxidation.
3. Oxygen. It requires oxygen. Oxygen is not required.
4. Breakdown. Respiratory substrate is Respiratory substrate is incompletely broken
completely broken down. down.
5. End Products. They are inorganic. Atleast one end product is organic. Inorganic
products may or may not be present.
6. Toxicity. End products show little The organic end product is generally toxic.
toxicity.
7. Occurance. It occurs partly in Anaerobic respiration is carried out entirely in
cytoplasm and partly in mitochondria. cytoplasm. Mitochondria are not required.
8. E.T.C. An electron transport chain is ETC is not required.
required.
9. Energy. In release 686 kcal or 2870 kJ Energy liberated is 36-50 kcal or 150-210 kJ
of energy per mole of glucose. per mole of glucose.
10. ATP. The liberated energy issued in The liberate energy is used in synthesis of
forming 36-38 ATP molecule per mole 2ATP mole.
of glucose.

CIRCULATION AND TRANSPORTATIOIN

• The circulatory system may differ in various animals but carries out the same basic functions.
1. Transport of nutrients. :- It transports all the soluble food compounds from the area of absorption
(like intestine in man) to different parts of the body for storage, assimilation or synthesis of new components.
2. Transport of waste products :- It transports all the excretory products produced as a result of cellular
activities from all over the body to the organs of excretion (like kidney in mammals).
3. Transport of intermediate metabolites :- It transports all the by products or intermediate products
from the tissue they are produced to the organ where they can be fully metabolised (like lactic acid
produced in muscles is transported to liver for oxidation).
4. Transport of hormones :- Since hormones are produced by ductless endocrine glands, they are
transported through the circulating fluid to their target organs.
5. Uniform distribution of heat :- Since circulatory fluid connects all parts of the body it picks up heat
from one part and disspates it on the surface bringing about the uniform distribution.
6. Transport of water, inorganic ions and various chemicals is also done by circulating fluid so as to
maintain a uniform distribution.
7. Defence against diseases :- The circulating fluid contains phagocytes which engulf and digest bacteria
and play an important role in defending the body against disease.
8. Transport of respiratory gases :- In some animals the circulatory fluid contains respiratory pigments
which may be dissolved in plasma like in snails, crustaceans or cephalopods or present in cells like in all
vertebrates including man. The O2 is transported from respiratory organs to tissus while CO2 is carried
from tissues to respiratory organs. Some animals like insects have a tracheal system for respiration and
circulating system is not directly associated with respiration. More so it lacks any respiratory pigments.
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CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN VERTEBRATES

• Vertebrates have a highly specialised closed circulatory system that consists of blood vessels - arteries,
arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins containing blood and heart that pumps blood and drives it rapidly
into the blood vessels.
• Vertebrates also have lymphatic system which helps in the activities of blood vascular system.
• There are two circulatory systems in humans:
(i) Blood circulatory system
(ii) Lymphatic circulatory system

Blood Circulatory System in Human Beings

It comprises –
•Blood • Blood Vessels •Heart or Pumping organ

BLOOD
• Blood is fluid connective tissue which comprises of

Plasma Cells
• Fluid part of blood in which corpuscles or cells are suspended.
• It contains water and dissolved substances such as proteins, nutrients, nitrogenous waste etc.
• Plasma transport food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste in dissolved form.
• Blood contains:
1. Erythrocytes/RBC (Red Blood Cell) having iron containing pigment haemoglobin for transport of
oxygen to various parts of body as oxyhaemoglobin.
2. Leukocytes/WBC or white blood cell helps in fighting against infections by showing phagocytosis and
producing antibodies against germs. So, WBCs are called natural soldiers of human body.
3. Platelets or blood dust are cell fragments that helps in blood clotting.

KNOW MORE
Mature RBC (Erythrocytes) lacks nucleus and other organelles in mammals.

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Table : Blood Transfusion

Blood Group Antigen Present Antibody present Can donate to blood Can Receive blood
on RBC in Plasma type type
A A B A and AB A and O
B B A B and AB B and O
AB A and B None AB only All (A, B, AB and O)
O None A and B All (A, B, AB and O) O only
• Rh factor is discovered by Landsteiner & Veiner in 1940 in Rhesus monkey.
• No natural Rh antibodies are found in blood of man but if Rh+ blood is mixed with Rh– blood then
antibodies formation starts i.e. antibodies against Rh antigens are produced in Rh– blood.
• Marriage of Rh+ man & Rh– women is prohibited because due to this first birth is safe while second is
fatal. This disease is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
• Nowadays IgG preparation is given to each Rh– women after 1st birth for prevention.

Blood Vessels
1. Types of blood vessels :-
• As the oxygenated blood is pumped by muscular heart, it flows through arteries which are thick walled.
• Arteries branch out into arterioles and then capillaries. From capillaries the deoxygenated blood flows
through venules, then to veins and is finally poured back into the heart.
Arteries
• Each artery consists of three layers. Outermost layer is made up of collagen fibres, middle layer of
smooth muscles and elastic fibres and an inner layer of squamous epithelium.
• Walls of arteries are thick and elastic so as to withstand the high pressure of blood coming from heart.
Because of their elasticity they can stretch and expand.
• Arteries which are further away from heart have a thicker layer of smooth muscles in the middle layer
and are innervated by nerves from sympathetic nervous system so as to regulate their diameter.
• Arteries receive blood directly from heart and larger arteries branch repeatedly into smaller arteries and
then to arterioles.
Arterioles
• Arteries branch further to form smaller vessels called arteriole.
• They have only smooth muscle fibres in their middle layer, innervated by sympathetic nervous system.
• On stimulation, the contraction and relaxation of these muscles can alter their diameter and hence can
decrease or increase the blood flow through a particular organ.
• Arterioles branch further into a capillary network.

Fig.- Various blood vessels and direction of

flow of blood between them

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Capillaries.
• They are numerous and smallest of the blood vessels. Each capillary is about 7-10 m in diameter.
• They are extremely thin walled and the wall consists of only a layer of endothelium
• The endothelium is very permeable and allows diffusion of dissolved substances in and out of capillaries.
It does not allow macromolecules and plasma proteins to pass out of the capillaries.
• Sphincter muscles may be present at the points where capillaries arise from the arterioles. They contract
and relax thereby regulating the decreased or increased flow of blood through capillaries.
Venules
• After exchange of materials in tissues and organs, the capillaries join together to form venules.
• The pressure in venules is very less. They collect the blood and pass it on to veins.
Veins
• Like arteries, the veins also have three layers of tissues. They have much thinner walls than arteries.
They have less of muscle and elastic tissue in the middle layer.
• Their lumen (inner diameter through .which blood flows) is far greater than arteries
• They have semilunar valves (Fig.) which allow the blood to flow in one direction only i.e towards the
heart. The valves prevent the back flow of blood.
• In certain parts (arms and legs) the contractions of skeletal muscles around the veins help to push the
blood towards heart.
• Veins (except pulmonary vein) pour the deoxy-genated blood into the heart.

Table : Comparison of Arteries, Veins and Capillaries

Artery Vein Capillary

(i) Cross section

(ii) Tunica media Muscle layer is thick and Muscle layer is thin, with few Tunica media is
elastic smooth muscles and much absent. Only one layer
less elastic tissue. of squamos epithelium
called endothelium is
present.
(iii) Lumen Small Big Very small
(iv) Semilunar Absent Present all along the length Absent
Valves to prevent back flow of
blood.
(v) Direction of Take the blood away from Take the blood towards the Blood flows from
heart. heart. arterioles to venules.
(vi) Blood pressure Pressure is high and pulsative. Pressure is low and non- Pressure is extremely
pulsative. low and non-pulsative.
(vii) Blood flow Blood flows rapidly with Blood flows smoothly without Blood flows smoothly
jerks. jerks. without jerks.
(viii) Kind of blood Oxygenated blood except Deoxygenated blood except Blood changes from
in pulmonary artery. in pulmonary vein. oxygenated to
deoxygenated.
(ix) Location Mostly deep seated Mostly superficial Form a net work all
over the body and in
the organs.

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HEART
Heart is muscular involuntary organ, which is as big as our fist. It is made up of cardiac muscles which
work rhythmically. Heart is situated in middle of chest cavity but it is tilted towards left. Heart is divided
into chambers. Number of chambers varies in different animals:
Fishes - 2 chambered heart (1 auricle, 1 ventricle)
Amphibian & most reptiles - 3 chambered heart (2 auricles, 1 ventricle)
Birds and mammals - 4 chambered heart (2 auricles, 2 ventricles)
Note : (Crocodile - 3 and half chambered heart)

Fig. Kinds of Heat and Circulation in Vertebrates

• Structure of Heart: Blood circulatory system  discovered by William Harvey.

• Outer covering pericardium
• External structure
Upper two chambers - auricles.
lower two chambers - ventricles.
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• Auricles and ventricles are separated by atria ventricular sulcus.

• Atria / auricles are separated by inter auricular septum. Left atrium is smaller than right atrium.
• Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus open into right atrium.
• Superior vena cava collect blood from upper body part, inferior vena cava collects blood from
lower body regions, coronary sinus collects blood from wall of heart.

• Ventricles  left ventricle is longer & narrower than an right, left ventricle has thickest wall.
Ventricles are separated by inter-ventricular septum.
• Pulmonary trunk arises from right ventricle & divides into right & left pulmonary arteries that carry
deoxygenated blood to lungs. Opening of inferior vena cava is guarded by eustachian valve.
• At the base of pulmonary trunk & aorta semi-lunar valves are present.
• In right atrium adjoining to interatrial septum an oval depression, the fossa ovalis is present.
• At fossa ovalis the two atria are in communication with each other during foetal life but in adult it
persists as depression. Bicuspid or mitral valve found between L.A and L.V.
• Tricuspid valve found between R.A and R.V.
• Attached to flaps of bicuspid & tricuspid valve are special chordae tendineae which are joined
to other end of ventricular wall because of papillary muscles.
• Chordae tendineae prevent valves from collapsing back into atria during powerful ventricular
contraction.

Working of Heart
• Heart is myogenic that means heart beat is initiated by a patch of heart muscle.
• Path of conduction of Impulses :
S.A node (sinoatrial node / pacemaker)  situated in R.A near opening of superior vena cava.

A.V node (atrioventricular node or pacesetter)  situated in RA near or base of interartrial
septum

Bundle of his  present in ventricles

Purkinje fibre  found in wall of heart
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• Cardiac cycle  cardiac cycle consists of one heart beat. Time taken in one cycle is 0.8 sec.
Out of which artrial systole is of 0.1 sec
Ventricular systole is of 0.3 sec.
Complete diastole is of 0.4 sec.

• ECG - A graphic record of the spread of the cardiac impulse through the heart is called
electrocardiogram, process refer as electrocardiography.
• Heart Beat : Rhythmic expansion and contraction of heart is called heart beat. The relaxation is
called diastole while the contraction is known as systole. The rate of heart beat is 70-72 / min in
adult human males and 80/min in females. Heart beat is listened with the help of stethoscope.
• Heart Sounds:
There is low pitched sound of longer duration called lubb and a high pitched sound of shorter
duration known as dupp.
(i) The first sound “LUBB” is produced when the atrio-ventricular valves get closed sharply at the
start of ventricular systole.
(ii) The second sound “DUPP” is produced when at the beginning of ventricular diastole, the
semilunar valves at the roots of aorta and. pulmonary artery get closed.

Flow of Blood
• Vena cava brings de-oxygenated blood to right atrium.
• When right atrium is filled with blood it contract causing tricuspid valve to open. Blood is pushed
into right ventricle.
• When right ventricle is filled, it contract and push blood into pulmonary artery (Tricuspid close,
Pulmonary SLV open).
• Pulmonary artery carry blood to lungs for oxygenation (Pulmonary SLV prevents back flow).
• Oxygenated blood returns to heart by pulmonary vein.
• Pulmonary vein brings oxygenated blood to left auricle.
• Left auricle contract, blood passed to left ventricle (Bicuspid open).
• Left ventricle put blood into aorta, the largest artery (bicuspid close, aortic SLV open) which
supplies to tissues.

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Double circulation –

• It was first discovered by William Harvey (1578-1657). Circulatory system of most terrestrial
animals consists of two phase’s. Blood passes from heart twice in one complete cycle, and it is
called double circulation.
• It involves (a) Pulmonary circulation (b) Systemic circulation. Former is related to right side of
heart and later related to left side of heart.
• Double Circulation prevents mixing of oxygenated blood present in left side and deoxygenated
blood present in right side of heart.
Note : Fish have a single circulation system because they lack lungs and their heart has only two
chambers with deoxygenated blood.

BLOOD PRESSURE
• Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon
the walls of arteries, and is one of the principal vital signs. Contraction
of heart called systole and relaxation called diastole. During each
heartbeat, BP varies between a maximum (systolic) when heart
contracts (120 mm Hg) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure when heart
expands (80 mm Hg). Blood Pressure is measured with help
SPHYGMOMANOMETER.
Figure: A Sphygmomanometer
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Figure : Steps of Measurement of Blood Pressure

• Constriction of arterioles, results in increased resistance to blood flow. This cause high blood
pressure or hypertension. Hypertension can cause rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.
Maintenance System : Platelets helps in plugging the injured site and preventing excess blood
flow.
Platelets or blood dust keeps on circulating in blood. At injury site, they come in contact with air
and release a chemical known as thromboplastin, which triggers following changes:
Injured Tissue  Blood platelets  Release Thrombopla stin
Thrombopla stin
Prothrombin (Inactive)  Thrombin (Active)
Ca  
Thrombin
Fibrinogen (Soluble )  Fibrin (Insoluble )
 Ca  
Fibrin  Red blood Corpuscles  Blood clot

LYMPH CIRCULATORY SYSTEM :

• It includes – lymph, lymph nodes and lymph vessels & capillaries
1. Lymph some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells escape into intercellular space in the tissues to
form the tissue fluid or lymph. Lymph (Blood - RBC) is an extra cellular, colourless fluid which moves in
lymphatic system (Runs parallel to veins, towards heart).
Functions of Lymph
(a) Carry digested and absorbed fat from intestine back into blood.
(b) It contains lymphocytes which help in killing germs.
2. Lymph nodes are kidney shaped structure. They are rich in lymphocytes.
3. Lymph vessels and capillaries – Tubular structure in which lymph flows, these vessels open into large
veins of the body.

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS :
• Plants transport system helps in movement of food energy stored in leaves and raw materials from
roots to various parts of plant.
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• They perform conduction with help of vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
Transport in plant

Xylem Phloem
Transportation of water + minerals Translocation of food & hormones
• Xylem is a complex permanent tissue that performs unidirectional transport and comprise of
following components :
Xylem Tracheids
Vessels Dead
(unidirectional) Xylem fibers
Xylem parenchyma Living

• Ascent of Sap (upwards movement of water and mineral in Xylem from root to various
parts of plant)
• Vessels and tracheids in xylem of root, stem and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous
system.
• Root absorbs water from soil through root hairs.
• There are various theories to explain movement of water from roots to upper parts of plant.
• Most accepted theory of ascent of sap is cohesion tension theory.
• Dixon and Jolly proposed that water is pulled up in plant by tension (negative pressure) from
above. This suction pressure is created by transpiration
• Water is continually being lost from leaves by transpiration.
• Loss of water in the leaves exerts a pull on the water in the xylem ducts and draws more water
into the leaf.
• A water molecule clings to each other by hydrogen bond (cohesion) which maintains strength in
column.
• Because of the critical role of cohesion, the transpiration-pull theory is also called the cohesion
theory.
• The rate of ascent of water is 10 – 75 cm/min.

Translocation of food :
• Food synthesized mainly in leaves and hormones synthesized at tip of root and shoots are
transported by Phloem.
• Phloem uses energy for bidirectional transfer. It comprise of

Phloem Sieve element

Companion cell Living
(Bidirectional) Phloem parenchyma
Phloem fibres dead
• Translocation of Food is best explained by Munch hypothesis.
• Food is produce in leaves (source) and used by other parts like root (sink).
• Sucrose is transferred into sieve tube of phloem using ATP.
• This increase osmotic pressure of tissue causing water to move inside phloem.
• In the phloem, there is a continuous input of solute from source tissues (high pressure) and a
continuous efflux at the sink (Low pressure).
• This input and output at the two ends will maintain a pressure differential that will keep liquid
flowing.
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• Thus, the driving force for solute transport is a pressure gradient between the source and
sink regions. Speed of food transport is 60 – 100 cm / hour.

Difference in Xylem and Phloem

Xylem Phloem
Mainly transport water and minerals Mainly translocate food
Most part is dead. Most part is living
Flow is unidirectional (Roots to Apex) Flow is Bidirectional(Leaves to all parts)
No energy required (Physical force Energy is required
involved)
Located Superficially Located Deeply

EXCRETION

Introduction :
• The different chemical activities in the body produce many by-products several of which are wastes.
• These waste products if allowed to accumulate will turn out to be toxic and affect the physiological
activities of the body.
• These wastes have to be expelled out or it may eventually result in the death of the organism.
Definition :
• The removal of harmful and unwanted toxic waste products of metabolism is known as excretion.
• Excretory System is a system of organs and tissue that take part in separation, collection & Avoiding
the waste produced.
Osmoregulation :
• The process by which the water content and the ion concentration is regulated and kept constant in the
cells is known as osmoregulation.
• This process results in maintaining the osmotic pressure in the blood and tissue fluids.
• The two physiological processes, excretion and osmoregulation are interconnected as they both are
responsible for bringing about homeostasis in the body.

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• The physiological mechanisms involved are intimately bound with each other, so much so, in higher
vertebrates like mammals, kidneys perform both functions, excretion and osmoregulation.
• The terms secretion and egestion are often confused with excretion. Hence it is important to understand
clearly what they mean.

Secretion :
• Secretion is the production of useful chemical substances like hormones, enzymes or other molecules by
the cells of glands like the bile, endocrine glands like the islets of Langerhans or unicellular glands like the
epithelial mucosal lining of the large intestine.

Substances Excreted in Animals :

• The metabolic wastes which are excreted by animals may be grouped as follows:

1. Respiratory Waste Products :

• Carbon dioxide and water are the by-products of catabolism of all varieties of foodstuffs.
• In lower animals carbon dioxide is eliminated directly into the environment through the body surface.
• In higher animals it is excreted out along with the exhaled air through the lungs.
• Excess water is excreted in the form of urine and sweat.

2. Nitrogenous Waste Products :

• Nitrogen containing waste products are derived from the deamination of the excess amino-acids consumed
in the food and also from the breakdown of the proteins and nucleic acids.
• The following are the nitrogenous waste products produced by animals:
(i) Ammonia :
This is the main nitrogenous compound produced due to oxidative or deamination of amino acids during
protein metabolism. Ammonia is highly toxic and it is important that it is expelled out of the bodyas and
when it is formed as it can cause severe harm to the organism. i.e. ammonotelism. Eg. Fish, Amphibia.
(ii) Urea :
In higher animals ammonia combines with carbon dioxide in the liver and forms a less toxic substance
called urea which is periodically flushed out of the system of the animal. Man eliminates nitrogenous
waste in the form of urea. i.e. ureotelism. Eg. Human, animal (goat, dog and cow).
(iii) Uric Acid :
This is non-toxic and almost insoluble in water. Thus excretion of uric acid takes place with minimum loss
of water. In man small quantities of uric acid is excreted in urine. In birds and reptiles, uric acid is
excreted as a thick white paste or in the form of pellets. This enables these animals to conserve water. i.e.
uricotelism. Eg. Reptiles and Aves.

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(iv) Amino Acids :

Excess amino acids or proteins in higher animals are broken down into ammonia which are converted
into less toxic substances like urea and uric acid in the liver. But in lower animals like molluscs and
echinoderms the excess amino acid gets removed without undergoing any change

Excretion in Unicellular Organisms :

• Specific excretory organs are absent.
• Waste products (e.g., Ammonia, CO2) generally pass out from the surface of the body into surrounding
water by simple diffusion.
• Fresh water unicellular forms also posses an osmoregulatory organelle called contractile vacuole, e.g.,
Amoeba, Paramoecium.
• Contractile vacuole collects water and some wastes from the body, swells up (undergoes diastole),
reaches the surface and bursts (undergoes systole) to release its contents to the outside.
• Osmoregulation is required in fresh water forms as fresh water has a tendency to enter their bodies due
to higher internal osmotic concentration.

Excretion in Multicellular Organisms :

• Sponges and coelenterates do not have specific excretory organs as water bathes almost all their cells.
• Excretory structures appear for the first time in flatworms (platyhelminthes). They are flame cells.
• Nephridia are excretory organs of annelids, green glands in crustaceans, maphighian tubules in insects,
and kidneys in molluscs.
• Kidneys form a urinary system in vertebrates.
• Some accessory excretory organs of vertebrates including human beings are skin, lungs and large intestine.

Table : Excretory Organs of different Animal groups

S.No. Animal Groups Excretory Organs
1 Protozoans (e.g. Amoeba, Paramoecium) Plasma membrane
2. Sponges (e.g. Sycon) Plasma membrane of each cell.
3. Cnidaria (e.g. Hydra) Plasma membrane of each cell.
4. Platyhelminthes (e.g. Planaria) Flame cells (Solenocytes)
5. Nemathelminthes (e.g. Ascaris) H-shaped excretory system of canals and
renette cells.
6. Annelids (e.g. Neries, Earthworm) Nephridia; chloragogen cells (yellow cells)
in earthworm.
7. Arthropods
(a) Prawn Antennar / Green glands Malpighian tubules
(b) Most insects Malpighian tubules, coxal glands,
(c) Scorpion and Spiders hepatopancreas and nephrocytes.
8. Molluscs (e.g. Unio, Pila) Kidney. In Unio, kidney are called as organ
of Bojanus.
9. Echinoderms (e.g. Starfish) Dermal branchiae and tube feet.
10. Hemichordates (e.g. Balanoglossus) Glomerulus.

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Excretion and Osmoregulation in Man :

• Man is a highly evolved vertebrate and so the excretory organs are well developed.
Excretory Organs

Accessory excretory Organs Main excretory Organs

Lung Skin Liver Kidney

Main Excretory Organ Kidneys :

• The kidneys are the principal excretory organs in man through which the nitrogenous metabolic wastes
are eliminated in the form of urine.

Human Excretory System

Do you know :
• The kidneys function as a pair of filters through which about one litre of blood circulates each minute.
• The entire blood in the body passes through them in 5 - 6 minutes. In a day it filters 1800 litres of blood
which is 400 times the blood volume.
• Tea, coffee and alcohol are beverages that increase the formation of urine. They are termed diuretics.
• The human kidney contains more than 1.2 million nephrons.
• When a kidney is damaged or diseased, the other kidney is able to compensate for it. So a person can
lead a normal life with only one kidney.
• A normal adult excretes 1 - 1.8 litres of urine per day.
• An artificial kidney (dialysing machine) is used for dialysis. When the kidneys of a patient stop functioning,
life can be prolonged through dialysis.
• Kidney transplants have had good success rates and have given fresh lease of life to patients.

External Structure of kidneys :

• The kidneys are reddish brown, bean-shaped organs situated in the abdominal cavity, one on either side
of the vertebral column in the lumbar region of the body.

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• They lie asymmetrically, the right kidney being lower than the left as the right side of the abdominal cavity
is occupied by the liver.
• Each kidney is 10 cm long, 6 cm wide and 4 cm thick and weighs 200 - 250 g in adults.
• A thin, tough, fibrous whitish capsule envelops each kidney.
• The outer surface of each kidney is convex while the inner surface is concave.
• Associated with the kidneys are the following:
1. Renal Artery :
The renal artery enters the kidney at the notch on the concave side called the hilus renalis. As it is a
branch from the aorta it brings oxygenated blood carrying toxic nitrogenous wastes into the kidneys.
2. Renal Vein :
The renal vein drains away deoxygenated blood which is free of toxic substances into the inferior vena
cava. This vein arises from the hilus of each kidney.
3. Ureter :
The ureter, a tube, runs from each kidney downwards into the lower part of the abdomen connecting
each kidney to the urinary bladder. Its function is to transport the urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder. The oblique entrance of the ureter into the bladder acts like a valve, preventing the back flow of
urine from the bladder into the ureter.
4. Urinary Bladder :
This is a large muscular storage sac that collects urine from both the kidneys through the ureters. As the
urine gets drained into the bladder its volume increases. The mouth of the bladder is guarded by a tight
ring of muscle called the sphincter which regulates the opening or closing of the bladder. When the
sphincter relaxes, urine is released out through the urethra.
5. Urethra :
This is a short muscular tube that carries urine at intervals from the urinary bladder to the outside. The
base of the urethra is also guarded by a sphincter which keeps the urethra closed except while passing
urine.

Internal Structure of kidney :

• A longitudinal section of the kidney shows three distinct regions:
1. Renal Cortex 2. Renal Medulla 3. Renal Pelvis
1. Renal Cortex :
This is the outer dark red layer. It contains the malphigian
corpuscles, the proximal and distal parts of the renal tubule.
2. Renal Medulla :
This forms the inner pale zone and contains the Henle's
loop and the collecting tubules, present in the form of
renal pyramids. The conical pyramids project into the
renal pelvis.
3. Renal Pelvis :
This is a large funnel-shaped region behind the renal
medulla. Urine flows into the renal pelvis through minute
openings at the tips or papillae of the pyramids. The
urine that is collected is passed down to the ureters into
the bladder.
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Each kidney consists of a large number of microscopic filtering units called nephrons. There are more
than 1,250,000 nephrons in each kidney. Each nephron is about 30 - 40 mm. in length, originating in the
cortex and extending into the medulla.

Microscopic Structure of a Nephron :

The nephron is the structural and functional unit of
the kidney. Each nephron functions as an
independent unit and produces a miniscule quantity
of urine. The nephron can be differentiated into the
following regions.

Malpighian Corpuscle :
• This consists of two parts :
1. Bowman's Capsule :
This is a cup - shaped structure which is double
walled in the hollow of which is a net work of
capillaries called the glomerulus. (This is a knotted
mass of blood capillaries formed by the afferent
arteriole (incoming) and the efferent arteriole
(outgoing) ).
2. Renal Tubule :
This is the remaining part of the nephron, continuous
with the Bowman's capsule. It is lined with ciliated
epithelium and differentiated into the following
regions :
(a) Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) :
This is the region behind the Bowman's capsule and consists of a coiled tube that descends to form the
Henle's loop. The proximal convoluted tubule is present in the cortex region.
(b) Henle's loop :
• This is continuous with the proximal convoluted tubule and is U-shaped having a narrow descending limb
and a thick ascending limb. This part of the nephron descends from the cortex into the medulla region.

Nephron

Malpighian carpuscle Renal tubule Collective tubule

Bowman's capsule Glomerulus Kidney

Proximal convoluted Henle's loop Distal convoluted

tubule tubule

• Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)This is another coiled and twisted tubule that continues from the ascending
limb of loop of Henle found in the renal cortex.

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(c) Collecting Tubule :

• The distal convoluted tubule continues to form the collecting tubule.
(d) Collecting Ducts :
• Several collecting tubules fuse to form large collecting ducts which pass downwards from the cortex to
the medulla region.

Do you know :
• Ducts of Bellini Several collecting ducts join to form the larger ducts of Bellini in the medulla region.
• Running through the pyramids they finally open in the renal pelvis draining all the urine collected from the
various nephrons.
• The renal pelvis is an expanded region which opens into the ureter.
• Vasa Rectae : The efferent arteriole that exits from the glomerulus does not merge into a vein but
breaks up into a system of capillaries called vasa rectae or peritubular capillaries which envelop the
proximal convoluted tubule, the Henle's loop and distal convoluted tubule.
• These capillaries rejoin and drain into the venule.
• Venules join together to form the renal vein which drain blood from the kidneys.

Blood Flow In Kidney

Renal artery  Afferent arteriole  Glomerulus  Efferent arteriole  Venule  Renal vein

Micturition (Urination) :
• Urge for micturition occurs when urinary bladder comes to have 300-400 ml of urine.
• The stretched bladder stimulates nerve endings to develop the reflex.
• However, urine can be retained in the urinary bladder till it gets filled upto maximum capacity, 700 – 800
ml. At this time the urge becomes painful.
• Voluntary micturition can be carried any time.
• Total amount of urine excreted per day is about 1.6 – 1.8 litres.
• The quantity increases with larger intake of fluids and decreases with lesser intake of them.

URINE
• It is a transparent fluid produced by urinary system.
• Urine has an amber colour due to presence of urochrome.
• Urine contains 96% water, 2.5% organic substances and 1.5% inorganic solutes.
• Reaction is acidic in the beginning but becomes alkaline on standing due to decomposition of urea to
form ammonia.
Water - 96%
Organic Substances – 2.5%, e.g., urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinise, water soluble vitamins, hormones,
oxalate.
Inorganic Solutes – 1.5%, e.g., sodium, chloride, phosphate, sulphate, magnesium, calcium, iodine.

Functions of Kidneys/Urinary or Excretory System :

(i) Waste Products - Excretion of nitrogenous and other waste products.
(ii) Toxix Chemicals - The system takes part in expelling toxic chemicals that happen to enter the body.
(iii) Water Balance - Maintenance of water balance in the bodyby producing dilute urine in excess when
water intake is high and concentrated urine in case of lesser water intake or excessive sweating.

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(iv) Excess Materials - Elimination of excess water soluble vitamins, drugs and other substances.
(v) Regulation of Salt Content - Regulation of salt content in body by excreting salts when in excess and
retaining them when deficient.
(vi) Maintenance of pH - pH of body fluids is maintained by excretion or non-excretion of H+ ion.
(vii) Regulation of Blood Pressure - By controlling the fluid content, kidneys regulate blood pressure.

ACCESSORY EXCRETORY ORGANS :

1. Skin - It contains sweat and sebaceous glands. Sweat glands excrete a fluid called sweat. Sweat consists of
water (99.5%), traces of lactic acid, amino acids, urea and salt. Sebaceous glands secrete oil or sebum
for lubricating hair. It has wax, sterols and other lipids.
2. Liver -
(i) Extra amino acids are deaminated and toxic ammonia is converted into less harmful urea in liver.
(ii) Liver degrades haemoglobin of worm out erythrocytes into bilirubin and biliverdin (bile pigments) for
elimination.
(iii) It passes cholesterol, lecithin, excess vitamins, drugs and toxic substances into bile for elimination.
3. Lungs - They eliminate carbon dioxide and some aromatic substances.
4. Large Intestine - It excretes heavy metals and toxins into faecal matter.

RENAL FAILURE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR SURVIVAL

• The kidney slowly deteriorates and stops functioning.
• The symptoms are water retention, acidosis, anaemia and increase in blood urea level.
• You have learnt how important the kidneys are for survival.
• Though kidney failure is not common, sometimes kidney infection, injury to kidneys or restricted blood
flow to kidneys result in kidney damage and malfunctioning.
• In order to clean the blood of metabolic wastes and to maintain normal levels of water and mineral ions
in the body fluids, an 'artificial kidney' is employed as shown in the figure below.
• The procedure used in artificial kidney in place of the normal one is called dialysis.
• A matching kidney from another person may also be transplanted.

Artificial Kidney – Dialysis

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Do You Know :
• Principle of dialysis Blood is made to flow into the dialysis machine made of long cellulose tubes coiled
in a tank having a dialyzing solution.
• Waste substances diffuse out of blood into tank. The cleansed blood is pumped back into patient.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS :
• Plants do not produce nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid because extra amino acids and
nucleotides are not formed.
• They produce other types of waste products, called secondary metabolites, e.g., alkaloids, tannins,
aromatic oils.
• Excess of water is got rid off through transpiration. Excess of oxygen formed during day in photosynthesis
organs can be considered as waste.
• It passes out through diffusion.
• The other wastes of plant metabolism are as follows :
(i) Nitrogen Waste Products - They are byproducts of general metabolism. The common ones are alkaloids,
e.g., quinine, morphine, atropine.
(ii) Organic Acids - They are metabolic intermediates. Some of them are without any other use. Rather on
accumulation they may prove toxic, e.g., oxalic acid.
(iii) Tannins - They are complex aromatic compounds which are formed as secondary metabolites.
(iv) Latex - It is an emulsion of varied composition which is exerted by special tubular cells called laticifers.
(v) Resins - They are oxidation products of aromatic oils.
(vi) Gums - They are degradation products of cell wall.
It saline habitates, the plants have to absorb excess salts that are required to be eliminated.
Mechanism :
Plants do not have any mechanism to collect, transport and throw out their waste products. They have
adopted varied strategies to protect their living cells from waste products.
(i) Old leaves - Waste products are stored in older leaves which soon fall off.
(ii) Old xylem - Resins, gums, tannins and other waste products are deposited in the old xylem which soon
becomes non-functional, e.g., heart wood.
(iii) Bark - Bark consits of dead cells which is peeled off periodically. Tannins and other wastes are deposited
in the bark. Incidentally, tannins are raw maerial for dyes and inks.
(iv) Central Vacuole - Most plant waste products are stored in central vacuole of their cells. They are
unable to influence the working of cytoplasm due to presence of a selectively permeable membrane
called tonoplast.
(v) Root Excretion - Some waste substances are actually excreted by the plants in the region of their roots.
(vi) Detoxification - The toxic oxalic acid is detoxified by formation of calcium oxalate which gets crystallised
into needle (raphides), prism (prismatic crystals), stars (sphaeraphides) and crystal sand. Excess of
calcium is also precipitated as calcium carbonate crystals, e.g., cystolish.
(vii) Salt Glands - They excrete exces salts obtained from the habitat. Hydathodes also have an excretory
function.

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TRY YOURSELF :
1. Oxygen evolved during photosynthesis comes from
(A) CO2 (B) H2O (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these

2. The atmosphere contains CO2 by volume

(A) 0.1% (B) 0.5% (C) 0.03% (D) 0.3%

3. A cell that lacks chloroplast does not

(A) Evolve carbon dioxide (B) Liberate oxygen
(C) Require water (D) Utilize carbohydrates

4. Rate of photosynthesis is independent of

(A) Quality of light (B) NO2 (C) Light duration (D) CO2

5. Most effective wavelength of light for photosynthesis is

(A) Red (B) Yellow (C) Green (D) Violet

6. Photolysis of water takes place in

(A) Calvin cycle (B) Glycolysis (C) Light phase (D) Dark Phase

7. Man needs carbohydrates as a source of energy and he can get this energy from
(A) Cellulose (B) Starch (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these

8. Trypsin converts
(A) Fats into fatty acids (B) Starch and glycogen into maltose
(C) Proteins into peptones (D) Sucrose into glucose and fructose

9. Liver cells secrete

(A) Lipase (B) Bile and no enzyme (C) Trypsin (D) Amylase

10. Glycogen is stored in

(A) Liver and muscles (B) Liver only (C) Pancreas (D) Muscles only

11. Gastric juice contains

(A) HCl (B) Renin (C) Pepsin (D)All of these

12. Saliva contains

(A) Ptyalin (B) Renin (C) Trypsin (D) All of these

13. Human digestive juices lack

(A) Lactase (B) Cellulase (C) Amylase (D) Lipase

14. In alimentary canal maximum absorption of water occurs in

(A) Rectum (B) Small intestine (C) Appendix (D) Stomach

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15. The appendix in man is

(A) Vestigial (B) Involved in bile storage
(C) Similar to stomach in shape (D) Involved in digestion of vegetable

16. Which one of the following does not contribute to the breathing movements in mammals?
(A) Diaphragm (B) Larynx (C) Abdominal muscles (D) Ribs

17. A person with high fever may breath faster than normal. This may be due to
(A) Additional requirement of O2 for the invaded germs
(B) High temperature of body
(C) Loss of appetite
(D) Mental worry of patient

18. A man respires about

(A) 40 times per minute (B) 72 times per minute
(C) 100 times per minute (D) 16–20 times per minutes

19. Tidal air in mammalian lungs is

(A) Total maximum air that can be drawn into lungs
(B) Air that normally goes in and comes out of lungs during breathing
(C) Air that is left in the lungs after normal expiration
(D) Air that can be expelled out from lungs forcibly after normal expiration.

20. The combination of haemoglobin with O2 in the blood is inhibited by

(A) Decreasing O2 concentration in blood (B) Increasing O2 concentration in blood
(C) Increasing CO2 concentration in blood (D) Introducing CO into blood

21. If a man from sea coast of Kerala goes to Mount everest.

(A) His breathing rate and heart beat will increase
(B) His breathing rate and heart beat will decrease
(C) His breathing rate will increase but heart beat will decrease
(D) His breathing rate will decrease but heart beat will increase

22. Heart is incompletely 4 chambered in

(A) Fishes (B) Amphibians (C) Reptiles (D) Birds

23. Valves are not found in

(A) Veins (B) Arteries (C) Heart (D) All of these

24. A person exercising hard shows the following except

(A) Decrease in blood glucose (B) Increase in lactic acid
(C) Increase in glycogen (D) None of these

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25. Circulatory system is open in

(A) Prawn (B) Toad (C) Lizard (D) Pigeon

26. Normal blood pressure (systolic/diastolic) is_______mm of Hg

(A) 120/80 (B) 160/80 (C) 120/60 (D) 180/80

27. Heart beat initiates from

(A) Sino auricular node (B) Bundle of his
(C) Purkinje fibers (D) Auriculo ventricular node

28. Snake/animals living in desert are :

(A) Ureotelic (B) Uricotelic (C) Ammonotelic (D) Both (A) & (B)

29. Urinary bladder opens into :

(A) Uterus (B) Ureter (C) Urethra (D) None of these

30. Reabsorption of water in the kidney is under control of :

(A) ADH (B) ACTH (C) LH (D) PSH

31. A normal adult excrete_____ urine per day :

(A) 1–2 liters (B) 13–14 liters (C) 20–30liters (D) 12–15 liters

32. Structural and functional unit of kidney is :

(A) Glomerular (B) Loop of Henle (C) Malpighian body (D) Nephron

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FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. Diaphragm becomes flat during inspiration and becomes convex during expiration.
2. Tidal volume : Volume of air inspired or expired in relaxed position. It is around 500 ml.
3. Residual volume : Air left in the whole respiratory tract after forceful expiration. It is 1.5 liters.
4. Total lung capacity : Maximum amount of air the lungs can hold after forceful inspiration. It is about 5-
6.0 litres.
5. Vital capacity : Maximum amount of air which can be breathed out through forceful expiration after a
forceful inspiration. It is 3.4-4.8 litres.
6. Vital Capacity is more in athletes, mountain dwellers, non smokers.
7. The total area for gas exchange provided by our 750 million alveoli in two lungs in 100 S. m.
8. In the cycle of inhalation and exhalation, repeated 15 to 18 times in a minutes about 500 ml of air is
breathed in and out. In 24 hours, we breath in 1500 litres of air.
9. Blood is the medium for the transport of oxygen from the respiratory organ to the different tissues and
carbon dioxide from tissues to the respiratory organs. As much as 97 percent of the oxygen is transported
from the lungs to the tissues in combination with hemoglobin and only 2 percent is transported in dissolved
condition by the plasma.
10. A normal person has about 15 grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml of blood. One gram of hemoglobin binds
about 1.34 ml of O2. Thus, 100 ml of blood carries about 20 ml of oxygen.
11. Carbon dioxide is also transported by hemoglobin. When a respiring tissue release carbon-dioxide, it is
first diffused in the plasma. From here it diffuses into the red blood cells. Carbon-dioxide is transported
from the tissues to the lungs in the form of bicarbonates dissolved in water.
12. About 23% of carbon dioxide entering into the erythrocytes combines with the globin (protein) part of
haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin, which is transported to the lungs.
13. Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin about 230 times more readily than oxygen. When a person
inhales carbon monoxide, it diffuses from the alveolar air to the blood and binds to haemoglobin forming
carboxyhemoglobin. The latter is a relatively stable compound and cannot bind with oxygen molecules.
So, the amount of hemoglobin available for oxygen transport is reduced. The resulting deficiency of
oxygen cases headache, dizziness, nausea and even death.
14. Mountain sickness : It is also known as altitude sickness. At sea level the concentration of oxygen is
about 21% and the barometric pressure averages 760 mm Hg. As altitude increases, the concentration
remains the same but the number of oxygen molecules per breath is reduced. AT 12,000 feet the barometric
pressure is only 483 mm Hg, so there are roughly 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath. In order to
oxygenate the body effectively, breathing rate (even while at rest) has to be increased. This extra ventilation
increases the oxygen content in the blood, but not sea level concentration. The fall in oxygenation of
blood produced the symptoms of mountain sickness. These symptoms include breathlessness, headache,
dizziness, nausea, vomiting, mental fatigue and a bluish tinge on the skin, nails and lips.
15. The ability to perform the basic life processes distinguishes a living organism from a nonliving one.
16. Life processes are the vital processes carried out by living organisms in order to maintain and sustain life.
Molecular movements are essential to carry out the various life processes.

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17. Specialised body parts perform the various life processes in multicellular organisms. No such organs are
present in unicellular organisms.
18. Energy required to carry out the different life processes, is obtained from carbon-based food sources
through nutrition.
19. Depending on the mode of obtaining nutrition, organisms are classified as autotrophs or heterotrophs.
a. Autotrophs can prepare their own food from simple inorganic sources like carbon dioxide and water.
(eg- green plants, some bacteria)
b. Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own food and is dependent on the autotrophs for obtaining complex
organic substances for nutrition. (eg. – animals)
20. Green plants prepare their food by the process of photosynthesis. Here, they utilize CO2, H2O and
sunlight, with the help of chlorophyll, giving out O2 as a byproduct.
21. In the light reaction of photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed and converted to chemical energy in the
form of ATP. Also water molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen.
22. Photosynthesis involves light-dependent reaction having non-cyclic and cyclic photophosphorylation
and dark reaction where energy is utilised.
23. In 1941, by using Van Niel’s hypothesis and the rare isotope of oxygen 18O, water labelled with I8O
was used. The experiment proved that all oxygen evolved comes from water only and hence the
modified equation of photosynthesis is written as given.

24. In sulphur bacteria, he found that sulphur was released, not oxygen meaning that CO2 was not split
rather H2S was broken down, and hydrogen reduced the CO2.

25. By 1950 it was well established that both the reactions occur in separate areas, the light reaction takes
place on the chloroplast membranes and the dark reaction in the stroma region.
26. Desert plants as an exception, opens stomata in night to absorb CO2 and form intermediate compound
i.e. malate which is stored in vacuole. During day it is converted into sugar.
27. The parasite, the one that draws nourishment often lacks digestive system as it feeds on nutrients already
in solution form or digested form, from the host as in the case of gut parasites like tapeworm and round
worm.
28. Commercially for curdling of milk the Rennet tablets are used which contain renin extracted from the
calf gastric mucosa.
29. Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrates in the dark phase of photosynthesis.
30. Plants carry out gaseous exchange with surrounding through stomata.
31. Heterotrophs may be herbivores, carnivores, parasites or saprophytes.
32. In Amoeba, digestion occurs in the food vacuole, formed by the engulfing of food by its pseudopodia.
33. In humans, digestion of food takes place in the alimentary canal, made up of various organs and glands.
34. In mouth, food is crushed into small particles through chewing and mixed with saliva, which contains
amylase for digesting starch.

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35. On swallowing, food passes through pharynx and oesophagus to reach stomach. The gastric juice contains
pepsin (for digesting proteins), HCl and mucus.
36. Liver secretes bile which emulsifies fat.
37. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes amylase, trypsin and lipase for digesting starch, proteins and fats
respectively.
38. In the small intestine, carbohydrate, proteins and fats are completely digested into glucose, amino acids,
and fatty acids and glycerol respectively.
39. The villi of small intestine absorb the digested food and supply it to every cell of the body.
40. The undigested food is egested from the body through anus.
41. During respiration, the digested food materials are broken down to release energy in the form of ATP.
42. Depending on the requirement of oxygen, respiration may be
a. Aerobic - occurring in presence of oxygen or
b. Anaerobic – occurring in absence of oxygen.
43. The end-products are lactic acid or ethanol + CO2, in anaerobic respiration or CO2 and water in
aerobic respiration. Large amount of energy is released in aerobic respiration as compared to anaerobic
respiration.
44. Plants release CO2 at night and oxygen during the day.
45. Terrestrial organisms use atmospheric oxygen for respiration whereas aquatic organisms use the dissolved
oxygen in water.
46. In humans, air takes the following path on entering the nostrils.
Nostrils  Nasal passage  Pharynx  Larynx  Trachea  Bronchus  Bronchiole  Alveolus.
47. The alveoli of lungs are richly supplied with blood and are the sites where exchange of gases (O2 and
CO2) occurs between blood and atmosphere.
48. In humans, the respiratory pigment haemoglobin, carry oxygen from lungs to different tissues of the
body.
49. Acetyl Co-A is a important molecule in metabolism. It main function is to convey the carbon atom with
in acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized to produced energy.
50. In humans, the circulatory system transports various materials throughout the body and is composed of
the heart, blood and blood vessels.
51. Human heart has 4 chambers – 2 atria (right and left) and 2 ventricles (right and left). Right half of the
heart receives deoxygenated blood whereas the left half receives oxygenated blood.
52. Cockroach has 13 hearts.
53. Ventricular walls are much thicker than atrial walls.
54. Arteries carry blood from heart to different parts of the body whereas veins deliver the blood back to the
heart. Arteries are connected to veins by thin capillaries, wherein materials are exchanged between
blood and cells.
55. Humans show double circulation and complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
56. Blood platelets are essential for clotting of blood at the place of injury and thus preventing blood loss.
57. Lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph nodes, lymphatic capillaries and lymph vessels which drain
into larger veins. Lymph is also important in the process of transportation.

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58. In plants, water is transported through the xylem tissue, from roots to the aerial parts of the plant. Root
pressure and transpiration pull are the major forces involved in pulling water up the xylem.
59. Translocation of food is carried out through phloem tissue from leaves and storage organs to other parts
of the plant. This process requires energy from ATP.
60. During excretion, the harmful metabolic nitrogenous wastes generated are removed from the body.
61. In humans, a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder and urethra constitutes the excretory
system.
62. Nephrons are the basic filtration units of kidneys. They carry out filtration, selective reabsorption and
tubular secretion to form urine in kidney, which is then passed out through the urethra, via the ureters and
urinary bladder.
63. Plants do not have an excretory system and carries out excretion in various ways like transpiration,
releasing wastes into surrounding soil, losing the leaves and storing in cell vacuoles and in old xylem.
64. Ornithine cycle – Ornithine cycle is the process of converting ammonia into urea by combining with
CO2 in liver.

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-I [NCERT Question]

Q.1 Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-cellular organisms like
humans?
Ans. Multicellular organisms such as humans possess complex body designs. They have specialised cells and
tissues for performing various necessary functions of the body such as intake of food and oxygen. Unlike
unicellular organisms, multicellular cells are not in direct contact with the outside environment. Therefore,
diffusion cannot meet their oxygen requirements.

Q.2 What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?

Ans. Any visible movement such as walking, breathing, or growing is generally used to decide whether something
is alive or not. However, a living organism can also have movements, which are not visible to the naked
eye. Therefore, the presence of life processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide
whether something is alive or not.

Q.3 What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?

Ans. An organism uses outside raw materials mostly in the form of food and oxygen. The raw materials
required by an organism can be quite varied depending on the complexity of the organism and its
environment.

Q.4 What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Ans. Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, etc. are essential for maintaining
life.

Q.5 What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition?
Ans.
Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
(i) Food is synthesised from simple inorganic Food is obtained directly or indirectly from
raw materials such as CO2 and water. autotrophs. This food is broken down with
the help of enzymes.
(ii) Presence of green pigment (chlorophyll) is No pigment is required in this type of
necessary. nutrition.
(iii) Food is generally prepared during day time. Food can be prepared at all times.
(iv) All green plants and some bacteria have this All animals and fungi have this type of
type of nutrition. nutrition.

Q.6 Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Ans. The following raw materials are required for photosynthesis :
• The raw material CO2 enters from the atmosphere through stomata.
• Water is absorbed from the soil by the plant roots.
• Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the chlorophyll and other green
parts of the plants.

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Q.7 What is the role of the acid in our stomach?

Ans. The hydrochloric acid present in our stomach dissolves bits of food and creates an acidic medium. In this
acidic medium, enzyme pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which is a protein-digesting enzyme.

Q.8 What is the function of digestive enzymes?

Ans. Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc. help in the breaking down of complex
food particles into simple ones. These simple particles can be easily absorbed by the blood and thus
transported to all the cells of the body.

Q.9 How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

Ans. The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called villi. These villi increase the surface
area for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, many blood vessels are present that absorb the
digested food and carry it to the blood stream. From the blood stream, the absorbed food is delivered
to each and every cell of the body.

Enlarged view of a villus

Q.10 What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard to
obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Ans. Terrestrial organisms take up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic animals need to utilize oxygen
present in the water. Air contains more O2 as compared to water. Since the content of O2 in air is high,
the terrestrial animals do not have to breathe faster to get more oxygen. Therefore, unlike aquatic animals,
terrest rial animals do not have to show various adaptat ions for bet ter gaseous
exchange.

Q.11 What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various
organisms?
Ans. Glucose is first broken down in the cell cytoplasm into a three carbon molecule called pyruvate.
Pyruvate is further broken down by different ways to provide energy.
The breakdown of glucose by different pathways can be illustrated as follows.

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In yeast and human muscle cells, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the absence of oxygen whereas
in mitochondria, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the presence of oxygen.

Q.12 How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?

Ans. Haemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cells for cellular respiration. The haemoglobin
pigment present in the blood gets attached to four O2 molecules that are obtained from breathing. It thus
forms oxyhaemoglobin and the blood becomes oxygenated. This oxygenated blood is then distributed to
all the body cells by the heart. After giving away O2 to the body cells, blood takes away CO2 which is
the end product of cellular respiration. Now the blood becomes de-oxygenated.
Since haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO2, CO2 is mainly transported in the dissolved form.
This de-oxygenated blood gives CO2 to lung alveoli and takes O2 in return.

Transportation of O2 and CO2 in blood.

Q.13 How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange of gases?
Ans. The exchange of gases takes place between the blood of the capillaries that surround the alveoli and the
gases present in the alveoli. Thus, alveoli are the site for exchange of gases. The lungs get filled up with
air during the process of inhalation as ribs are lifted up and diaphragm is flattened. The air that is rushed
inside the lungs fills the numerous alveoli present in the lungs. Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli.
These numerous alveoli increase the surface area for gaseous exchange making the process of respiration
more efficient.

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Q.14 What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the functions of
these components?
Ans. The main components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
• Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the various
body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Being a fluid connective tissue, blood helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, CO2, and nitrogenous
wastes.
• The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away from the heart to various
organs or from various organs back to the heart.

Q.15 Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds?
Ans. Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature by cooling
themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler
environment. Hence, these animals require more oxygen (O2) for more cellular respiration so that they
can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature.
Thus, it is necessary for them to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so that their circulatory
system is more efficient and can maintain their constant body temperature.

Q.16 What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants?
Ans. In highly organised plants, there are two different types of conducting tissues - xylem and phloem. Xylem
conducts water and minerals obtained from the soil (via roots) to the rest of the plant. Phloem transports

Q.17 How are water and minerals transported in plants?

Ans. The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected
to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant.
Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells of the
roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all the plant parts through the
interconnected water-conducting channels.

Components of xylem tissue

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Q.18 How is food transported in plants?

Ans. Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. The transportation
of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. As a result of this, the osmotic pressure in the
tissue increases causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to the
tissues which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to the needs of the plant.
For example, the food material, such as sucrose, is transported into the phloem tissue using ATP energy.

Components of phloem tissue

Q.19 Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.

Ans. Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number of nephrons,
approximately 1-1.5 million. The main components of the nephron are glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule,
and a long renal tubule.

Structure of a nephron
Functioning of a nephron :
• The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries associated
with glomerulus.
• The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.
• In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively reabsorbed
and unwanted molecules are added in the urine.
• The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.
• From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct. Collecting
duct collects urine from many nephrons.
• The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported to the
urinary bladder and then into the urethra.

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Q.20 What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Ans. Plants can get rid of excess of water by transpiration. Waste materials may be stored in the cell
vacuoles or as gum and resin, especially in old xylem. It is also stored in the leaves that later fall off.

Q.21 How is the amount of urine produced regulated?

Ans. The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved wastes present in
the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and hormone such as Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) also regulates the amount of urine produced.

Q.22 The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(a) nutrition. (b) respiration. (c) excretion. (d) transportation.
Ans. (c) In human beings, the kidneys are a part of the system for excretion.

Q.23 The xylem in plants are responsible for

(a) transport of water. (b) transport of food.
(c) transport of amino acids. (d) transport of oxygen.
Ans. (a) In a plant, the xylem is responsible for transport of water.

Q.24 The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires

(a) carbon dioxide and water. (b) chlorophyll.
(c) sunlight. (d) all of the above.
Ans. (d) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight.

Q.25 The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
(a) cytoplasm. (b) mitochondria. (c) chloroplast. (d) nucleus.
Ans. (b) The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in mitochondria.

Q.26 How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Ans. Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The small intestine gets the
secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic juice respectively from the liver and the pancreas. The
bile salts (from the liver) break down the large fat globules into smaller globules so that the pancreatic
enzymes can easily act on them. This is referred to as emulsification of fats. It takes place in the small
intestine.

Q.27 What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?

Ans. Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, located under the tongue. It moistens the food for easy
swallowing. It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks down starch into sugar.

Q.28 What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its by-products?
Ans. Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide, water,
chlorophyll pigment, and sunlight are the necessary conditions required for autotrophic nutrition.
Carbohydrates (food) and O2 are the by-products of photosynthesis.

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Q.29 What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some organisms
that use the anaerobic mode of respiration.
Ans. Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

1. Method. It is the common method of It occurs permanently only in a few organism.

respiration. In others it may occur as a temporary measure
to overcome shortage of oxygen.
2. Steps. It is completed in 3 steps – glycolysis, There are two steps – glycolysis and anaerobic
Krebs cycle and terminal oxidation. breakdown of pyruvic acid.
3. Oxygen. It requires oxygen. Oxygen is not required.
4. Breakdown. Respiratory substrate is Respiratory substrate is incompletely broken
completely broken down. down.
5. End Products. They are inorganic. Atleast one end product is organic. Inorganic
products may or may not be present.
6. Toxicity. End products show little toxicity. The organic end product is generally toxic.
7. Occurance. It occurs partly in cytoplasm Anaerobic respiration is carried out entirely in
and partly in mitochondria. cytoplasm. Mitochondria are not required.
8. E.T.C. An electron transport chain is ETC is not required.
required.
9. Energy. In release 686 kcal or 2870 kJ of Energy liberated is 36-50 kcal or 150-210 kJ per
energy per mole of glucose. mole of glucose.
10. ATP. The liberated energy issued in forming The liberate energy is used in synthesis of
36-38 ATP molecule per mole of glucose. 2ATP mole.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the roots of some waterlogged plants, some parasitic worms, animal
muscles, and some micro-organisms such as yeasts.

Q.30 How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
Ans. The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures present in the lungs. The walls of the alveoli consist of
extensive network of blood vessels. Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli, making it a total of
approximately 700 million in both the lungs. The alveolar surface when spread out covers about 80 m2
area. This large surface area makes the gaseous exchange more efficient.

Alveoli and capillaries

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Q.31 What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?

Ans. Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells for cellular respiration.
Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can affect the oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This
can lead to deficiency of oxygen in the body cells. It can also lead to a disease called anaemia.

Q.32 Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary?

Ans. The human heart is divided into four chambers - the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and
the left ventricle.
Flow of blood in the heart
• The heart has superior and inferior vena cava, which carries de-oxygenated blood from the upper and
lower regions of the body respectively and supplies this de-oxygenated blood to the right atrium of the
heart.

Flow of blood in the heart

• The right atrium then contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood to the right ventricle, through an
auriculo-ventricular aperture.
• Then the right ventricle contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood into the two pulmonary arteries,
which pumps it to the lungs where the blood becomes oxygenated. From the lungs, the pulmonary veins
transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
• Then the left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular aperture, the oxygenated blood enters
the left ventricle.
• The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives rise to many arteries that distribute the
oxygenated blood to all the regions of the body.

Schematic diagram of blood circulation in humans

• Therefore, the blood goes twice through the heart. This is known as double circulation.

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Importance of double circulation :

• The separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of oxygen to the
body cells. This efficient system of oxygen supply is very useful in warm-blooded animals such as human
beings.
• As we know, warm-blooded animals have to maintain a constant body temperature by cooling
themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler
environment. Hence, they require more O2 for more respiration so that they can produce more energy
to maintain their body temperature. Thus, the circulatory system of humans is more efficient because of
the double circulatory heart.

Q.33 What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
Ans. Transport of materials in xylem Transport of materials in phloem
(i) Xylem tissue helps in the transport of Phloem tissue helps in the transport of food.
water and minerals.
(ii) Water is transported upwards from Food is transported in both upward and
roots to all downward directions.
(iii) Transport in xylem occurs with the help Transport of food in phloem requires energy
of simple physical forces such as in the form of ATP.
transpiration pull.

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Q.34 Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to
their structure and functioning.
Ans.

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-II

Section - A

1. Artifical removal of metabolic wastes from the body is called as –

(A) Ultra filteration (B) Dialysis (C) Osmoregulation (D) None of these

2. Human kidney resembles contractile vacuole of Amoeba in expelling out –

(A) Excess H2O (B) Salts (C) Glucose (D) Urea

3. The units of a mammalian kidney are –

(A) Nephrons (B) Seminiferous tubules
(C) Uriniferous tubules (D) Ureters

4. NH3 converted to urea in –

(A) Kidney (B) Liver (C) Spleen (D) Heart

5. Glomerular filtrate normally contain –

(A) Glucose (B) NaCl (C) Amino acids (D) All of these

6. Man is –
(A) Uricotelic (B) Ureotelic (C) Ammonotelic (D) None of these

7. Which is not excretory organ?

(A) Skin (B) Kidney (C) Liver (D) Pancreas

8. Special excretory organ is lacking in :

(A) Earthworm (B) Amoeba (C) Man (D) Insects

9. Which of the following is not a excretory product in plant –

(A) Terpentine oil (B) Latex
(C) Glucose produced during photosynthesis (D) Oxygen

10. Sweat is an excretory waste because it contains

(A) N2 waste (B) excess H2O (C) Salts (D) All of the above

11. Urea cycle occur in

(A) Nephron (B) Spleen (C) Pancreas (D) Liver

12. Henle’s loop is short or absent in

(A) Fresh water fish (B) Birds (C) Mammals (D) All of the above

13. The white matter in a bird’s dropping is

(A) CaCO3 (B) CaSO4 (C) Uric acid (D) Urea

14. Identify the uricotelic animal

(A) Pisces (B) Amphibia (C) Man (D) Aves

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15. Organic acids which may be poisnous to a plant are stored in –

(A) Vacuoles (B) Palisade cell (C) Mesophyll (D) Xylem vassels
16. The urinary bladder of a man empties outside by means of
(A) Ureter (B) Urethra (C) Vagina (D) Glands

17. Which of the following needs large amount of water for excretion?
(A) Urea (B) Ammonia (C) Uric acid (D) Amino acids

18. Photosynthesis is maximum in which light

(A) Red light (B) Green light (C) Low light intensity (D) High light intensity

19. Cell organelle associated with conversion of light energy to chemical energy.
(A) Chloroplast (B) Mitochondria (C) Ribosome (D) ER

20. Stomata of desert plant/succulant plant are

(A) always open
(B) open during the day and close during the night
(C) Open during the night and close during the day
(D) Never open

Section - B
Fill in the blanks :
1. Glucose is broken down to provide energy in the form of ________.
2. The circulatory system consist of the ________, ________ and ________.
3. Plant store waste in the form of ________ and ________.
4. ________ help in ultrafilteration in kidney.

Multiple blanks :
5. Double circulatory system of blood flow includes two distinct and separate systems. This distinction is
shared by most vertebrates including amphibians, _____ and mammals.In contrast, fish have a single
circulation system because they lacks_______.
(A) Birds, Lungs (B) Reptiles, lungs (C) Artropoda, Lungs (D)Birds, Gills

Section - C
CHECK YOUR COMPATIBILITY
1. What is the importance of HCl? From where it is secreted?
2. Where & how the acidic food turns alkaline?
3. Why fishes have single circulation?
4. Why right kidney is slightly lower in position?
5. Describe the step of respiration that take place in cytoplasm.
6. What is fermentation?
7. What is the significance of large inter-cellular spaces in the plants?
8. Why cramps relieve on treatment with hot water?
9. What is residual volume? How does it helps in exchange of oxygen.
10. What is the respiratory pigment in human? What is its function?

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Section - D
PREVIOUS YEAR’S QUESTIONS
Very Short Answer Type Questions : (One Mark)
Q.1 Write other names of the following:
(a) Alveolar sac (b) Voice box [SAI-2015]
Ans. (a) Air-sacs (b) Larynx.

Q.2 What is transpiration ? [SAI-2015]

Ans. The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.

Q.3 What is the function of valves present in auricles and ventricles ? [SAI-2013, 20I4]
Ans. The presence of these valves ensure that blood does not flow backward when the atria or ventricles
contract.

Q.4 What is meant by double circulation? [SAI-2012, 2014]

Ans. The circulation of blood through the heart twice during each cycle of blood circulation is known as
double circulation.

Q.5 What is the function of pancreas in the human digestive system? [SAI-2012, 2010, 2014]
Ans. Pancreas is a large gland whose exocrine region secretes digestive enzymes (trypsin for digesting protein
and pancreatic amylase for the breakdown of starch) and the endocrine region secretes hormone, insulin
and glucagon.

Short Answer Type Questions : (Two Marks)

Q.6 (i) Name any two substances that are selectively reabsorbed as the urine flows along the tube.
(ii) Name the part of the excretory system in which urine is stored for sometime. [SAI-2015]
Ans. (i) Glucose, amino acids, salts and major amount of water.
(ii) Urinary bladder.

Q.7 Give functions of all four chambers of human heart. [SAI-2011, 2014]
Ans. Functions:
Left atrium - Receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary vein.
Right atrium - Receives deoxygenated blood from vena cava
Left ventricle - Pumps oxygenated blood to all parts of body.
Right ventricle - Pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs.

Q.8 What is the significance of residual volume of air in the lungs? [SAI-2014]
Ans. During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a residual volume of
air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.

Q.9 What causes movement of food inside the alimentary canal? [SAI-2014]
Ans. The walls of alimentary canal contain muscle layers. Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of these muscles
pushes the food forward. This is called peristalsis, which occurs all along the gut.

Q.10 Name the components of excretory system of human beings. [SAI-2014]

Ans. The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidney, a pair of ureters; a urinary bladder and
a urethra.
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Short Answer Type Questions : (Three Marks)

Q.11 Name three life processes which are essential for maintaining life and briefly explain the functioning of
any one of them. [SAI-2015]
Ans. (a) Nutrition (b) Respiration (c) Excretion (d) Transportation (Any three)
Nutrition : It is a process of obtaining and utilising the food (nutrients), which are the source of energy.
The food is needed for growth, development, synthesis of proteins and other substances needed for the
maintenance of life (Metabolism).
Q.12 Define the term enzyme. State the role of saliva in human digestive system. [SAI-2015]
Ans. Enzymes are biological catalysts which convert complex organic food materials into smaller molecules.
Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down starch which is a complex molecule
to give sugar. It moistens the food, lubricates it and helps to move the food forward into alimentary canal.

Q.13 What do the following transport ?

(i) Xylem (ii) Phloem (iii) Pulmonary vein (iv) Vena cava
(v) Pulmonary artery (vi) Aorta [SAI-2015]
Ans. (i) Water and minerals.
(ii) Food prepared in the leaves.
(iii) Oxygenated blood from lungs to heart.
(iv) Deoxygenated blood from cells and tissues of body to heart.
(v) Deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs.
(vi) Oxygenated blood from heart to different body parts / organs.

Q.14 List the events that occur during the process of photosynthesis. [SAI-2011, 2012]
Ans. (a) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(b) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen.
(c) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

Long Answer Type Questions : (Five Marks)

Q.15 (a) Draw a sectional view of the human heart and label on it Aorta, Right ventricle and Pulmonary veins.
(b) State the functions of the following components of transport system?
(i) Blood (ii) Lymph [SAI-2014, 2015]
Ans. (a)

(b) (i) Blood: It transports food, oxygen and waste materials in human body.
(ii) Lymph: It carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from
extracellular space back into the blood.

Q.16 What are stomata? What functions do they perform? With the help of a diagram explain opening and
closing of stomata. [SAI-2014, 2015]
Ans. Stomata are the tiny pores present on the surface of leaves.
Functions of stomata: (i) Exchange of gases, (ii) Transpiration
• Opening and closing of stomata occurs due to turgor changes in guard cells. When guard cells are turgid,
stomatal pore is open while in flaccid conditions, the aperture closes.
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Section - E
UNDERSTANDING BASED QUESTIONS
Q.1 When we breathe out, why does the air passage not collapse? [SAI-2014, 2015]
Ans. Because trachea (wind pipe) is lined by rings of cartilage which ensure that the air passage does not
collapse.

Q.2 Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds ?
[SAI-2014]
Ans. They have high energy requirement for maintaining their body temperature. This is possible only if
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood remain separated.

Q.3 Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms like humans ?
[SAI-2015]
Ans. In the multicellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the surrounding environment.
Therefore, the diffusion is insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements in them. Instead, they need
specialised organs for breathing and exchange of gases.

Q.4 (a) In which forms nitrogen is taken by plants ?

(b) Which type of nutrition is present in bread mould? [SAI-2013, 2014]
Ans. (a) Nitrogen is taken-up from the soil in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is taken-up as
organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen.
(b) Saprophytic (Heterotrophic) nutrition : They breakdown the food material outside the body and then
absorb it.

Q.5 How does aerobic respiration differ from anaerobic respiration? [SAI-2015]

Ans. Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

1. Oxygen is utilised for the 1. Oxygen is not required.
breakdown of respiratory substrate.
2. It takes place in cytoplasm 2. It takes place in cytoplasm only.
(glycolysis) and inside
mitochondria (Krebs cycle).
3. End products are carbon dioxide 3. End products are lactic acid or
and water. ethanol and carbon dioxide.
4. More energy is released. 4. Less energy is released.

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Q.6 Why do fishes have two chambered heart and reptiles have three chambered heart? [SAI-2014]
Ans. Division of heart depends on the energy needs by an organism. Since these animals do not require high
energy to maintain their body temperature thus, they have two and three chambers respectively to meet
their minimum energy requirements. These animals tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood streams. Due to these reasons, the body temperature of these aniinals depends on
the temperature of the environment.

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III

Section - A

Multiple choice question with one correct answers :

1. Which among them is not correct equation of an anabolic process in plants
(A) C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
(B) 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
(C) 6CO2 + 12H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
(D) All of these

2. Organelle responsible for anabolic process of food production in plant.

(A) Mitochondria (B) Peroxisome (C) Ribosome (D) Plastids

3. A major metabolic process taking place in germinating seed to

(A) Photosynthesis (B) Absorption of water
(C) Absorption of mineral (D) Respiration

4. Catabolism is
(A) Anabolism first than metabolism (B) Breakdown of the product of anabolism
(C) Formation of the product in a cell (D) All of the above

5. Growth in a plant is because of

(A) More anabolism than catabolism (B) More catabolism than anabolism
(C) Equal amount of anabolism and catabolism (D) More energy consumption

6. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) represents the following range of wavelength

(A) 400 – 700 nm (B) 500 – 600 nm (C) 450 – 950 nm (D) 340–450 nm

7. In chlorophyll which metal is present?

(A) Mn (B) Mo (C) Mg (D) S

8. Photolysis of water take place in

(A) Absorption (B) Transpiration (C) Respiration (D) Photosynthesis
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9. Photolysis is
(A) Another name for photosynthesis (B) Another name for respiration
(C) Breakdown of glucose (D) Breakdown of water

10. During light reactions the following molecules are formation

(A) ATP (B) ATP & NADPH (C) NADPH (D) None

11. Dark reaction of photosynthesis

(A) Takes place in dim light
(B) Takes place both in light and dark
(C) Is termed as dark reaction because it is inhibited by light
(D) Utilizes the assimilatory power formed in light reaction

12. In which form is food transported in plants

(A) Sucrose (B) Fructose (C) Glucose (D) Lactose

13. Some plant absorb CO2 at night. They are

(A) Water plant (B) Land plant (C) Desert plant (D) Both (A)&(B)

14. Magnesium is constituent of which pigment?

(A) Florigen (B) Chlorophyll (C) Haemoglobin (D) Enzyme

15. In photosynthesis
(A) CO2 is reduced while H2O oxidized (B) CO2 is oxidized white H2O reduced
(C) CO2 and H2O are oxidized (D) CO2 & H2O are reduced

16. In chloroplast, chlorophyll is present in the

(A) Stroma (B) Outer membrane (C) Inner membrane (D) Thylakoids

17. Phenomenon which converts light energy into chemical energy is

(A) Respiration (B) Photosynthesis (C) Transpiration (D) None of these

18. Chlorophyll in chloroplast is located in

(A) Grana (B) Pyrenoid (C) Stroma (D) None of these

Section - B
Assertion & Reason :
Instructions: In the following questions as Assertion (A) is given followed by a Reason (R). Mark your
responses from the following options.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of ‘Assertion’
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is not the correct explanation of ‘Assertion’
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false
(D) Assertion is false but Reason is true

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1. Assertion : Oxygen is absorbed by different organs in different organism.

Reason : All these organs have structure that increase surface area.

2. Assertion : It would take 3 year for a molecule of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs.
Reason : Diffusion is movement from high to low concentration.

Section - C
Match the following (one to one) :
Column-I and column-II contains four entries each. Entries of column-I are to be matched with some
entries of column-II. Only One entries of column-I may have the matching with the some entries of column-
II and one entry of column-II Only one matching with entries of column-I
1. Column I Column II
(A) Bronchiole (P) Circulation
(B) Vena cava (Q) Absorption
(C) Glomerulus (R) Respiration
(D) Villi (S) Excretion

Match the following (one to many) :

Column-I and column-II contains four entries each. Entries of column-I are to be matched with some
entries of column-II. One or more than one entries of column-I may have the matching with the some
entries of column-II and one entry of column-II may have one or more than one matching with entries of
column-I
2. Column I Column II
(A) Lactic acid (P) Aerobic respiration
(B) Ethanol (Q) Anaerobic respiration
(C) CO 2 (R) Photosynthesis
(D) O2 (S) Transpiration

Section - D
Comprehension :
Photosynthesis is a process by which green plant make there own food in the presence of sunlight, water,
CO2 and chlorophyll. If we keep a water plant in a beaker, inverted by a funnel and a test tube placed
over having water than we can see bubble of gas accumulated at the bottom of the test tube. This gas
down ward displaces water.

Q.1 Name the process by which this gas is produced

(A) Respiration (B) Transpiration (C) Photolysis (D) None

Q.2 Which among them is not an aquatic plant?

(A) Hydrilla (B) Hydra (C) Vallisneria (D) Lotus

Q.3 Gas that helps in formation of ozone comes out during.

(A) Respiration (B) Photosynthesis (C) Absorption (D) Translocation

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ANSWER KEY
Try yourself :
1. B 2. C 3. B 4. B 5. A 6. C 7. B
8. C 9. B 10. A 11. D 12. A 13. B 14. A
15. A 16. B 17. B 18. D 19. B 20. D 21. A
22. C 23. B 24. C 25. A 26. A 27. A 28. B
29. C 30. A 31. A 32. D

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-II

Section - A
1. B 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. D 6. B 7. D
8. B 9. C 10. D 11. D 12. A 13. C 14. D
15. A 16. B 17. B 18. A 19. A 20. C

Section - B
1. ATP 2. Heart, Blood & blood vessel 3. Gum and resin
4. Bowman capsules 5. (A) Birds, Lungs

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III

Section - A
1. A 2. D 3. D 4. B 5. A 6. A 7. C
8. D 9. D 10. B 11. D 12. A 13. C 14. B
15. A 16. D 17. B 18. A

Section - B
1. B 2. B

Section - C
1. A–R, B–P, C–S, D–Q 2. A–Q, B–Q, C–PQR, D–PR

Section - D
1. C 2. B 3. B

********
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MATHEMATICS
CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

1 REAL NUMBER
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
THEORY

1.1 INTRODUCTION :

KEY CONCEPTS
Real Numbers (R)

Rational Numbers (Q) Irrational Numbers

11 3 4 2 , 5 3 ,  6 , 2  5 ,...
 3, 0, 7, ,  , ,...
2 5 7

Integers (Z) Non-integer rational numbers

..., – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, ... 11 10 3
, ,  , ...
2 14 5

Negative integers Whole numbers (W)

..., – 3, – 2, –1 0, 1, 2, 3,....

Zero Natural numbers (N)

1, 2, 3,....
 Natural numbers : The counting numbers 1,2,3..... are called natural numbers. It is denoted by N.
N = {1,2.3..........}

 Whole numbers : In the set of natural number if we include the number 0, the resulting set is known
as the set of whole numbers.
It is represented by W.
W = {0,1,2.......}
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 Integers : Natural numbers along with 0 and their negatives are called integers and the set of integers
is denoted by I
I = {.........–4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1,2,3..........}

 Rational numbers : A rational number is a number which can be expressed in the form of p/q, where
p and q are integers and q is not zero.

 Irrational numbers : A number is called irrational if it can not be written in the form of p/q, where p
and q are integers and q  0
The system R of real numbers includes rational as well irrational numbers.
In this chapter we will begin with a brief recall of divisibility of integers as well state some important
properties of integers.

1.2 RATIONAL NUMBERS

Decimal Representation of Rational Numbers :

KEY CONCEPTS

Real Numbers in decimal form

Rational numbers Irrational numbers

All terminating or non-terminating All non-terminating and
repeating decimals non-repeating decimals

Terminating decimals Non-terminating decimals

p p
x , q can be expressed in the form x , q can not be expressed in the form
q q
2m5n, where m, n are non-negative integers 2m5n, where m, n are non-negative integers

(i) Finite or Terminating Decimal : Every fraction p/q can be expressed as a decimal, if the
decimal expression of p/q terminates, i.e. comes to an end, then the decimal so obtained is called
a terminating decimal.
3 13
e.g,. 1/4 = 0.25 , 5/8 = 0.625 , 2 = = 2.6
5 5
1 5 3
Thus, each of the numbers , and 2 can be expressed in the form of a terminating decimal.
4 8 5
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Important : A fraction p/q is a terminating decimal only, when prime factors of q are 2 and
5 only.
1 3 7 13
e.g. Each one of the fractions , , , is a terminating decimal, since the
2 4 20 25
denominator of each has no prime factor other than 2 and 5.
(ii) Repeating (or Recurring) Decimals: A decimal in which a digit or a set of digits repeats
periodically, is called a repeating or a recurring decimal.
In a recurring decimal, we place a bar over the first block of the repeating part and omit the other
repeating blocks.
2
e.g. (i) = 0.666 .................................. = 0 . 6
3
15
(ii) = 2.142857142857 .................... = 2.142857
7

REMEMBER
Special Characteristics of Rational Numbers :
(i) Every rational number is expressible either as a terminating decimal or as a repeating decimal.
(ii) Every terminating decimal is a rational number.
(iii) Every repeating decimal is a rational number.

Fractions :
(a) Common fraction : Fractions whose denominator is not 10.
(b) Decimal fraction : Fractions whose denominator is 10 or any power of 10.
2
(c) Proper fraction : Numerator < Denominator i.e.
7
7
(d) Improper fraction : Numerator > Denominator i.e.
2
2
(e) Mixed fraction : Consists of integral as well as fractional part i.e. 5
9
(f) Compound fraction : Fraction whose numerator and denominator themselves are

fractions. i.e. 4 5 .
37
(g) Continued fraction : Fraction consists of the fractional denominators.
1
i.e., 1 
3
2
4
5
7

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2
Illustration 1 : Simplify : 3
1
1
2
4
3

2 2 2 2
Sol. 3 = 3 = 3 =3+
1 1  3  13 
1 1 1    
4 2  10   10   10 
    
1 3  3

10 20 39  20 59
= 3 + 2 = 3 = = .
13 13 13 13

 Prime numbers : All natural numbers that have one and itself only as their factors are called prime
numbers i.e. prime numbers are exactly divisible by 1 and themselves.
Example : 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 ....etc.

 Twin Primes : The term twin primes is used for a pair of odd prime numbers that differ by two.
Example : 3 and 5 are twin primes.

 Co-prime numbers : If the H.C.F. of the given numbers (not necessarily prime) is 1 then they are
known as co-prime numbers.
Example : 5, 6, are co-prime as H.C.F. of (5, 6) = 1.

IMPORTANT
Note : (i) 1 is neither prime nor composite number.
(ii) 2 is the only prime number which is even.
(iii) Any two consecutive numbers will always be co-prime.

 Composite numbers : All natural numbers that have more than two different factors are called
composite numbers. If C is the set of composite numbers then C = {4,6,8,9,10,12,.....}.

 Perfect Number : If the sum of all factors of a number is twice the number then this number is called
perfect number.
If 2k – 1 = Prime number, then (2k – 1) (2k – 1) is a perfect number.
Example : 6, 28, etc.

 Imaginary Numbers: All the numbers whose square is negative are called imaginary numbers.
Example : 2i, – 7i, i, ..... where i =  1 (i2 = – 1) .
 Complex Numbers : The combined form of real and imaginary numbers is known as complex numbers.
It is denoted by Z = a + ib where a is real part and b is imaginary part of Z and a, b  R.
The set of complex numbers is the super set of all the sets of numbers.

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2157
Illustration 2 : Express in the decimal form.
625
Sol. We have,
625 2157.0000 3.4512
1875
2820
2500
3200
3125
750
625
1250
1250
0
2157
 = 3.4512 Ans.
625
 16
Illustration 3 : Find the decimal representation of .
45
Sol. By long division, we have
45 160 0.3555
135
250
225
250
225
250
225
25
16
 = 0.355 ... = 0.35
45
 16
Hence, = – 0.35 . Ans.
45

Conversion of Decimal Numbers into Rational Numbers of the form p/q :

(i) Procedure for terminating decimal :
Step. 1 : Count the number of numerals to the right of the decimal point. Let it be m.
Step. 2 : Drop the decimal point and in the denominator write 1 followed by m zeros.
Step. 3 : Simplify the fraction.

Illustration 4 : Convert 6.225 to the form p/q.

Sol. 1. Number of numerals to the right of decimal is 3 i.e. m = 3.
6225
2. Write 6.225 =
1000
249
3. Simplify (divide the numerator and denominator by 25) = 6.225 =
40

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(ii) Conversion of Pure Recurring Decimal to the form p/q.

Step.1 : Obtain the repeating decimal and put it equal to x.
Step 2 : Write the number in decimal form by removing bar from the top of repeating digits and
listing repeating digits at least twice :
e.g. write x = 0.8 as x = 0.888 .........
Step 3 : Determine the no. of digits having bar on their heads.
Step 4 : If the repeating decimal has 1 place repetition, multiply by 10, a two place repetition,
multiply by 100, a three place repetition, multiply by 1000 and so on.
Step 5 : Subtract the number in step II from the numbers obtained in step IV.
Step 6 : Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of x.
Step 7 : Write the rational number in its simplest form.

Illustration 5 : Express 0.585 in the form p/q.

Sol. Let x = 0.585
x = 0.585585585 ................. .......(i)
Here, we have 3 repeating digits after the decimal point. So, we multiply
both sides of (i) by 103=1000 to get
1000 x = 585.585585 .............. .......(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
1000 x – x = (585.585585 ..........) - (0.585585...)
585
999 x = 585  x=
999

(iii) Conversion of a Mixed Recurring Decimal to the form p/q.

Step 1 : Obtain the mixed recurring decimal and write it equal to x.
Step 2 : Determine the number of digits after the decimal point which do not have bar on them.
Let there be n digits without bar just after the decimal point.
Step 3 : Multiply both sides of x by 10n, so that only the repeating decimal is on the right side of
the decimal point.
Step 4 : Use the method of converting pure recurring decimal to the form p/q and obtain the
value of x.

Illustration 6 : Express 0.225 in the form p/q.

Sol. Let x = 0.225 .......(i)
The no of digits after the decimal point which do not have bar on them is 2.
 Multiply both sides of x by 102.
100 x = 22.5 .......(ii)
Here, we have 1 repeating digit after the decimal point. So, multiply both sides of (ii)
by 10 to get.
1000 x = 225.55 ............. .......(iii)
Subtracting (ii) from (iii)
1000 x – 100 x = (225.55......) – (22.55......)
203
900 x = 203  x = .
900
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1.3 IRRATIONAL NUMBERS :

A number is an irrational number, if it has a non terminating and non-repeating decimal representations.
A number that cannot be put in the form p/q where p, q are integers and q  0 is called irrational number.
e.g. 2, 3 , 11 ,  etc.

Illustration 7 : Prove that 5 is an irrational number..

Sol. Let us assume on the contrary that 5 is a rational number. Then, there exist
co-prime positive integers a and b such that
a
5 =  5b2 = a2
b
 5 | a2 [ 5 | 5b2 ]
 5|a ......(i)
 a = 5c for some positive integer c
 a2 = 25c2
 5b2 = 25c2 [ a2 = 5c2]
 b2 = 5c2
 5 | b2 [ 5 | 5c2]
 5|b ........(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we find that a and b have at least 5 as a common factor. This
contradicts the fact that a and b are co-prime.
Hence, 5 is an irrational number..

Illustration 8 : Prove that 3  2 is an irrational number..

Sol. If possible, let 3  2 be a rational number equal to x.
Then, x = 3 2

 x2 =  3 2 
2

 x2 = 3 + 2 – 2 3 2
 x2 = 5 – 2 6
 x2 – 5 =  2 6
5  x2
 = 6
2
Now, x is rational
 x2 is rational
5  x
 is rational
2
 6 is rational.
But, 6 is irrational.
Thus, we arrive at a contradiction. So, our supposition that 3  2 is rational, is wrong.
Hence, 3  2 is an irrational number. Ans.

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REMEMBER
Some Properties of irrational numbers :
(a) The –ve of an irrational number is an irrational number.
(b) The sum of a rational and an irrational number is an irrational number.
(c) The product of a non–zero rational number with an irrational number is always an irrational number.

1.4 REAL NUMBERS :

The collection of real numbers consists of all the rational and irrational numbers and is denoted by R.
Every real number corresponds to a point on the line and conversely, every point on the number line
represents a real number.

REMEMBER
Properties of all real numbers :
(a) Closure property of addition :
The sum of two real numbers is always a real number.
(b) Commutative law for addition :
a + b = b + a,  real numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’.
(c) Associative law for addition :
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
 real numbers a, b and c.
(d) Existence of additive identity :
Zero is the additive identity.
a + 0 = 0 + a = a, real numbers a.
(e) Existence of addition inverse :
For each real number 'a', there exists a real number '–a' such that a + (–a) = (–a) + a = 0.
(f) Closure property for multiplication :
The product of two real numbers is a real number.
(g) Commutative law of multiplication :
ab = ba,  real numbers a and b.
(h) Associative law of multiplication :
(ab)c = a(bc),  real numbers a, b and c.
(i) Existence of multiplicative identity :
1 is called the multiplicative identity.
1.a = a.1 = a,  real numbers a.
(j) Existence of multiplicative inverse :
1
Every non–zero real number 'a' has its multiplicative inverse .
a
(k) Distributive law of multiplication over addition :
a(b + c) = ab + ac,  real numbers a, b and c.

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Important

"Zero is a real number which has no multiplicative inverse".

KEY CONCEPTS
1.5 TEST OF DIVISIBILITY :
Divisibility by Divisibility Rule

2 The unit digit of the number must be even

3 The sum of digits of the number must be divisible by 3

4 The number formed by last two digits of the given number must be divisible by 4

5 The unit digit of the number must be 0 or 5.

6 The given number must be divisible by 2 and 3.

7 Subtract two times of the unit digit from the number formed by excluding the unit digit
from the given number, then the result obtained must be 0 or divisible by 7.

8 The number formed by last three digits of given number must be divisible by 8

9 The sum of digits of the given number must be divisible by 9

11 The difference between the sums of the digits at even and odd places must be zero or
multiple of 11

12 The number must be divisible by 3 & 4.

13 Add four times of the unit digit to the given number formed by excluding unit digit,
then the result obtained must be divisible by 13.

17 Subtract five times of the unit digit from the number formed by excluding the unit digit
from the given number then the result must be 0 or divisible by 17.

19 Add two times of the unit digit to the given number formed by excluding unit digit,
then the result obtained must be divisible by 19.

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1.6 RADICALS :
An expression written under a radical sign is called a radical expression. The radicand is the number
under the radical.
A surd is the simplest type of irrational number, one whose radicand is a rational number.
1
e.g. 5 , 3 7 and are surds whereas 3 5  2 and 3 are not surds.
3
The order of a surd is indicated by its index.
The order of a radical is the denominator of its fractional exponent.
e.g., n a is the surd of nth order..
(i) Pure surd : A surd in which the whole of the rational number is under the radical sign. & makes
the radicand, is called pure surd.
e.g. 8 , 3 1 5 , 4 1 1 etc.
(ii) Mixed surd : If some part of the quantity under the radical sign is taken out of it then it makes the
surd mixed.
e.g. 34 2 , 4 2 etc.
(iii) Like surds (Similar surds) : The surds having the same irrational factor are called similar surds.
2
e.g. 3, 5 3, 3 are like surds.
5
(iv) Unlike surds : The surds having different irrational factor are called dissimilar surds.
e.g. 2 , 2 3 , 2 5 are unlike surds.

KEY CONCEPTS
Laws of Radicals :
If a, b are positive rational numbers and m, n, p are positive integers, then
(i) a0 = 1 (ii) ( n a ) n  a , n
an  a =  an
n
(iii)  a (
n n
b )  n ab
n
a n a
(iv) n
 (v) m n
a = mn
a = n m
a (vi) n p 1/n
a p = (a ) = mn
a pm
b b
1
(vi) a– n =
an

Illustration 9 : Convert :
(i) 4 1875 into mixed surd. (ii) 35 7 into pure surd.
Sol. (i) 4
We have 1875 = 5 × 3
4
1875 = 4 54  3 = 54 3
(ii) 35 7 = 5 35  7 = 5
243  7 = 5 1701

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3 / 4
 81   25  3 / 2  5  3 
Illustration 10 : Simplify :        
 16   9   2  
Sol. We have,
3 / 4
 81   25  3 / 2  5  3   34  3 / 4  52  3 / 2 3 
        =     5 
  2  
 16   9   2    2 4   3  2 
 
3 / 4 3 / 2
 3  4   5  2   5  3   3  4  3 / 4  5  2  3 / 2  5  3 
=  2           =        
    3    2    2   3   2  

3
3  5  3  5  3  3 3 3
 2   3   2   23  33 23 
=  2    3    2   =  3    5    5   = 3   3  3 
              3  5 5 

23  33 53 
= 3   3  3  = 1. Ans.
3 5 2 

Illustration 11 : If x, y, z are positive real numbers show that :

x 1y · y 1z · z 1x = 1
Sol. We have,
x 1y · y 1z · z 1x
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
y z x y z x y1 / 2 z1 / 2 x1 / 2
= · · =      = 1 / 2 · 1 / 2 · 1 / 2 = 1. Ans.
x y z x  y z x y z

1.7 RATIONALISATION OF DENOMINATOR :

Sometimes we come across expressions containing square root in their denominators. Addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of such expressions is convenient if their denominators are free
from square roots. To make the denominators free from square roots, we multiply the numerator and
denominator by an irrational number. Such a number is called rationlisation factor.

1
Illustration 12 : Rationalise the denominator of
3 2
Sol. We have,
1 1 3 2 3 2 3 2
= × = =
3 2 3 2 3 2 92 7

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Illustration 13 : If both a and b are rational numbers, find the values of a and b.
5 3
= a + b 15
5 3
Sol. Rationalising the denominator, we get

5 3
=
5 3
×
5 3
=
 2
5 3
5 3 5 3 5 3  5 2   3 2
5 3  5   3  2 5 
2 2
3
 =
5 3  5   3 2 2

5 3 5  3 2 53 8  2 15
 = = = 4  15
5 3 53 53

5 3
 = a + b 15  4 + 15 = a + b 15  a = 4 and b = 1. Ans.
5 3

1
Illustration 14 : If x = 3 – 2 2 , find x 2  .
x2
Sol. We have, x = 3 – 2 2

1 1 1 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2
 = = × = 2 = = 3 2 2 .
x 32 2 32 2 3 2 2 3  2 2   2
98

1
Thus, x2 
x2

= 3 2 2 2  3 2 2   2

1
 x2 
x2
= 32  2 2   2
– 2 × 3 × 2 2 + 32 + 2 2   2
+2×3× 2 2

1
 x2  = 9 + 8 – 12 2 + 9 + 8 + 12 2 = 34. Ans.
x2

1 1 1
Illustration 15 : Show that : b a ca + a b c b + b c =1
1 x x 1 x x 1 x  x a c
Sol. We have,
1 1 1
= b a ca + a b c b + b c
1 x x 1 x x 1 x  x a c

xa xb xc
= + +
x a  x b a  a  x c  a  a x b  x a b b  x c b  b x c  x b c  c  x a c  c
[ Multiplying Nr and Dr of three terms by xa, xb and xc respectively]
xa xb xc
= a b c + b a c + c b
x x x x x x x  x  xa

x a  xb  xc
= =1
x a  xb  xc

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3 2 4 3 2 3
Illustration 16 : Simplify : – +
6 3 6 2 62

3 2 4 3 2 3
Sol.   = T1 – T2 + T3 (say)
6 3 6 2 62

3 2 6 3 3 2 ( 6  3)
T1 = × =
6 3 6 3 63

= 2 ( 6  3)

= 2 3 6

4 3 6 2 4 18  4 6
T2 = × =
6 2 6 2 62

4(3 2  6 )
= = 3 2 6
4

T3 =
2 3
×
6 2
=
2 3 6 2 
= 3 2 2 3

62 6 2 64
 Given expression = T1 – T2 + T3
= 2 3 + 6 – 3 2 – 6 + 3 2– 2 3 = 0

a  2b  a  2b
Illustration 17 : If x = , then show that bx2 – ax + b = 0
a  2b  a  2b
a  2b  a  2b a  2b  a  2b
Sol. x= x
a  2b  a  2b a  2b  a  2b

=
 a  2b  a  2b  2

=
a  2b  a  2b  2 ( a  2b)(a  2b)
( a  2b)  (a  2b) 4b

2( a  ( a 2  4b 2 )
x=
2  2b
2 bx = a + ( a 2  4b 2 )  2bx – a = ( a 2  4b 2 )
On squaring both sides, we get :
 4b2x2 + a2 – 4abx = a2 – 4b2
or 4b2x2 – 4abx + 4b2 = 0
Dividing by 4b , we get, bx2 – ax + b = 0
Hence the result.

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Illustration 18 : Find the square root of 2  3 .

Sol. Let 2 3 = x y

2  3 = x + y + 2 xy (By squaring both sides.)

Now comparing the parts of both sides,
x+y=2 ........ (1)
2 xy = 3 ........ (2)
or 4xy = 3 ........ (3)
(By squaring both sides of equation 2.)
we know that
(x – y)2 = (x + y)2 – 4xy
(x – y)2 = 4 – 3
(x – y)2 = 1
x–y=1 ........ (4)
On solving equations (1) and (4), we get
3 1
x= , y=
2 2
Since 2 3 = x y

 3 1
=  2  2
 

 1 
=   3 1 
 2 
1
2 3 = 
2

1 3 

1.8 TO FIND THE NUMBER OF DIVISORS OF A COMPOSITE NUMBER :

IMPORTANT FORMULAE
Let N denotes a natural number such that
N = ap bq cr ........, where a, b, c, ....... are different prime numbers and p, q, r, ....... are positive
integers, then
(i) n = The number of divisors of N = (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) .......
Note : This includes as divisors, both unity and the number itself.
 a p  1  1   bq  1  1   c r  1  1 
(ii) The sum of divisors of N =   
  b  1   c  1  ......

 a  1   
n
(iii) The product of divisors of N = ( N ) 2 , where n is the total number of divisors of N.

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Illustration 19 : If a number N = 30 then, find

(i) The number of divisors of N
(ii) The sum of divisors of N
(iii) The product of divisors of N
Sol. Prime factorisation of 30 = 21 × 31 × 51
(i) Let n = the number of divisors of 30 = (1 + 1) (1 + 1) (1 + 1) = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.
and these divisors are : 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30
 21  1  1   31  1  1   51  1  1 
(ii) The sum of divisors of 30 =  2  1   3  1   5  1 
   
 2 2  1   32  1   52  1 
=  1   2   4 
   
8 24
=3× ×
2 4
= 9 × 8 = 72.
(iii) Product of divisors of 30 = (N)n/2 = (30)8/2 = (30)4 = 810000.

1.9 ABSOLUTE VALUE OR MODULUS OF A RATIONAL NUMBER :

1. The absolute value of a rational number is the number without any regard to its sign.
Thus, for any rational number x,
 x, if x  0

The absolute value of x = x   0, if x  0
 x, if x  0
2. |x + y|  |x| + |y|, where x and y are rational numbers.
3. |x × y| = |x| × |y|, where x and y are rational numbers.
4. |x – y|  |x| – |y|, where x and y are rational numbers.

REMEMBER
5. Modulus of a real number given by |x|.
(i) If |x| = a  x=±a
(ii) If |x| < a  –a<x<a
(iii) If |x| > a  x > a or x < – a
(iv) If |x – a| < l  a–l<x<a+l
(v) If |x – a| > l  x > a + l or x < a – l

Illustration 20 : Find the value of x, when x – 3 | x | = – 4 is simplified

Sol.
(i) If x  0, then | x | = x and given equation becomes x – 3x = – 4 or – 2x = – 4.
x = + 2.
(ii) If x < 0, then | x | = – x and given equation becomes,
x – 3(– x) = – 4
x + 3x = – 4
4x = – 4
x = – 1.
Therefore, x = 2 or – 1. Ans.

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1.10 HCF AND LCM OF FRACTIONS :

Note : Make sure that the fractions are in the most reducible form.
HCF of their numerators
(1) HCF of fractions = .
LCM of their denominato rs

9 3 6
Illustration 21 : Find HCF of , and .
2 4 7

9 3 6 HCF (9, 3, 6) 3
Sol. HCF  , ,  = = .
2 4 7 LCM ( 2, 4, 7) 28

LCM of their numerators

(2) LCM of fractions = .
HCF of their denominato rs

9 3 6
Illustration 22 : Find LCM of , and .
2 4 7

9 3 6 LCM (9, 3, 6) 18
Sol. LCM  , ,  = = = 18.
2 4 7 HCF ( 2, 4, 7) 1

1.11 TO FIND UNIT DIGIT IN EXPONENTIAL EXPRESSION :

Cyclicity : In number system, every number repeats its unit digit after some definite number of powers.

For example
1 repeat its unit digit after every consecutive power. So the cyclicity of 1 is 1.
2 repeat its unit digit after every four powers. So the cylicity of of 2 is 4.

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REMEMBER
Cyclicity chart :

Unit digit in Possible unit digit in the number xn Cyclicity of unit

the number x (where n is positive integer) digit in the number x
0 0 1
1 1 1
2 2, 4, 8, 6 4
3 3, 9, 7, 1 4
4 4, 6 2
5 5 1
6 6 1
7 7, 9, 3, 1 4
8 8, 4, 2, 6 4
9 9, 1 2

Illustration 23 : Find the unit digit in 347.

Sol. Cyclicity of 3 is 4,
47
Remainder of is 3.
4
In cyclicity chart, the possible unit digit in 3n at 3rd place is 7, so the unit digit in 347 is 7.

1.12 DIVISIBILITY :
A non zero integer ‘a’ is said to divide an integer ‘b’ if there exists an integer ‘c’ such that b = ac
The integer ‘b’ is called the dividend, integer ‘a’ is known as the divisor and integer ‘c’ is known as
the quotient. For example, 3 divides 36 because there is an integer 12 such that 36 = 3 × 12.
However, 3 does not divide 35 because there do not exist an integer ‘c’ such that 35 = 3 × c. In other
words, 35 = 3 × c is not true for any integer 'c'.
Note: If a non zero integer ‘a’ divides an integer ‘b’, then we write a | b. This is read as “a divides b”.
When a | b, we say that ‘b is divisible by a’ or ‘a is a factor of b’ or ‘b is a multiple of a’ or ‘a is divisor of
b’.

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REMEMBER
Some Properties of Divisibility
(i) ±1 divides every non-zero integer.
(ii) 0 does not divide any integer.
(iii) If a is a non zero integer and b is any integer, then a | b  a | –b, –a | b and –a | –b.
(iv) If a and b are non-zero integers, then
a | b and b | a  a = ± b
(v) If a is a non-zero integer and b,c are any two integers, then
a | b  c

a | b and a | c  a | bc
a | bx for any integer x

(vi) If a and c are non zero integers and b,d are any two integers, then
(a) a | b and c | d  ac | bd
(b) ac | bc  a | b

IMPORTANT

1.13 EUCLID’S DIVISION LEMMA

(a) Euclid’s division Lemma: Let a and b be any two positive integers. Then, there exist unique q
and r such that :
a = bq + r, 0  r < b
If b | a, then r = 0, otherwise, r satisfies the strict inequality.
0<r<b

Highest Common Factor (HCF) : HCF of two or more numbers is the largest number that divides all
the given numbers completely.
It is also called the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD).

Lowest or least Common Multiple (LCM) : The LCM of two or more numbers is the smallest number
which is multiple of each of the numbers or in other words the LCM of two or more numbers is the
smallest number which is divisible by all the given numbers.

Illustration 24 : Show that any positive odd integer is of the form 6q + 1 or, 6q + 3 or,
6q + 5, where q is some integer.
Sol. Let 'a' be any positive integer and b = 6. Then, by Euclid's division lemma there
exists integers 'a' and 'r' such that
a = 6q + r, where 0  r < 6.
 a = 6q or, a = 6q + 1 or, a = 6q + 2 or, a = 6a + 3 or, a = 6q + 4 or, a = 6q + 5.
[  0  r < 6 r = 0, 1,2,3,4,5]
 a = 6q + 1 or, a = 6q + 3 or, a = 6q + 5.
[ a is an odd integer,  6q, a  6q + 2, a  6q + 4]
Hence, any odd integer is of the form 6q + 1 or, 6q + 3 or, 6q + 5.

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Illustration 25 : Use Euclid's division algorithm to find the HFC of 4052 and 12576.
Sol. Given integers are 4052 and 12576 such that 12576 > 4052. Applying Euclid's division lemma to
12576 and 4052.
 12576 = 4052 × 3 + 420
 4052 = 420 × 9 + 272
 420 = 272 × 1 + 148
 272 = 148 × 1 + 124
 148 = 124 × 1 + 24
 124 = 24 × 5 + 4
 24 = 4 × 6 + 0
We observe that the remainder at this stage is zero. Therefore, the divisor at this stage i.e. 4(or the
remainder at the earlier stage) is the HCF of 4052 and 12576.

REMEMBER
Properties of HCF and LCM of given numbers

(i) The HCF of given numbers is not greater than any of two numbers.

(ii) The LCM of given numbers is not less than any of given numbers.

(iii) The HCF of given numbers is always factor of their LCM

(iv) The HCF of two coprime numbers is 1.

(v) The LCM of two or more coprime numbers is equal to their product.

IMPORTANT FORMULAE
(i) If a and b are two positive integers then
a × b = HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b)

(ii) If a, b,c are positive integers

a.b.c. HCF a , b, c 
LCM (a, b, c) =
HCF a , b . HCF b, c . HCF c, a 

a.b.c. LCM a , b, c 
HCF (a, b, c) =
LCM a , b . LCM b, c . LCM c, a 

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Illustration 26 : If the HCF of 210 and 55 is expressible in the form 210 × 5 + 55 y,

find y.
Sol. Applying Euclid's division lemma on 210 and 55, we get
 210 = 55 × 3 + 45
 55 = 45 × 1 + 10
 45 = 4 × 10 + 5
 10 = 5 × 2 + 0
We observe that the remainder at this stage is zero. So, the last divisor i.e. 5 is the
HCF of 210 and 55.
 5 = 210 × 5 + 55y
 55y = 5 – 210 × 5 = 5 – 1050
 55y = – 1045
1045
 y= = – 19.
55

Illustration 27 : Find the largest number which divides 245 and 1029 leaving remainder 5 in each case.
Sol. Given that the required number which divides 245 and 1029, the remainder is 5 in each case.
This means 245 – 5 = 240 and 1029 – 5 = 1024 are completely divisible by the required number.
Now is common factor of 240 and 1024,
Let us now find the HCF of 240 and 1024 by Euclid's algorithm.

3 240 1024 4
192 960

3 48 64 1
48 48
0 16
(Remainder) (HCF)

Clearly, HCF of 240 and 1024 is the last divisor i.e., 16.
Hence, required number = 16.

 Prime factorization method to find HCF

Step–1 : Find prime factorisation of each of the given number.
Step–2 : Identify common prime factors.
Step–3 : Find the product of all the common prime factors, using each common prime factor the
least number of times it appears in the prime factorisation of any of the given numbers.
The product so obtained is the required HCF.

 Prime factorization method to find LCM

Step–1 : Write the prime factorisation of each of the given numbers.
Step–2 : Find the product of all different prime factors of the numbers using each common prime
factor the highest number of times it appears in the prime factorisation of any of the
numbers. The product so obtained is the required LCM of the given number.
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KEY CONCEPTS
Euclid’s Division Alogrithm :

Algorithm: An algorithm is a series of well defined steps which provide a procedure of calculation repeated
successively on the results of earlier steps till the desired result is obtained.
Euclid’s division algorithm is an algorithm to compute the highest common factor (HCF) of two given
positive integers.

IMPORTANT
Some Important Results

(i) If b is a factor of a, then HCF of (a,b) = b which is simply written as (a,b) = b.

(ii) If a = q.b+r, r < b then HCF of (a,b) = HCF of (b, r) or (a,b) = (b,r)
(iii) If (a,b) = 1 and bc is divisible by a, then c is divisible by a. This is known as Gauss’s Theorem.
(iv) If a and b are primes and a | bc  a | c
(v) The HCF(d) of two positive integers a and b can be expresed as a linear combination of a and
b i.e.d = xa + yb for some integers x and y. Also this representation is not unique.

Illustration 28 : Determine the prime factorization of the number 13915.

Sol. Using the prime factorization tree, we have

13915

5 2783

11 253

11 23

 13915 = 5 × 11 × 11 × 23 = 5 × 111 × 23. Ans.

Illustration 29 : Prove that there is no natural number for which 4n ends with the digit zero.
Sol. We know that any positive integer ending with the digit zero is divisible by 5 and so its prime
factorization must contain the prime 5.
We have,
4n = (22)n = 22n
 The only prime in the factorization of 4n is 2.
 There is no other primes in the factorization of 4n = 22n
 5 does not occur in the prime factorization of 4n for any.
 4n does not end with the digit zero for any natural number.

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1.14 THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ARITHMETIC :

REMEMBER
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) :
Every composite number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes and this factorisation is
unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occurs.
The prime factorisation of a natural number is unique except the order of its factors.
Let x be a composite number we factorise it as x = p1 × p2 × p3....pn, where p1, p2...pn are primes and
written in ascending order i.e. p1  p2  p3...pn. If we combine we will get powers of primes.

Theorem :
Let p be a prime number and a be positive integer. If p divides a2 then p also divides a

1.15 DETERMINING THE NATURE OF THE DECIMAL EXPANSION OF

RATIONAL NUMBERS :

We have studied that the decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non terminating
repeating (or recurring) without knowing when it is terminating and when it is non-terminating repeating.
Here in this section we will explore exactly when the decimal expansion of a rational number is terminating
and when it is non terminating repeating.

REMEMBER
Theorem :
Let x be a rational number whose decimal expansion terminates. Then x can be expressed in the form
p/q where p and q are coprimes and the prime factorisation of q is of the form 2m × 5n where m and n
are non negative integers.

Theorem :
Let x = p/q be a rational number such that the prime factorization of q is the form of 2m × 5n where m and
n are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which terminates.

Theorem :
Let x = p/q be a rational number such that prime factorization of q is not of the form 2m × 5n where m
and n are non negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which is non-terminating repeating.

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Illustration 30 : Find the HCF and LCM of 144, 180 and 192 by prime factorization
method.
Sol. Using the factor tree for the prime factorization of 144, 180 and 192,
we have
144 = 24 × 32, 180 = 22 × 32 × 5 and 192 = 26 × 3
Common prime factors and their smallest exponents in 144, 180 and 192 as follows :
Common prime factors Least exponents
2 2
3 1
 HCF = 22 × 31 = 12
Prime factors of 144, 180, 192 and their greatest exponents as follows :
Prime factors of 144, 180 and 192 Greatest exponents
2 6
3 2
5 1
 6 2 1
LCM = 2 × 3 × 5 = 64 × 9 × 5 = 2880.

Illustration 31 : In a seminar, the number of participants in Hindi, English and Mathematics are 60, 84
and 108 respectively. Find the minimum number of rooms required if in each rooms required if in each
room the same number of participlants are to be seated and all of them being in the same subject.
Sol. The number of participants in each room must be the HCF of 60, 84 and 108
Prime factorizations of 60, 84 and 108
60 = 22 × 3 × 5, 84 = 22 × 3 × 7 and 108 = 22 × 33
 HCF of 60, 80 and 108 is 22 × 3 = 12
Therefore, in each room 12 participants can be seated.
Total number of participants 60  84  108 252
 Number of rooms required = = = = 21.
12 12 12

Illustration 32 : Without actually performing the long division, state whether the following rational
numbers will have terminating decimal expansion or a non-terminating repeating decimal expansion.
Also, find the number of places of decimals after which the decimal expansion terminates.
13 23
(i) (ii)
3125 2352
Sol.
13 13
(i) We have, = 0 5
3125 2 5
13
This shows that the prime factorization of the denominator of is of the form 2m × 5n.
3125
Hence, it has terminating decimal expansion which terminates after 5 places of decimals.
23
(ii) Prime factorization of the denominator of is of the form 2m × 5n. So, it has terminating
2  52
3

decimal expansion which terminates after 3 places of decimals.

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SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find two irrational number between 0.12 and 0.13
Solution
0.1201001000100001............., 0.12101001000100001.............

Example 2
9 n  32  3n – (27) n 1
If 3 5 3 = . Find the value of ‘n’.
(3 )  2 27
Solution
32 n  2 n – 33n 1 33n (9 – 1) 1
=  =  33n–15 = 3–3
315  23 27 315  23 27
 3n – 15 = –3  3n = 12  n=4

Example 3
A-5 digit number abcde is such that the 6-digit number abcde1 is the product of the 6-digit number
1abcde and 3. The sum of the digits of the number abcde is -
Solution
A.T.Q.
abcde1 = 1abcde × 3
i.e.
a × 105 + b × 104 + c × 103 + d × 102 + e × 10 + 1 = 3 × [1 × 105 + a × 104 + b × 103 + c × 102 + d × 10 + e ]
a × 104 (10 – 3) + b × 103(10 – 3) + c × 102(10 – 3) + d × 10(10 – 3) + e (10 – 3) + 1 – 3 × 105 = 0
3  105  1
a × 104 + b × 103 + c × 102 + d × 101 + e =
7
abcde = 42857
 a + b + c + d + e = 4 + 2 + 8 + 5 + 7 = 26

Example 4
Seven Oranges weigh the same as four Apples and five Apples weigh the same as six Guava. Which of
the following gives the description of the fruits in increasing order of weights ?
Solution
7Or = 4A = k
5A = 6G
k
Or =
7
k
A=
4
5 5 k 5k
G= A = × =
6 6 4 24
LCM of 7, 4, 24 is 168
Or : A : G
k k 5k
: :
7 4 24
= 24k : 42k : 35k
= 24 : 42 : 35
 O < G <A
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Example 5
What least number must be subtracted from 16160 to get a perfect square ? Also find the square root
of this perfect square.
Solution
Let us try to find the square root of 16160.

This shows that (127)2 is less than 16160 by 31. So in order to get a perfect square, 31 must be
subtracted from the given number.
 Required perfect square number = (16160 – 31) = 16129
Also, 16129 = 127

Example 6
Find the square root of 3 + 2 .
Solution

Let 3  2 = p + q
3 + 2 = p + q + 2 pq [By squaring both sides]
by equating the parts
p+q=3 ...(i)

 2 pq = 2 ...(ii)
 4pq = 2 ...(iii) [By squaring both sides of (ii)]
 2 2
(p – q) = (p + q) – 4 pq
 (p – q)2 = 9 – 2
 (p – q)2 = 7
 p–q= 7 ...(iv)
 p+q=3 [By eqn (i)]
1
 p=
2

3 7  [On adding (i) & (iv)]
1
 q=
2
3 7  [On subtracting (i) & (iv)]
1  3  7  3  7 
 3 2 = 
2  
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Example 7
Find the least number which must be subtracted from 2509 to make it a perfect square.
Solution
Let us find the square root of 2509.
50
25 09
5
– 25
00 09
100
– 00 00
100 09

So 2509 is 9 more than the square of 50 so 09 must be substracted to make it. a perfect square.

Example 8
If the number 357 * 25 * is divisible by both 3 and 5, then the missing digit in the unit’s place and the
thousandth place respectively are :
Solution
Let the required number be 357y25x.
Then, for divisibility by 5, we must have x = 0 or x = 5.
Case I When x = 0.
Then, sum of digits = (22 + y). For divisibility by 3, (22 + y) must be divisible by 3.
 y = 2 or 5 or 8.
 Number are (0, 2) or (0, 5) or (0, 8)
Case II When x = 5.
Then, sum of digits = (27 + y). For divisibility by 3, we must have y = 0 or 3 or 6 or 9.
 Numbers are (5, 0) or (5, 3) or (5, 6) or (5, 9).

Example 9
Which of the following numbers  2 , 3 0.8 , 4 0.00016 , 3  1, 0.001 is/are rational ?
Solution
(A) =  (irrational no.) (B) 3
2 0. 8
(C) 4
0.00016 (D) 3
 1 = –1 (rational no. )

(E) 0.001 = 1/ 1000 = 0.1 / 10 ( irrational no.)

Example 10
5 3
If = 47a + 3 b then find the value of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
74 3
Solution
Taking L.H.S
5 3 74 3 (5  3 )(7  4 3 )
= × = = 35 + 12 + 20 3 + 7 3
74 3 74 3 49  48

= 47 + 27 3 = 47a + 27 3 [Given]
Hence a = 1 and b = 27
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Example 11
Find the value of :
1 1 1 1 1
– + – + .
3 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 2

Solution
 1 3  8   1 8  7   1 7 6   1 6 5   1 5  2 
         
–
3 8 3 8   8  7  + 
8 7  7 6 7 6 – 6  5 6 5
+
  5 2 5  2 
      

 3 8   8  7   7  6   6  5   5  2
=  –
  8  7  +  7  6  –   – 
 9  8     6  5   54 
    
=3+ 8 – 8 – 7 + 7 + 6 – 6 – 5 + 5 +2
= 5.

Example 12
1 3 1
Three pieces of cakes of weights 4 Ibs, 6 Ibs and 7 Ibs respectively are to be
2 4 5
divided into parts of equal weights. Further, each must be as heavy as possible. If one such part is served
to each guest, then what is the maximum number of guests that could be entertained ?
Solution
 9 27 36  HCF (9, 27, 36) 9
HCF  , ,  = LCM (2, 4, 5) = Ibs = weight of each piece.
 2 4 5  20

9 27 36
Total weight =   = 18.45
2 4 5
18.45  20
Maximum no. of guests = = 41.
9

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-I [NCERT Question]

Q.1 Use Euclid's division algorithm to find the HCF of 196 and 38220.
Sol. 38220 = 196 × 195 + 0
Therefore, HCF (196, 38220) = 196. Ans.

Q.2 Find the HCF and LCM of 6, 72 and 120, using the prime factorization method.
2 6 2 72 2 120
Sol. 3 3 3 36 2 60
1 2 18 2 30
3 9 3 15
3 3 5 5
1 1
6=2×3 HCF (6, 72, 120) = 2 × 3 = 6.
72 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 LCM (6, 72, 120) = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 360. Ans.
120 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5

Q.3 Express each number as a product of its prime factors :

(i) 3825 (ii) 5005
Sol. Prime factorization of 3825 & 5005 are :
(i) 3 3825 (ii) 5 5005
3 1275 7 1001
5 425 11 143
5 85 13 13
17 17 1
1
3825 = 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 17 Ans. 5005 = 5 × 7 × 11 × 13. Ans.

Q.4 Find the LCM and HCF of the following integers by applying the prime factorization method
17, 23 and 29
Sol. LCM = 17 × 23 × 29 = 11339
HCF = 1. Ans.

Q.5 Given that HCF (306, 657) = 9, find LCM (306, 657).
Sol. HCF = (306, 657) × LCM (306, 657) = 306 × 657
or 9 × LCM (306, 657) = 306 × 657
306 657
LCM (306, 657) = = 22338. Ans.
9

Q.6 Check whether 6n can end with the digit 0 for any natural number n.
Sol. Let for any natural number n. Then number 6n ends with 0, then 6n will be divisible by 5.
But 6n = (2 × 3) n
The prime factors of 6 are 2 and 3.
In prime factorisation of 6n, there is no factor 5. Therefore 6n is not divisible by 5 and there does not exist
any natural number n for which 6n ends with zero. Ans.

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

Q.7 Explain why 7 × 11 × 13 + 13 and 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 5 are composite numbers.

Sol. 7 × 11 × 13 + 13 = 13(7 × 11 × 1 + 1)
= 13 × (77 + 1)
= 13 × 78
= It is a composite number.
7 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 5 = 5 (7 × 6 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 1)
= 5 × (1008 + 1)
= 5 × 1009 = It is a composite number. Ans.

Q.8 Prove that 3  2 5 is irrational.

Sol. Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3  2 5 is a rational number..
a
Now, 3 2 5 = , (where a and b are integers, b  0 and a and b are coprime.)
b
a
 2 5 = –3
b
a 3
5 = –
2b 2
 a and b are integers
a 3
  is a rational number..
2b 2
 5 is rational number..
But 5 is an irrational number. This shows that our assumption is incorrect. Therefore, 3  2 5 is irrational
number. Ans.

Q.9 Without actually performing the long division, state whether the following rational numbers will
have a terminating decimal expansion or a non-terminating repeating decimal expansion:
13 23 129 77
(i) (ii) 23 52 (iii) 22 5775 (iv)
3125 210
13
Sol. (i)
3125
we have, denominator = 3125 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 55 = 20 × 55 = 2m × 5n.
13
Therefore, must have a terminating decimal expansion.
3125
23
3 2 m n
(ii) 2 52 = denometor = 2 5 = 2 × 5
3

23
Therefore, must have a terminating.
2352
129
2 7 5 m n
(iii) 2 5775 denominator = 2 5 7  2 × 5 . (Non-terminating).
2

77 11
(iv) = denominator = 30 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7  2m × 5n (Non-terminating). Ans.
210 30

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-II [Previous Year Question]

Multiple Choice Questions with one correct answer :
Q.1 The product of the additive inverse and multiplication inverse of 6 is :
1
(A) –6 (B) 1 (C) –1 (D)
6

Q.2 The value of 3 3 3 3 3....... is :

(A) 0 (B) 3 (C) Both 0 and 3 (D) Can't be determined

Q.3 Which of the following statements is correct?

(A) 0 is called the additive identity for rational numbers.
(B) 1 is called the multiplicative identity for rational numbers.
(C) The additive inverse of 0 is zero itself.
(D) All the above.

Q.4 The value of 80  45 is :

(A) 35 (B) 5 (C) 4 5 
(D) 4 5  3 
Q.5 The number 311 – 38 is divisible by prime numbers:
(A) 2 and 3 only (B) 2, 3 and 11 only (C) 311 only (D) 2, 3 and 13 only

Q.6 Find the unit digit in 13274 – (3498)49 :

(A) 6 (B) 0 (C) 4 (D) 2

Q.7 Which of the following alternatives is wrong? Given that :

(i) Difference of two rational numbers is a rational number.
(ii) Subtraction is commutative on rational numbers
(iii) Addition is not commutative on rational numbers.
(A) (ii) & (iii) (B) (i) only (C) (i) & (iii) (D) All the above

2 1 3 5
Q.8 The average of the middle two rational numbers if , , , are arranged in ascending order is :
5 2 4 7
5 9 39 17
(A) (B) (C) (D)
4 10 35 28

Q.9 Which is smallest among :

10  3 11 , 18  5 13 and 51 10 26
(A) 10  3 11 (B) 18  5 13 (C) 51 10 26 (D) All are equal

Q.10 The greater between 19  14 and 12  7

(A) 19  14 (B) 12  7 (C) Both are equal (D) Can't say

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

Q.11 The smallest among 2

2 , 3
4 and 4
3 is :
(A) 2
2 (B) 4
3 (C) 3
4 (D) Can't compare

Q.12 A number that has to be added to 9247653140 in order to make it divisible by 8 is :

(A) 2 (B) 8 (C) 6 (D) 4
Q.13 In order that the six digit number 1x0x3x be divisible by 11, the digit x should be :
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 4 (D) 5

Q.14 What are the values of x and y if 15x 0468913y is divisible by 8 and 11, where x and y are single digit
integers?
(A) x = 3, y = 6 (B) x = 6, y = 9 (C) x = 9, y = 12 (D) x = 0, y = 3

Q.15 What is the complete solution to the equation :

|3 – 4x| = 13 ?
5 5 5 5
(A) x = ,x=4 (B) x = ,x=–4 (C) x = – ,x=4 (D) x = – ,x=–4
2 2 2 2

Q.16 If x p  x p q , then p =
q
[Harayana NTSE Stage-1_2013]
1 1
q q 1
(A) q (B) 1 (C) qq (D) q

a
Q.17 The rationalizing factor of n is [Karnataka NTSE Stage-1_2014]
b

a a a n 1 a n 1
(A) ab n (B) n (C) n
(D) n
b b b n 1 b n 1
1 1 1
 x b  bc  x c  ca  x a  ab
Q.18 The value of  c    a 
   b  on simplifying is [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-1_2015]
x  x  x 

1
(A) x (B) (C) 1 (D) –1
x

Q.19 Which real number lies between 2 and 2.5 [Chandigarh NTSE Stage-1_2014]
3
(A) 11 (B) 8 (C) 7 (D) 3 9

Q.20 The HCF of any two prime numbers a and b is [Rajasthan NTSE Stage-1_2015]
(A) a (B) ab (C) b (D) 1

Q.21 The traffic lights at three different singals change after 48 seconds, 72 seconds and 108. If they change
at 7 a.m. simultaneously. How many times they will change between 7 a.m. to 7.30 a.m. simultaneously?
[Harayana NTSE Stage-1_2015]
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 2

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

Q.22 Which of the following is rational number? [IMO-2016]

(A) Sum of ( 2  3 ) and its reciprocal (B) Square root of 18
(C) Square root of 7  4 3 (D) None of these

Q.23 Expressing 0.23  0.23 as a single decimal, we get [NTSE-2016]

(A) 0.465 (B) 0.465 (C) 0.465 (D) 0.4654

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III

Section - A
Subjective Type Questions :
Q.1 Find the largest number that will divide 398, 436 and 542 leaving remainders 7, 11 and 15 respectively.
Q.2 Find the largest number that divides 2053 and 967 and leaves a remainder of 5 and 7 respectively.
Q.3 In a seminar, the number of participants in Hindi, English and Mathematics are 60, 84 and 108, respectively.
Find the minimum number of rooms required if in each room the same number of participants are to be
seated and all of them being in the same subject.
Q.4 Three sets of English, Hindi and Mathematics books have to be stacked in such a way that all the books are
stored topic wise and the height of each stack is the same. The number of English books is 96, the number
of Hindi books is 240 and the number of Mathematics books is 336. Assuming that the books are of the
same thickness, determine the number of stacks of English, Hindi and Mathematics books.

Q.5 Prove that 2  5 is irrational.

Q.6 Find the missing number in the following factorisation sequence.

5 11

Q.7 Find the largest number that divides 2053 and 967 leaves remainder of 5 and 7 respectively.
Q.8 Two tankers contains 850 litres and 680 litres of petrol respectively. Find the maximum capacity of a
container which can measure the petrol of either tank in exact number of times.
Q.9 The length, breadth and height of a room are 8 m 25 cm, 6 m 75 cm and 4m 50 cm respectively.
Determine the longest rod which can measure the three dimensions of the room exactly.
Q.10 If a number N= 126, then
Find : (i) The number of divisors of N. (ii) The sum of divisors of N.
(iii) The product of divisors of N. (iv) The number of distinct prime divisors.
(v) The number of proper divisors of N.

2 3 6
Q.11 Find the HCF of , and .
3 4 7

5 10 15
Q.12 Find the LCM of , and .
6 17 16

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

Section - B
Multiple choice questions with one correct answer :
Q.1 If the LCM of a and 18 is 36 and the HCF of a and 18 is 2, then a =
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 1
23
Q.2 The number of decimal places after which the decimal expansion of the rational number 2 will
2 5
terminate, is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Q.3 If n is a natural number, then 92n – 42n is always divisible by
(A) 5 (B) 13 (C) both 5 and 13 (D) None of these

Q.4 I f x 1/8 = m and x1/4 = n and n = 4 m, then find the value of x.

(A) 512 (B) 216 (C) 324 (D) 256

Q.5 The LCM of two numbers is 567 and their HCF is 9. If the difference between the two numbers is 18,
find the two numbers :
(A) 36 and 18 (B) 78 and 60 (C) 63 and 81 (D) 52 and 34

Q.6 If n is any natural number, then 6n – 5n always ends with

(A) 1 (B) 3 (C) 5 (D) 7

Q.7 The smallest number by which 27 should be multiplied so as to get a rational number is
(A) 27 (B) 3 3 (C) 3 (D) 3

Q.8 If a = 23 × 3, b = 2 × 3 × 5 and LCM (a, b, c) = 23 × 32 × 5, then c =

(A) 1 (B) 9 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q.9 Which of the following is a pair of coprimes?

(A) (14, 35) (B) (18,25) (C) {31,93} (D) (32,62)

Q.10 HCF of 23 × 32 × 5, 23 × 33 × 52 and 22 × 3 × 53 × 7 is

(A) 30 (B) 48 (C) 60 (D) 105

Q.11 The product of two numbers is 2160 and their GCD is 12. The numbers are
(A) 72, 30 (B) 36, 60 (C) 96, 25 (D) None

Q.12 LCM of two numbers is 14 times their HCF. The sum of LCM and HCF is 600. If one number is 280,
then the other is
(A) 40 (B) 60 (C) 80 (D) 100

Q.13 The ratio of two numbers is 3 : 4 and their HCF is 4. Then LCM is
(A) 12 (B) 16 (C) 24 (D) 48

Q.14 The HCF of (4a2b3–9b) and (2a2b2–ab–3) is

(A) (2a – 3) (B) (2ab – 3) (C) (2b – 3a) (D) None of these

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

Q.15 What is the greatest number which shall divide 305 and 629 and leave a remainder 8 in each case?
(A) 24 (B) 36 (C) 27 (D) 35

Section - C
Multiple choice Questions with one or more than one correct answers :
Q.1 If n is a natural number, then n can be
(A) a natural number (B) always an rational number
(C) an irrational number (D) always a natural number

Q.2 Which of the following statements for natural numbers a, b and c is/are true
(A) If a is divisible by b and b is divisible by c, then a must be divisible by c.
(B) If a is a factor of both b and c, then a must be a factor of b+c
(C) If a is a factor of both b and c then a must be a factor of b–c.
(D) If a is a factor of b and b anc c are coprime, then a,c must also be coprimers.

Q.3 Which of the following rational numbers have terminating decimal expansion
(A) 64/455 (B) 29/343 (C) 13/325 (D) 1/308

Q.4 The number 14  6 5  14  6 5 is,

(A) is a rational numbers (B) is not a rational number
(C) simplifies to 5 (D) simplifies to 6

Q.5 The number 3  2 2  3  2 2 can be

(A) rational number (B) natural number (C) prime number (D) irrational number

6
Q.6 Simplify : 1
4
5
1
3
2
14 63 13 21
(A) (B) (C) (D)
45 33 19 11

Section - D
Match the following (one to one) :
Column-I and column-II contain four entries each. One entry of column-I is to be matched with one
entry of column-II.

Q.1 Column I Column II

(i) –10 (P) Natural number
(ii)  (Q) Integer but not a natural number
(iii) 3 (R) Rational number but not an integer
(iv) 5/2 (S) Irrational
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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

Q.2 Column I Column II

(i) Every odd integer is of the form 2m – 1 (P) Rational
where m is
(ii) 3.27 is (Q) Equal
(iii) The LCM and HCF of two rational numbers (R) Integer
are equal then the numbers must be
(iv) 2  5 is (S) Irrational

Q.3 Column I Column II

 10
(i) (P) 1
15
(ii) 3 2 5 (Q) Prime number
0
 2p 2 q 
(iii)   (R) Irrational
 xy 
 
(iv) 2 (S) Fractional but not natural number

Match the following (one to many) :

Column-I and column-II contains four entries each. Entries of column-I are to be matched with some
entries of column-II. One or more than one entries of column-I may have the matching with the some
entries of column-II and one entry of column-II may have one or more than one matching with entries of
column-I

Q.4 Column I Column II

(i) If two irrational numbers are (P) Irrational number
added then sum may be
(ii) Division of a natural number by (Q) Rational number
another natural number gives
(iii) Natural number (R) Neither rational nor irrational
(iv) Every real number (S) None of these

Q.5 Column I Column II

(i) The sum of two prime numbers (P) Natural number
(ii) The product of three consecutive natural (Q) Even number
numbers is
(iii) Sum of two even numbers (R) Odd number
(iv) Sum of two odd numbers (S) None of these

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CH-1 : REAL NUMBERS MATHEMATICS / CLASS-X

ANSWER KEY

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-II

Multiple Choice Questions with one correct answer :

Q.1 C Q.2 B Q.3 D Q.4 B Q.5 D
Q.6 A Q.7 A Q.8 D Q.9 B Q.10 B
Q.11 B Q.12 D Q.13 D Q.14 A Q.15 C
Q.16 D Q.17 C Q.18 C Q.19 D Q.20 D
Q.21 B Q.22 A Q.23 B

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III

Section - A
Q.1 17 Q.2 64 Q.3 12 Q.4 14
Q.6 Going upwards 55, 165, 330, 660 Q.7 64 Q.8 170 litres
Q.9 75 cm Q.10 (i) 12 (ii) 312 (iii) 1266 (iv) 3 (v) 10
1
Q.11 Q.12 30
84

Section - B
Q.1 C Q.2 B Q.3 C Q.4 D Q.5 C Q.6 A Q.7 C
Q.8 B Q.9 B Q.10 C Q.11 B Q.12 C Q.13 D Q.14 B
Q.15 C

Section - C
Q.1 A,C Q.2 A,B,C,D Q.3 C Q.4 A,D Q.5 A, B, C
Q.6 B,D

Section - D
Q.1 (i)-(Q), (ii)-(S), (iii)-(P), (iv)-(R) Q.2 (i)-(R), (ii)-(P), (iii)-(Q), (iv)-(S)
Q.3 (i)-(S), (ii)-(R), (iii)-(P), (iv)-(Q) Q.4 (i)-(P,Q), (ii)-(Q), (iii)-(Q), (iv)-(P,Q)
Q.5 (i)-(PQR), (ii)-(PQ), (iii)-(Q), (iv)-(Q)

********
PAGE# 242
MENTAL ABILITY
NUMBER SERIES MENTAL ABILITY_10TH

1 NUMBER SERIES
A number series is a collection of numbers which follow a particular pattern or rule. The pattern followed
by the number in the series remains the same throughout. Each number in a number series is called a
term.

CASE-I : COMPLETING THE GIVEN SERIES BY FINDING THE MISSING TERM(S) :

In problems, a number series is given with one or two terms missing therein. The missing term can be
either at the end or in the middle or even at the beginning of the series. The missing term is normally
indicated by a blank or a question mark. Students are required to identify the pattern followed by the
terms in the series and find the missing number. Since the pattern followed by each series is different, it is
not possible to give a general formula or technique to solve the problems. Students should observe the
terms in the series carefully and find out the pattern followed.
For better understading, we classify this into the following categories.

Difference series : The differece series can be further, classified as follows:

(a) Number series with a constant difference ; Here the difference between two consecutive numbers
is always constant. For example, the numbers of the series 1, 4, 7, 10, 13 ..... are such that the
difference between two consecutive terms is constant. Here this difference is 3.
(b) Number series with increasing /decreasing difference : Here the difference between consecutive
terms is not constant. It either decreases or increases, e.g. the series 10, 15, 19, 22, 24 ....

Here the difference between 1st & 2nd terms, 2nd & 3rd terms, 3rd & 4th terms and so on are 5, 4, 3,
2 respectively.
Since the difference between 22 & 24 is 2, the next difference should be 1. So, the number that comes
after 24 should be 25.
Product series : Consider the series 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96.

Here, each number in the series is multiplied by 2 to get the next term. So, the term that comes after 96
is 192.
Similarly we can have a series where numbers are obtained by dividing the previous term with a constant
number, e.g. consider the series 81, 27, 9, 3..... Here, each term is obtained by dividing the previous
term by 3 (or in other words by multiplying the previous term by 1/3).
1
Therefore next term will be 3 × =1
3
Consider the series 5, 25, 100, 300.......
PAGE# 243
NUMBER SERIES MENTAL ABILITY_10TH

Here, the first term is multiplied by 5 to get the second term. The second term is multiplied by 4 to get the
third term. The third term is multiplied by 3 to get the fourth term. Therefore to get the fifth term, we have
to multiply fourth term by 2, i.e.the fifth term is 600. Here each term is multiplied by decreasing factor (or
it could also be an increasing factor) to get the next term.

Squares/Cubes series : There can be a series where all the terms are related to the square of numbers
or cube of numbers. There can be many variations in such series. For example, each term of the series
may be the square of a natural number such as 1, 4, 9, 16 ....

Here the term that follows 16 will be square of 5, i.e. 25.

The terms of the series may be the square of odd number, e.g. 1, 9, 25, 49 ..... or even numbers
e.g. 4, 16, 36, 64......

Combination series : This is a type of series where more than one arithmetic operation is performed.
Let us take an example. 1, 3, 7, 2, 6, 10, 3, 9, 13 ......
Here the first term is multiplied by 3 to get the second term. To get the third term we add 4 to the second
term. To get the 4th term, we add 1 to the first term. After this the cycle will be repeated.
Thus 5th term = 2 × 3 = 6
6th term = 6 + 4 = 10
7th term = 2 + 1 = 3 and so on.
Consider another series, 1, 2, 6, 21, 88 ....
Here, we can observe that 88 is close to the 4 times of 21 or it is 21 × 4 + 4. Similarly 21 is 6 × 3 + 3,
6 is 2 × 2 + 2 and 2 is 1 × 1 + 1. So the next term to 88 should be 88 × 5 + 5 = 445

Triangular Pattern Series : Sometimes, the differences between the consecutive terms of a series,
again form a series. The differences between the consecutive terms of the new series so formed, again
form a series. This pattern continues till we attain a uniform difference between the consecutive terms of
the series.

Miscellaneous series : Take the series 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 ...... It is a series of odd numbers. So the
next term will be 15. There can be many variations in miscellaneous series e.g. 2, 12, 30, 56, 90, 132
.........
This is series of product of two series, as 1 × 2, 3 × 4, 5 × 6, 7 × 8, 9 × 10, 11 × 12. We can explain this
series as product of odd number and even number series.

CASE-II : FINDING THE WRONG TERMS IN THE GIVEN SERIES. (NUMBER

ODDMAN OUT) :
The concept is very much similar to the one learnt in ‘number series’. In number series we are required

PAGE# 244
NUMBER SERIES MENTAL ABILITY_10TH

to find the missing term, whereas in ‘number oddman’ we are required to find the wrong term which does
not follow the pattern. In both the cases, our main work is to observe the terms of the given number
series carefully and to identify the pattern followed therein.
Let us consider some examples to understand the concept of oddman.
(a) 1 4 9 16 25 36 63 81
On observing the terms of the above number series carefully, we notice that all the terms except
63 are perfect squares of natural numbers. 63 is not a square of a natural number. Hence, 63 is
the oddman.
(b) 235 354 424 541 613
This problem is somewhat tricky. The sum of digits of each term except 354 si 10. The sum of
digits of 354 is 3 + 5 + 4 = 12. Hence 354 is the oddman.

CASE-III : CORELATION OF THE SERIES [TWO SERIES ARE GIVEN IN WHICH

SECOND SERIES FOLLOWS THE PATTERN OF FIRST SERIES :

CASE-IV : ELEMENTARY IDEA OF PROGRESSIONS :

(i) Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) : The sequence of the form a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ...... is
known as an Arithmetic Progression (A.P.), where a is called first term and d is called common
difference.
For example : 3, 6, 9, 12, ........ is an A.P. with a = 3 and d = 6 - 3 = 3.
Note : In an A.P., we have nth term = a + (n – 1) d

(ii) Geometric Progression (G.P.) : The sequence of the form a, ar, ar2, ar3, ..... is known as a
geometric progression (G.P.) where a is first term and r is common ratio.
5 25
For example : 1, 5, 25, 125, ....... is a G.P. with a = 1 and r   5.
1 5
Note : In a G.P. we have nth term = arn -1.

PAGE# 245
NUMBER SERIES MENTAL ABILITY_10TH

FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

EXCERCISE - 1

Find the missing term(s) in the following questions :

Q.1 0, 4, 6, 3, 7, 9, 6, ?, 12
(1) 14 (2) 8 (3) 10 (4) 11
Q.2 0, 3, 12, 30, ?, 105, 168
(1) 63 (2) 62 (3) 61 (4) 60
Q.3 4, 18, 48, 100, ? ,
(1) 150 (2) 163 (3) 180 (4) 210
Q.4 11, 10, ?, 100, 1001, 1000, 10001
(1) 101 (2) 110 (3) 111 (4) None of these
Q.5 5, 2, 11, 23, ?
(1) 196 (2) 367 (3) 254 (4) 235
Q.6 3, 7, 23, 95, ?
(1) 62 (2) 128 (3) 479 (4) 575
Q.7 2, 7, 27, 107, 427, ?
(1) 1262 (2) 1707 (3) 4027 (4) 4207
Q.8 3, 10, 101, ?
(1) 10101 (2) 10201 (3) 10202 (4) 11012
Q.9 2, 15, 4, 12, 6, 7, ?, ?
(1) 8, 8 (2) 8, 0 (3) 3, 8 (4) None of these
Q.10 8, 9, 8, 7, 10, 9, 6, 11, 10, ?, 12
(1) 5 (2) 7 (3) 8 (4) 11
1 12 1 14 2 16 2
Q.11 11 , , , , ?
9 2 7 3
1 1 1
(1) 8 (2) 19 (3) 20 (4) 22
3 2 3
Q.12 2, 9, 28, ?, 126, 217, 344
(1) 50 (2) 65 (3) 70 (4) 82
Q.13 210, 120, ?, 24, 6, 0
(1) 64 (2) 48 (3) 35 (4) 60
Q.14 2, 12, 36, 80, 150, ?
(1) 194 (2) 210 (3) 252 (4) 258
Q.15 8, 15, 28, 53, ?
(1) 120 (2) 106 (3) 104 (4) 102
Q.16 12, 15, 18, 21, ?
(1) 24 (2) 23 (3) 22 (4) 25
Q.17 2, 10, 19, 29, 40, 52, 65, 79, 94, ?
(1) 110 (2) 109 (3) 108 (4) None of these
Q.18 4, 7, 10, 11, 22, 17, 46, 25, ?
(1) 58 (2) 69 (3) 86 (4) 94
Q.19 2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 8, 8, ?
(1) 10 (2) 12 (3) 14 (4) 16

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FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

EXCERCISE - 2
Directions (Q1 to 35) : Find the missing numbers :
Q.1 2, 3, 10, 15, 26, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)
(1) 34 (2) 35 (3) 36 (4) 37
Q.2 1, 4, 27, 16, 125, 36, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)
(1) 216 (2) 343 (3) 64 (4) 49

Q.3 336, 210, 120, ?, 24, 6, 0 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)

(1) 40 (2) 50 (3) 60 (4) 70

Q.4 3, 4, 8, 17, 33, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)

(1) 58 (2) 69 (3) 49 (4) 98

Q.5 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)

(1) 60 (2) 68 (3) 89 (4) 76

Q.6 480, 480, 240, 80, 20, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2007)

(1) 4 (2) 1 (3) 5 (4) 10

Q.7 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 8, 5, 16, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2007)

(1) 6 (2) 32 (3) 8 (4) 7

Q.8 2, 5, 11, 23, 47, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2007)

(1) 92 (2) 90 (3) 95 (4) 91

Q.9 12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 45, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2007)
(1) 54 (2) 48 (3) 77 (4) 9

Q.10 14, 1, 21, 4, 28, 9, ?,? (NTSE Stage-II, 2007)

(1) 9, 42 (2) 16, 35 (3) 35, 16 (4) 16, 36
Q.11 5, 6, 13, 26, 45, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)
(1) 68 (2) 74 (3) 70 (4) 82

Q.12 190, 94, 46, 22, 10, 4, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)
(1) 3 (2) 2 (3) 1 (4) 0

Q.13 128, 110, 90, 68, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)

(1) 36 (2) 42 (3) 44 (4) 48
Q.14 1, 2, 4, 7, ?, 16 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)
(1) 9 (2) 11 (3) 12 (4) 13

Q.15 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)

(1) 21 (2) 19 (3) 23 (4) 20
Q.16 4, 9, 19, 34, 54, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2008)
(1) 66 (2) 75 (3) 79 (4) 84
Q.17 31, 29, 24, 22, 17, ?, ? NTSE Stage-II, 2008)
(1) 15, 13 (2) 10, 8 (3) 14, 12 (4) 15, 10
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NUMBER SERIES MENTAL ABILITY_10TH

Q.18 3, 6, 11, 18, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2008)

(1) 19 (2) 27 (3) 30 (4) 37

Q.19 3, 8, 15, 24, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2008)

(1) 30 (2) 35 (3) 36 (4) 49

Q.20 4, 10, 23, 50, 105, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)

(1) 215 (2) 210 (3) 216 (4) 439

Q.21 912, 303, 102, 33, ?, 3, 2 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)

(1) 12 (2) 10 (3) 8 (4) 6

Q.22 1, 4, 9, ?, 25, 36 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)

(1) 11 (2) 19 (3) 21 (4) 16

Q.23 7, 12, 22, 37, ?, 82, 112 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(1) 62 (2) 57 (3) 52 (4) 42

Q.24 11, 13, 17, 19, ?, 25 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)

(1) 20 (2) 21 (3) 23 (4) 22

Q.25 5, 9, 17, 33, ?, 129 (NTSE Stage-II, 2009)

(1) 72 (2) 67 (3) 65 (4) 58

Q.26 2, 5, 4, 10, 7, 15, 11, 20, ?, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2009)

(1) 12, 21 (2) 16, 25 (3) 13, 25 (4) 17, 30

Q.27 0, 6, 24, 60, 120, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2009)

(1) 180 (2) 224 (3) 196 (4) 210

Q.28 57, 54, 58, 55, 59, 56, 60, ? (NTSE Stage-II,2011)
(1) 64 (2) 63 (3) 58 (4) 57

Q.29 27, 31, 40, 56, 81, 117, ? (NTSE Stage-II,2011)

(1) 156 (2) 165 (3) 166 (4) 169

Q.30 55, 168, 57, 120, 60, 80, 62, 48, 65, 24, ?, ? (NTSE Stage-II,2011)
(1) 69, 11 (2) 67, 8 (3) 8, 71 (4) 6, 72

Q.31 8, 7, 16, 5, 32, 3, 64, 1, 128, (?) (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(1) 18 (2) 13 (3) –1 (4) 3

Q.32 16, 33, 65, 131, (?), 523 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(1) 261 (2) 521 (3) 613 (4) 721

Q.33 5, 2, 17, 4, (?) , 6, 47, 8, 65 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)

(1) 29 (2) 30 (3) 31 (4) 32

Q.34 1, 2, 4, 8, (?), 32 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)

(1) 10 (2) 12 (3) 14 (4) 16

Q.35 2, 3, 10, 15, 26, (?) (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)

(1) 36 (2) 35 (3) 39 (4) 48

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Directions : (36 to 38) In each of the following questions, a number series is given. After the series,
below it in the next line, a number is given followed by (P), (Q), (R), (S) and (T). You have to complete the
series starting with the number given following the sequence of the given series. Then answer the question
given below it.
Q.36 2 3 8 27
5 (P) (Q) (R) (S) (T)
Which of the following numbers will come in place of (T) ?
(1) 184 (2) 6 (3) 925 (4) 45

Q.37 5 18 48 112
7 (P) (Q) (R) (S) (T)
Which number will come in place of (S) ?
(1) 172 (2) 276 (3) 270 (4) 376

Q.38 15 159 259 323

7 (P) (Q) (R) (S) (T)
Which of the following numbers will come in place of (R) ?
(1) 251 (2) 315 (3) 176 (4) 151

Directions : (39 to 43) Find the missing numbers :

Q.39 2, 30, 6, 20, 12, 12, (?) (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 26 (2) 22 (3) 20 (4) 24

Q.40 6, 20, 36, 48, 50, (?), 0 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 36 (2) 40 (3) 46 (4) 56

Q.41 7, 15, 28, 59, 114, (?) (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 243 (2) 233 (3) 213 (4) 223

Q.42 25, 49, 89, 145, 217, (?) (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 305 (2) 327 (3) 309 (4) 303

Q.43 0, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5, 8, 4, 10, (?), 5, 17 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)

(1) 6 (2) 7 (3) 9 (4) 15

Q.44 Find the next number in the sequence (NTSE Stage-II / Raj./ 2013)
0, 2, 24, 252, ?
(1) 620 (2) 1040 (3) 3120 (4) 5430

Q.45 Find the next number in the sequence (NTSE Stage-II / Raj./ 2013)
6, 24, 60, 120, ?
(1) 180 (2) 210 (3) 240 (4) 360

Q.46 Find the missing number in the series (NTSE Stage-II / Raj./ 2013)
2, 10, 26, ?, 242
(1) 80 (2) 81 (3) 82 (4) 84

Direction (47 to 50) : In each of the questions 62 to 65 some of the numbers are missing in the given
series with one term missing shown by question mark (?) . This term is one of the alternatives among
the four numbers given under it. Find the right alternative. (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2014)
Q.47 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50, (?)
(1) 70 (2) 66 (3) 65 (4) 64

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NUMBER SERIES MENTAL ABILITY_10TH

Q.48 6, 25, 62, 123, (?), 341

(1) 216 (2) 214 (3) 215 (4) 217

Q.49 5, 3, 10, 8, 17, 15, (?), 24

(1) 26 (2) 27 (3) 29 (4) 36

Q.50 2,6,12, 20, 30, (?)

(1) 40 (2) 42 (3) 44 (4) 46

Q.51 445, 221, 109,53, 25, 11, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Haryana/ 2013)
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8

Q.52 6, 15, 35, 77, 143, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Haryana/ 2013)

(1) 171 (2) 181 (3) 191 (4) 221

Q.53 Find the missing number in the series. (NTSE Stage-I / Haryana/ 2013)
1, 2, 2, 4, 16, ?, 65536
(1) 276 (2) 256 (3) 198 (4) 64

Directions (54 to 57) : In each of the following questions write which number in sequence replaces the
question mark ? (NTSE Stage-I / Maharashtra/ 2013)
Q.54 ?, 17, 33, 51, 75
(1) 9 (2) 13 (3) 8 (4) 11

Q.55 14, 17, 24, 35, ?

(1) 49 (2) 38 (3) 50 (4) 46

Q.56 37, 57, 81, 99, ?

(1) 118 (2) 119 (3) 135 (4) 137

Q.57 25, 30, 36, 44, ?

(1) 50 (2) 43 (3) 51 (4) 47

Directions : (58 to 83) Find the wrong term of the series :

Q.58 3, 7, 9, 21, 27, 66, 81, 189, 243 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)
(1 ) 27 (2) 66 (3) 243 (4) 21

Q.59 27, 34, 40, 45, 49, 53, 54 , 55 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)
(1) 53 (2) 45 (3) 56 (4) 34

Q.60 0, 2, 3, 6, 6, 20, 9, 54, 12 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)

(1) 3 (2) 6 (3) 20 (4) 54

Q.61 0, 2, 10, 36, 68, 130 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)

(1) 10 (2) 36 (3) 68 (4) 130

Q.62 9, 54, 44, 264, 254, 1520, 1514 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)
(1) 1514 (2) 1520 (3) 264 (4) 44

Q.63 10, 15, 26, 35, 48, 63, 82 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)
(1) 48 (2) 26 (3) 63 (4) 82

Q.64 3, 10, 30, 66, 127, 218 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)

(1) 3 (2) 66 (3) 30 (4) 218
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Q.65 7, 9, 17, 42, 91, 172, 293 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)

(1) 91 (2) 42 (3) 17 (4) 9
Q.66 2, 12, 24, 34, 68, 78, 158, 166 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)
(1) 68 (2) 78 (3) 158 (4) 166
Q.67 2, 6, 10, 20, 30, 42, 56 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)
(1) 6 (2) 10 (3) 20 (4) 30
Q.68 7, 9, 16, 25, 41, 68, 107, 173 (NTSE Stage-II, 2008)
(1) 16 (2) 41 (3) 68 (4) 107
Q.69 3, 9, 27, 82, 243 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(1) 27 (2) 54 (3) 82 (4) 162
Q.70 5, 9, 17, 35, 65, 129 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(1) 65 (2) 35 (3) 17 (4) 9
Q.71 1, 5, 6, 11, 17, 27, 45, 73 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(1) 27 (2) 45 (3) 17 (4) 11
Q.72 3, 6, 11, 18, 28, 38, 51, 66 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(1) 18 (2) 28 (3) 38 (4) 51
Q.73 320, 254, 200, 155, 122, 100, 89 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(1) 155 (2) 320 (3) 254 (4) 200
Q.74 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(1) 12 (2) 22 (3) 26 (4) 30
Q.75 3, 7, 9, 28, 27, 84, 81, 448, 243 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(1) 84 (2) 81 (3) 28 (4) 7
Q.76 190, 94, 46, 22, 10, 3 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(1) 94 (2) 46 (3) 22 (4) 3
Q.77 0, 5, 15, 50, 128 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(1) 5 (2) 15 (3) 50 (4) 128
Q.78 9, 63, 5, 35, 1, 8 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(1) 63 (2) 5 (3) 35 (4) 8
Q.79 89, 78, 86, 80, 85, 82, 83 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 83 (2) 82 (3) 86 (4) 78
Q.80 1, 1, 3, 9, 6, 36, 10, 100, 16, 225 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 225 (2) 16 (3) 10 (4) 9
Q.81 444, 300, 200, 136, 87, 84, 80 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 300 (2) 200 (3) 136 (4) 87
Q.82 8, 15, 31, 61, 123, 247, 491 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 247 (2) 491 (3) 121 (4) 61
Q.83 3, 6, 24, 30, 63, 72, 122, 132 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2013)
(1) 132 (2) 30 (3) 122 (4) 72
Directions (Q.84 to 85) : – A series is given with one term missing. Choose the correct alternative from the
given ones that will complete the series : (NTSE Stage-I / Haryana/2015)
Q.84 7, 26, 63, 124, 215, 342, ?
(1) 481 (2) 511 (3) 391 (4) 421
Q.85 1 + 3, 6 + 3, 13 + 3, 22 + 3, ?
(1) 33 + 4 (2) 33 + 3 (3) 34 + 3 (4) 43 + 3
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Direction: (86 to 89) In each of the question some of the numbers are missing in the given with
one term missing shown by question mark (?). This term is one of the alternatives among the
numbers given under it. Find the right alternative. (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2015)
Q.86 65, 48, 64, 49, 63, ?
(1) 53 (2) 52 (3) 51 (4) 50
Q.87 7, 23 , ? , 79, 119
(1) 47 (2) 49 (3) 44 (4) 46
Q.88 16, 8 ,12 , ?, 105
(1) 6 (2) 30 (3) 24 (4) 35
Q.89 748, 737 ,716 , 685, 644 ?
(1) 634 (2) 643 (3) 503 (4) 593

Direction (Q.90 to 93): Some of the numbers are missing in the given series with one term
missing shown by question mark (?). This term is one of the alternatives among the four
numbers given under it. Find the right alternative. (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2016)
Q.90 8, 27, 64, ?, 216, 343
(1) 125 (2) 81 (3) 100 (4) 196
Q.91 5, 11, 19, ?, 41.
(1) 28 (2) 29 (3) 30 (4) 35
Q.92 120, ?, 24, 6, 0.
(1) 100 (2) 70 (3) 60 (4) 20
1 1
Q.93 729, 81, 9, 1, , ?,
9 729
1 1 1 1
(1) (2) (3) (4)
27 81 243 486

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NUMBER SERIES MENTAL ABILITY_10TH

ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE - 1

Q.1 3 Q.2 4 Q.3 3 Q.4 1 Q.5 3 Q.6 3 Q.7 2

Q.8 3 Q.9 2 Q.10 1 Q.11 3 Q.12 2 Q.13 4 Q.14 3
Q.15 4 Q.16 1 Q.17 1 Q.18 4 Q.19 4

EXERCISE - 2

Q.1 2 Q.2 2 Q.3 3 Q.4 1 Q.5 3 Q.6 1 Q.7 1

Q.8 3 Q.9 1 Q.10 3 Q.11 3 Q.12 3 Q.13 3 Q.14 2
Q.15 1 Q.16 3 Q.17 4 Q.18 2 Q.19 2 Q.20 3 Q.21 1
Q.22 4 Q.23 2 Q.24 3 Q.25 3 Q.26 2 Q.27 4 Q.28 4
Q.29 3 Q.30 2 Q.31 3 Q.32 1 Q.33 3 Q.34 4 Q.35 2
Q.36 3 Q.37 2 Q.38 2 Q.39 3 Q.40 1 Q.41 2 Q.42 1
Q.43 4 Q.44 3 Q.45 2 Q.46 3 Q.47 3 Q.48 2 Q.49 1
Q.50 2 Q.51 2 Q.52 4 Q.53 2 Q.54 2 Q.55 3 Q.56 3
Q.57 3 Q.58 2 Q.59 1 Q.60 3 Q.61 2 Q.62 2 Q.63 1
Q.64 3 Q.65 4 Q.66 3 Q.67 2 Q.68 3 Q.69 3 Q.70 2
Q.71 1 Q.72 2 Q.73 4 Q.74 2 Q.75 1 Q.76 4 Q.77 4
Q.78 4 Q.79 3 Q.80 2 Q.81 4 Q.82 1 Q.83 3 Q.84 2
Q.85 2 Q.86 4 Q.87 1 Q.88 2 Q.89 4 Q.90 1 Q.91 2
Q.92 3 Q.93 2

********

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SOCIAL SCIENCE
CH-1: POWER SHARING SOCIAL SCIENCE / DEMOCRATIC POLITICS / CLASS-X

1 POWER SHARING
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
THEORY

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The division of power among various groups and at various levels and parts of the government is necessary
for the proper functioning of the democracy. It creates checks and balances in the political system of a
country and removes dissatisfaction among various groups of society and parts of the government.
However in different parts of the world problems have been created due to unequal representation of
different groups in power sharing.

Knowledge Based Questions :

1. Which of the following is not a feature of Ethinc group?
(A) Common descent (B) Similarity in physical appearance
(C) Similarity in culture (D) Similarity of religion
2. The word minority in a country means
(A) Group of poor people
(B) Groups of people living in small area
(C) Groups which are in small proportion of population
(D) Groups having small representation
3. Which people are called natives?
(A) Original inhabitants (B) Settled inhabitants
(C) Roaming inhabitants (D) Foreign inhabitants
4. ‘Majoritarianism’ is a term which denotes that
(A) Settlement of majority
(B) Feeling of domination over majority always
(C) Feeling that majority may rule ignoring minority
(D) Majority will always respect minority
5. Civil war is a situation in which
(A) propaganda regarding opposite groups.
(B) war faught by civilians of a country against other.
(C) A large violent conflict between opposing groups in a country.
(D) A violent struggle by an army.
6. Which people are called refugees
(A) People taking shelter in other country
(B) People moving to other country for marriage
(C) People seeking the citizenship of other country
(D) People who have been exiled from their country

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7. Which are the correct and complete elements of state

(A) Population, Government, Soverignity territory.
(B) Population, Government, Sovergnity, definite land area.
(C) Government, land area, soverignity, Democracy.
(D) Land area, democracy, Government, Population.

8. Which of the following statements describes democracy correctly?

(A) A system organized by the people of a country.
(B) A system running on principal of natural justice.
(C) A system where people are self disciplined.
(D) A system which is organized by a group of influential people.

9. Civic life is a term used to denote

(A) Settled and well organized life (B) Life of civilized people
(C) Life of discipline and respecting (D) Life of discipline and respecting rights of others

10. The term political stability is used in the reference of

(A) A permanent government (B) Non changing of the government frequently
(C) representatives electrea of same (D) Non shifting of capital of states

 IMPORTANT TERMS :
 Power sharing : When the power does not rest with any one organ of the state rather it is
shared among legislature, executive and judiciary.
 Majoritarianism : Under majoritarianism, majority community rules the country is usually in its
own way by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority.
 Federal Government : A general government for the entire county is usually called federal
government.
 Civil War : A conflict between opposing groups within country.
 Community government : In which different social groups are given the power to handle the
affairs related to their communities.
 Ethnic : A social division based on shared culture.
 Prudential : Careful calculation of gains and losses.

1.2 BELGIUM :
(i) It is a small country in Europe smaller in area then Haryana in India.
(ii) Bordering countries are Netherlands France and Germany
(iii) It has the population of little over one crore about half of the population of Haryana
(iv) The ethnic composition is complex.

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(v) The minority French Speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
(vi) This was resented by Dutch speaking coummunity who got the benifit of economic development and
education much later.
(vii) The tension continued during 1950’s and 1960’s and became acute in Bruseels.
(viii) Dutch speaking people constituted a majority in the country but minority in capital.

Illustration 1 :

(i) Which language speaking people resided in the areas marked with 1 and 4.
(ii) Name the place marked with 2.
Solution
(i) Dutch speaking, French speaking
(ii) Brussels

Try yourself :
1. Which country is not the bordering state of Belgium?
(A) Netherland (B) France (C) Germany (D) Italy
2. What is the proportion of population living in wallonia region?
(A) 59% (B) 40% (C) 1% (D) 49%
3. Which community was in majority in the Brussels capital of Belgium?
(A) Dutch speaking (B) French speaking (C) German speaking (D) Lating speaking
4. Which community in Belgium was relatively rich and powerful?
(A) Dutch speaking (B) French speaking (C) German speaking (D) English speaking

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1.3 MAJORITARIANISM IN SRILANKA :

Srilanka :
(i) An island nation a few kilometres away from Indian state of Tamilnadu coast in South Asia region.
(ii) Population is 2 crore about same as Haryana state of India.
(iii) It has diverse population.

(iv) Srilanka became independent in 1948.

(v) SINHALAS secured dominance over the government by the virtue of their majority.
(vi) The Government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(vii) In 1956 by an Act Sinhala was declared the only official language, disregarding Tamils.
(viii) The government policies were preferential and favoured sinhala applicants for university positions and
government jobs.
(ix) A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
(x) All these events caused a feeling of alienation and great resentment in Tamils.
(xi) Causes of resentment were –
(a) Tamil felt that non of the political parties led by Buddhist sinhala leader were sensitive to their
langugage and culture.
(b) Constitution and the government policies denied them equal political rights.
(c) Discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interest.
(xii) Srilankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
(a) Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
(b) Regional autonomy
(c) Equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
(xiii) Demands of Tamils for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was repeatedly denied by the
majority led government.
(xiv) By 1980’s several political organization came into existence demanding independent Tamil Eelam (state)
in North and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(xv) This lead to civil war killing thousands of people of both communities.
(xvi) People were forced to leave Srilanka as refugees and many more lost their livelihood leading to a terrible
setback in social, cultural and economic life.

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Illustration 2 :
(i) How did Srilankan Tamils start their struggle.
(ii) Why did Sinhala community seek to secure government dominance over Srilankan
Government.
Solution
(i) By launching the political parties for
(a) Recognising tamil as an official language (b) Regional autonomy
(c) Equality of opportunity in education and Jobs.

Try yourself :
5. What made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated?
6. Give an account of ethenic composition of Sri Lanka.
7. Why was the Act of 1956 passed in Srilanka?

1.4 ACCOMMODATION IN BELGIUM :

The Belgian leaders took a different Path by recognising the existence of regional differences
and cultural diversities :
(i) Amendment of the constitution four times between 1970 and 1993 to enable everyone to live together in
the same country.
(ii) The arrangement they worked out is different from any other country and is very innovative.
Elements of the Belgian model :
(i) Number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall equal in central government.
(ii) Many powers of the central government has been given to the state government of the two regions of the
country. The state governments are not subordinate to central government
(iii) Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
The French speaking people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch speaking
community has accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(iv) The ‘Community Government’ is elected by the people belonging to one language community–Dutch,
French and German speaking no matter wherethey live.
This Government has power regarding cultural educational and language related issues.
Nature of Belgian model :
(i) It is very complicated, even for the people living in Belgium.
(ii) These arrangements have worked well so far and has halped in avoiding civic strife between two major
communities and a possible divison of the country on linguistic basis.
(iii) After formation of European unions Brussels was chosen as its headquarters.
Difference between the Belgium and SriLanka in solving the ethenic Problems :

BELGIUM SRI LANKA

1. The leaders have realized that the The majority community wants to force
unity of a country is possible only by its dominance over others and refuse to
respecting the feelings and interests of share power.
different communities and regions.
2. It has helped in keeping the country It has led to the situation of civil war and
peaceful and united has threatened the integrity and unity of
the country.

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Illustration 3 :
(i) What do you learn from the two stories of Belgium and Sri Lanka?
(ii) What was the outcome of realization of the feeling different community in Belgium?
Solution
(i) Belgian leaders never believed in the majoritirian concept like Sri Lanka but they recognized the existence
of regional differences and cultural diversity. So they worked out an arrangement that would enable
every one to live together.
(ii) Mutually acceptable arrangement for sharing power.

Try yourself :
8. Mention the nature of Community Government in Belgiuim?
9. Which is the headquarter of European Union?
10. Why the nature of Belgian model of government is termed complicated.

1.5 WHY POWER SHARING IS DESIRABLE :

(i) Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since
social conflict often leads to violence and political instablitiy, power sharing is a good way to ensure the
stability of political order. This is called prudentral power sharing.
(ii) Imposing the will of majority community over others may look like an attractive option in the short run,
but in the long run it undermines the unity of the nation.
(iii) Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often brings ruin to the majority as well.
(iv) Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those
affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. This is called moral power sharing.
(v) People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
(vi) A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.
(vii) Prudential reasons: It stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
(viii) Moral reason: emphasises the very act of power sharing as valuable.

Illustration 4
(i) What happens if powersharing in a country, is not proper?
(ii) How imposing will of majority undermines national unity
(iii) Why power sharing is called the ‘Spirit of Democracy’?
Solution
(i) It leads to social conflicts, Voilence and Political instability.
(ii) In long run minority community starts opposing the present system which leads to social clashes and
disputes which hampers national unity.
(iii) Because power sharing ensures the proper representation of all the social groups and communities
providing a better partiapation of the people.

Try yourself :
11. What can be the best example of prudential reason of power sharing?
12. Decentralisation of power in India is an examples of which kind of reason of Power Sharing?
13. “Giving Power of Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase administrative efficiency”
Which reason of power sharing has been shown in the above statement.
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1.6 FORMS OF POWER SHARING :

(i) One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy,
people rule themselves through institutions of self-governance.
(ii) In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a
society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies.
(iii) Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as
possible.

Shared Among Different Organs of Government

Legislature Executive Judiciary

This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at
the same level to exercise different powers.
Even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or
State Assemblies.
Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or
laws made by the legislatures.
This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
Shared among governments at different levels :
Federal Government  State Government  Local Self Government
A general government for the entire country called federal government and governments at the provincial
or regional level. We call them State Governments.
This is called federal division of power.
The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower than the State government, such as
the municipality and panchayat called local self government.
Shared among different social groups
Such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example ofthis
arrangement.
For example : The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country.
Meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would
feel alienated from the governement.
Power sharing by political parties, pressure groups and movements :
The citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power. Such competition
ensure that power does not remain in one hand.
Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest
elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, formers and
industrial workers. They also will have a share in government power, either through participation in
governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

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Illustration 5 :
Classify the following into political party, pressure group and movement.
(i) Rastriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSS)
(ii) Non Coopration to the Government against its evil policies
(iii) Assam Gana Parishad
Solution
(i) Pressure group (ii) Movement (iii) Political Party

Illustration 6 :
What kind of power sharing is exhibited when the reservation of seats is done for the people of
Sc’s, ST’s and OBC’s
Solution
Social division of power

Illustration 7 :
The present union government is running with the support of communist party of India,
Samajvadi Party and Bahujan Samaj Party etc. What is the name given to this kind of power
sharing?
Solution
Coalition Government

Illustration 8 :
The unionof Trade commerce and Industry, Labour union, farmer union etc belong to which
category of power sharing and how they share power?
Solution
They belong to the category of Interest groups.
The share power either through participating in government committes or bringing influence on decision
making process.

Try yourself :
14. The powers have been divided between legislature, executive and Judiciary. What is the name of this
system of arrangement.
15. What kind of power sharing has been provisioned in the Panchayati Raj System by introducing it at
village, Block and at District level?
16. India is a large country and the powers have been divided constitutionally among union, state and local
self government. What is the name given to this division of power?

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SOLVED EXAMPLES
Q.1 In which continent is Belgium?
Ans. Belgium is in Europe.

Q.2 Name the countries with which Belgium shares its boundaries.
Ans. Belgium shares its boundaries with France, Netherlands, Germany and Luxembourg.

Q.3 What does the word 'ethnic' signify?

Ans. The word ethnic signifies a social division based on shared culture.

Q.4 Where does the majority of population of Belgium live?

Ans. The majority of population of Belgium lives in the Flemish region.

Q.5 Which language is spoken by the majority of population in Brussels, the capital city of
Belgium?
Ans. The majority of population in Brussels (80%), the capital city of Belgium, speaks French language.

Q.6 In Sri Lanka, the policies of the government sought to ensure the dominance of which language
speaking people?
Ans. In Sri Lanka, the policies of the government under the Act of 1956 sought to ensure the dominance of
Sinhala speaking.

Q.7 What does the term majoritarianism signify?

Ans. The term majoritarianism signifies a belief that the majority community should rule a country.

Q.8 What is the religion of Sri Lanka?

Ans. Buddhism is the religion of Sri Lanka.

Q.9 Which major social groups of Sri Lanka constituted the largest share in population?
Ans. Sinhalas constituted the largest share in population in Sri Lanka.

Q.10 How many times did Belgium amend its constitution regarding power sharing?
Ans. Belgium amended its constitution four times between 1970 and 1993.

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-I [NCERT Question]

Q.1 State one prudential reason and one moral reason for power sharing with an example from the
Indian context.
Ans. (a) Prudential reason for power sharing is good because it reduces the possibility of conflict among
social groups. For example in India, we have reserved constituencies for women and minorities
in the Parliament and the State Assemblies. This is an apt example of prudential reason for
power sharing.
(b) Moral reason. power sharing is the essence of democracy. People have a right to be consulted
on how they are to be governed. For example, the division of power among different units in
India is a suitable example of moral reason for power sharing.

Q.2 Read the following passage and pick out any one of the prudential reasons for power sharing
offered in this:
“We need to give more power to the panchayats to realise the dream of Mahatma Gandhi and
the hopes of the makers of our Constitution. Panchayati Raj establishes true democracy. It
restores power to the people. Giving power to Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption
and increase administrative efficiency. When people participate in the planning and implemen-
tation of developmental schemes, they would naturally exercise greater control over these
schemes. This would eliminate the corrupt middlemen. Thus Panchayati Raj will strengthen
the foundation of our democracy.
Ans. When people participate in the planning and implementation of developmental schemes, they would
naturally exercise greater control over these schemes. This would eliminate the corrupt middlemen.

Q.3 After reading the chapter, three students drew different conclusions. Which of these do you
agree with and why? Give your reasons in about 50 words.
Thomman : Power sharing is necessary only in societies which have religious, linguistic or
ethnic divisions.
Mathayi : Power sharing is suitable only for big countries that have regional divisions.
Ouseph : Every society needs some form of power sharing even if it is small or does not have
social divisions.
Ans. Ouseph’s statement is the most logical and I agree to it as power sharing reduces the possibility of
conflict between social groups and strengthens the unity of the nation. It upholds the spirit of democracy.

Q.4 The Mayor of Merchtem, a town near Brussels in Belgium, has defended a ban on speaking
French in the town’s schools. He said that the ban would help all non-Dutch speakers integrate
in this Flemish town. Do you think that this measure is in keeping with the spirit of Belgium’s
power sharing arrangements? Give your reasons in about 50 words.
Ans. The Measure is not in keeping with Belgium’s power sharing arrangements. The arrangements seek to
maintain peace between the French–speaking and Dutch–speaking communities. By putting a ban on
speaking French, the Mayor will cause civil unrest. Both the languages should be made acceptable in the
town’s schools. This bilingual education system will be a better way to integrate the people of the town.

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-II [Short Answer Type Question]

Q.1 What led to tensions between the Dutch speaking and French speaking communities in Belgium during
1950s and 1960s?
Ans. (a) The issues of majoritarianism and financial preference led to the tensions between the Dutch and
French speaking communities in Belgium during 1950s and 1960s.
(b) At the capital city of Brussels, the French speaking community was relatively rich and powerful
and used to get the economic and educational benefit.
(c) This was resented the Dutch speaking community which led to the tension between the two
communities of Brussels.

Q.2 Why did Belgian leaders amend the Contitution four times?
Ans. Belgian leaders amended their Constitution four times to accomodate the social differences.
So, they never believed in the majoritarian concept but they recognised the existence of regional
differences and culture diversities.

Q.3 Define the Community government.

Ans. Community Government is a type Government which is elected by people belonging to one language
community like Dutch, French and German speaking in Belgium-no matter where they live.

Q.4 Explain two sets of reasons as why power sharing is desirable.

OR
Why is power sharing desirable?
Ans. Power sharing is desirable for various concrete reasons. Two sets of reasons have been listed out which
favour power sharing in two different manners like :
Prudential reason and Moral reason.
Prudential Reason
(a) According to prudential reason, power sharing accommodates social diversity hence, helps in
reducing the possibility of conflict between social groups.
(b) Power sharing in another way ensures the political stability through competition among various
political parties.
(c) Besides, power sharing is also desirable to the promotion of national unity and integrity.

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Moral reason.
(d) Moral reason is a very deeper reason of power sharing.
(e) According to moral reason, power sharing is desirable to produce m accountable, responsible
and legitimate government.
(f) It implies maximum popular participation through decentralisation of powers so that people
would be consulted on how they are to be governed.
In this way, both the sets of reasons signify the importance of power sharing in the forms of community
government, reserved constituencies and decentralisation of powers.

Q.5 List out three series of majoritarian measures in Sri Lanka.

Ans. A series of majoritarian measures were adopted by the democratically elected government in Sri Lanka
after its independence in 1948 to establish Sinhala Supremacy.
(a) Accordingly in 1956 an Act was passed to recognise Sinhala as the only official language thus
disregarding Tamil.
(b) The Government followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala applicants for university
positions and foster Buddhism.
(c) A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.

Q.6 Why is the ethnic composition of belgium very complex?

Ans. The Ethnic Composition of the small country like Belgium is very complex because of various languages
speaking people like : Dutch 59%, French 40%, German 1%.
(a) Of the country’s total population, 59 percent lives in the Flemish region and speak Dutch language.
(b) Another 40 percent live in the “Wallonia region” and speak French.
(c) Remaining one percent of the Brussels speak German.
Besides, in the capital city of Brussels, 80 per cent people speak French while 20 percent are Dutch
speaking.

Q.7 What made the Sri Lankan Tamils feel alienated?

Ans. The Act passed in 1956, introduced by Sinhalese Government, made the Sri Lankan Tamils feel
alienated.
(a) They felt that none of the major political parties led by the Buddhist Sinhalese were sensitive to
their language and culture.
(b) They also felt that the constitution and government policies denied them equal political rights.
(c) Thus, they realised that government had discriminated against them in getting jobs and other
opportunities by ignoring their interests.
(d) As a result, the relations between the Sinhalese and Tamil communities strained over time.
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Q.8 List three basic principles of democracy?

Ans. Basic Principles of Democracy are as follows :
(a) People as the source of political power : People rule themselves through the institutions of
self–governance.
(b) Equal respect and share in policy making : In a good democratic government, due respect is
given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society.
Therefore, if follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as
possible.

Q.9 Give an account of ethnic composition of Sri Lanka.

Ans. Sri Lanka comprises various communities and diverse population which signifies its complex ethnicity
like ;
(a) Sri Lanka speaking accounts for 74 per cent of the total population and enjoys majoritarian
status in the country.
(b) The another community is Tamil speaking which has two sub-groups;
(i) The Sri Lankan Tamils which account for 13 per cent. They are the natives of Sri Lanka.
(ii) The Indian Tamils account for 5 per cent. They are of Indian origin.
(c) About 7 per cent of the population is Christians (both Tamils and Sinhalas).
(d) Rest 1 per cent are Muslims.

Q.10 Why did civil war break out in Sri Lanka? List the result the civil war.
Ans. The distrust between Tamil speaking and the Sinhalese over the majoritarianism issue resulted in a
widespread conflict which soon turned into a civil war. The results of the civil war were as follows:
(a) Thousands of people of both the communities were killed.
(b) Many families were forced to leave the country and many more lost their livelihood.
(c) Sri Lanka, in general, suffered from an economic crisis.

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Q.11 Differentiate between horizontal division of powers and vertical division of powers.
Ans. Difference between Horizontal division of powers and Vertical division of powers
Horizontal division of powers Vertical division of powers
(a) Horizontal division of powers is such (a) In vertical division of powers, power can be shared
a power sharing arrangement in which among governments at different levels like union,
power is shared among different organs state and local levels of such government, i.e., it
of government as, legislature, executive involves higher and lower levels of government.
and judiciary.
(b) In horizontal division of powers, (b) Whereas, in vertical division of powers, constitution
different organs of government powers, constitution clearly lays down the powers of
exercise different powers, i.e., there different levels of government.
is a concept of separation of powers.
(c) Horizontal distribution specifies the (c) But, there is no such concept of checks and balances in
concept of checks and balances the vertical division because powers are clearly given
in order to check the exercises of by the constitution from the higher level to the lower
unlimited powers of the organs. level.
(d) Horizontal distribution of power (d) Vertical division of powers promotes the concept of
ensures the concept of the expansion deepening of democracy
of democracy.

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III [Objective Question]

Section - A
 Fill in the blanks :
1. Power sharing is a good way to ensure the _________ of political order
2. A_________ government is one where groups, through participation, acquire stake in the system.
3. In a _________ political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.
4. The _________distribution of power is also called a system of checks and balances.
5. In Srilanka ________________has been established by the Act of 1956.
6. Based on proudence i.e., careful calculation of gains and losses known as ________________
7. Sinhala was recognised as the only official language by ________________
8. ________________ was amended four times between 1970 and 1993.

Section - B

 Multiple choice question with one correct answers :

1.. Which country share its borders with Germany, France and Netherlands?
(A) Russia (B) U.K . (C) U.S.A (D) Belguim

2. The major social groups in Sri Lanka are –

(A) Tamil-speakers (B) Sinhala speakers (C) Urdu (D) Hindi

3. Sri Lanka got independence in :

(A) 1945 (B) 1946 (C) 1947 (D) 1948

4. Which of the following is the spirit of democracy?

(A) Communalism (B) Power division
(C) Power sharing (D) Imposing the willof the majority

5. Who appoints the judges?

(A) Executive (B) Legislature (C) Judiciary (D) Legilative assemblies

6. The Community Government signifies :

(A) The powers of government regarding community development
(B) The powers of the government regarding law making for the community
(C) The powers of the government regarding cultural, educational and language related issues
(D) The government enjoys privileges to safeguard the interest of a particular community.

7. Power sharing is :
(A) The very spirit of democracy (B) Separation of powers at different levels
(C) System of checks and balances (D) A type of balancing powers.

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8. Vertical division of power is :

(A) A system in which each organ of government checks the others.
(B) A type of distribution in which power is shared among different organs of government
(C) A type of distribution of power which involves the higher and lower levels of government.
(D) A type of government elected by people
9. Coalition government is the government :
(A) Based on prudential and moral reasons.
(B) Government of majority community.
(C) Government elected by the people.
(D) An alliance government formed by two or more parties, if no single party gets majority in the elec-
tion.

10. The word ‘ethnic’ signifies :

(A) Different religions. (B) Social division on shared culture.
(C) A violent conflict between opposite groups. (D) A careful calculation of gains an losses.

11. Which statement justifies ethnic complexity of Sri Lanka?

(A) Sinhalese - 80% Tamils - 20% (B) Sinhalese - 60% Tamils - 40%
(C) Sinhalese - 74% Tamils - 18% (D) Sinhalese - 76% Tamils - 18%

12. The proportion of Tamils in Sri Lanka’s total population is about :

(A) 8 per cent (B) 18 per cent (C) 28 per cent (D) 38 per cent

13. Power sharing does not :

(A) Accommodate diversities
(B) Speed up the decision making process.
(C) Increases conflict among different communities
(D) All the above

14. Belgium successfully solved its problem by :

(A) Rejecting policy of majoritarianism
(B) Developing power sharing mechanism
(C) Respecting the interest of different communities
(D) All the above

15. The power of different levels of government shows :

(A) Separation of powers (B) Community Government
(C) Coalition Government (D) Federal division of power

Section - C
 Multiple choice question with one or more than one correct answers :
1. Which of the following is/are an example of interest group.
(A) Bhartiya Kisan Union (B) Bhartiya Janta Party
(C) Bhartiya Labour Union (D) Bhartiya Nationalist Party

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2. Which of the following exhibits horizontal power sharing?

(A) District megistrate, District collector and Departmental Secretary
(B) Executive, Legislature and Judiciary
(C) Sarpanch, Pradhan and Zila Pramukh
(D) ADO, BDO and SDO

3. Which statements are correct in reference to power sharing in Belgium?

(A) Community Government (B) Reserved Constituencies
(C) Linguistic representation (D) Majoritarianism

4. The kind of power sharing which is not found in Sri Lanka?

(A) Community Governement (B) Majoritarianism
(C) Linguistic representation (D) None of the above

5. The main idea behind the introduction of Panchayati Raj was

(A) Establishing true democracy (B) Reduce curruption
(C) To Increase administrative efficiency (D) To reduce the powers of state govenrment

Section - D
 Match the following (one to one) :
Column-I and column-II contains four entries each. Entries of column-I are to be matched with some
entries of column-II. Only One entries of column-I may have the matching with the some entries of
column-II and one entry of column-II Only one matching with entries of column-I
1. Column I Column II
(A) Belgium (P) Limited Monarchy
(B) England (Q) Majoritarianism
(C) India (R) Transformation from unitary to Federal government
(D) Sri Lanka (S) Federal Government

2. Column I Column II
(A) Indian National Congress (P) Social group
(B) Auto-Taxi Union (Q) Political party
(C) Students Federation of India (R) Interest group
(D) Scheduled Caste (S) Pressure group

3. Column I Column II
(A) Ethic Composition (P) A violent conflict between opposite groups
(B) Majoritarianism (Q) Based on prudence, i.e., a careful calculation of gains
or losses
(C) Civil War (R) A social divisions based on shared culture
(D) Prudential reason (S) A belief that majority community should be
(E) Vertical division of power (T) Power is shared among different organs of the
government
(F) Horizontal division of power (U) Power is involved at the higher and lower levels of
government

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4. Column I Column II
(A) Power shared among different (P) Community government
organs of government
(B) Power shared among government at (Q) Separation of powers
different levels
(C) Power shared by different social groups (R) Coalition government
(D) Power shared by two or more political (S) Federal government
parties
Match the following (one to many) :
Column-I and column-II contains four entries each. Entries of column-I are to be matched with some
entries of column-II. One or more than one entries of column-I may have the matching with the some
entries of column-II and one entry of column-II may have one or more than one matching with entries of
column-I
5. Column I Column II
(A) India (P) Community Government
(B) Belgium (Q) Democracy
(C) Sri Lanka (R) Federal Government
(D) Pakistan (S) Majoritaianism

6. Column I Column II
(A) Forms of Power Sharing (P) Coalition Government
(B) Executive Legislature and Judiciary (Q) Community Government
(C) Village Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti (R) Organs of the Govenment
and Zila Parishad
(D) Indian Political System (S) Levels of the Govenment

Section - E
Comprehension :
A Nyaya Panchayat has generally five members. They are elected by the village Panchayats. The
decisionsof the Nyaya Panchayat are taken by a majority vote of its members. Some members of the
Nyaya Panchayat must be educated so as to enable the court to maintain records of the evidence and its
decisions. In case no literate person is elected to the Nyaya Panchayat, the State Government may
nominate one such person. The members of the Nyaya Panchayat cannot, at the same time, be members
of the Panchayat or any of its committees. The members of the Nyaya Panchayat are kept away from the
Panchayati politics so that they may remain impartial, while deciding disputes among the villagers. The
Nayay Panchayat has power to settle only civil and criminal cases such as theft, trespass, gambling,
simple injury and money-disputes of small amounts. If a party is not satisfied with the decision of the
Nyaya Panchayat, ti can go to a higher court and appeal against the decisions of the Nyaya Panchyat.

1. Why member of Nyaya Panchayat are kept away from Panchayati Politics?

2. Why Nyaya Panchayat has generally five members?

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CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-IV [Self Apprisal]

1. State one prudential reason and moral reason for power sharing with an example from the Indian context?

2. What were the series of majoritarian measures adopted in Sri Lanka?

3. Why the ethnic composition of Belgium is very complex?

4. Give an account of ethnic composition of Sri Lanka.

5. What made Sri Lankan Tamils feels alienated?

6. What does the sharing of power among political parties, pressure groups and movements ensure?

7. How powers are shared in different social groups and why?

OR
How do democracy accommodate different social groups?

8. Why is power sharing desirable?

OR
Why and how is power shared in democracies?

9. What do you mean by majoritarianism? Which country has this concept?

10. State the role of government at different levels. Which level deepens the concept of democracy?

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ANSWER KEY
Knowledge Based Questions :
1. (D) 2. (C) 3. (A) 4. (C) 5. (C) 6. (A) 7. (B)
8. (A) 9. (D) 10. (B)

Try Yourself :
1. (D) 2. (B) 3. (B) 4. (B)

5. The measures of the Act of 1956 introduced by Sinhalies government made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated.

6. 74% Sinhala speaking, 18% Tamils, 7% Christians speaking both Tamil and Sinhala.

7. The Act was passed by the government to recognise Sinhala as official language in order to provide
majoritarian status to Sinhala community.

8. Community government was elected on the basis of language group. One government of each community
i.e. Dutch, French and German is to be formed.

9. Brussels is the headquarters of European Union.

10. Because it has to satisfy each community by drawing a proper plan of power sharing.

11. Reserved constituencies for minorities and women in Assemblies and Parliament.

12. Moral reason of Power Sharing

13. The prudential reason of power sharing has been shown.

14. Legislature, executive and Judiciary keeps control over each other and checks the wrong acts of each
other so this arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.

15. This is an example of vertical, power sharing because village panchayat work under panchayat samiti
and panchayat samiti works under Zila parishad.

16. This division of power is known as

(i) federal division of power (ii) vertical division of power

CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL-III [Objective Question]

Section - A
1. Stability 2. Legitimate 3. Democracy 4. Horizontal
5. Majoritarianism 6. Prudential Reason 7. The Act of 1956 8. Belgium Constitution.

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Section - B
1. D 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. A
8. C 9. D 10. B 11. C 12. B 13. C 14. D
15. D

Section - C
1. A,C 2. B 3. A,C 4. A,C 5. A,B,C

Section - D
1. (A)-(R), (B)-(P), (C)-(S), (D)-(Q) 2. (A)-(Q), (B)-(R), (C)-(S), (D)-(P)

3. (A)-(R), (B)-(S), (C)-(P), (D)-(Q), (E)-(U), (F)-(T) 4. (A)-(Q), (B)-(S), (C)-(P), (D)-(R)

5. (A)-(Q,R), (B)-(P,Q,R), (C)-(Q,R,S), (D)-(Q,R,S) 6. (A)-(P,Q,R,S), (B)-(R), (C)-(S), (D)-(P,R,S)

Section - E

1. They are kept away so that they remain impartial while deciding disputes among villages.

2. Because the case can be decided by majority of members in an impartial member.

********

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