KISII UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
COURSE CODE coms 101
NAME: AHMED SULEIMAN SALAT

ASSIGNMENT

1) Discuss by giving examples, three models of

communication
2) Give ve differences between hearing and listening
3) With appropriate illustrations give the formats of note
taking .

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 Communication is a complex process, and it is dif cult to determine where or with
whom a communication encounter starts and ends. It can sometimes be helpful to
consider different communication models. Below are some questions to help guide you
through this essay . Models of communication simplify the process by providing a
visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some
models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex
model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication
encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication
because they allow us to see speci c concepts and steps within the process of
communication, de ne communication, and apply communication concepts. When
you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately
through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future
communication and learn from your previous communication. The three models of
communication we will discuss are the transmission, interaction, and transaction
models.
Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements.
The rst two models we will discuss, the transmission model and the interaction
model, include the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and
channels. In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers
of messages in a communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal
content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!”
to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your
friend.
The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and
understand messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of
turning thoughts into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious
thought that goes into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning
communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and
encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to
get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, they decode your
communication and turn it back into thoughts in order to make meaning out of it. Of
course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for
communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route on
which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be
sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most
communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your

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 roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get
their attention by waving your hands before you can ask them about dinner. Examples
of model of communication.
Linear model of communication
The linear or transmission model of communication, as shown in Figure below , describes
communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a
message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and
message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model,
this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process.
We are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the
message or does not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model
proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They
were also in uenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the
time such as telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical in uences within
the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in
the radio studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a
verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the
channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in
order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive their message or
not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good
chance that the message was successfully received.Although the transmission model
may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model
allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually
led to more complex models and theories of communication.

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Interactive model of communication
The interactive or interaction model of communication, as shown in Figure describes
communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and
receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within
physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating
communication as a linear, one-way process, the interactive model incorporates
feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback
includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor
may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa
when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a
feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants
in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one
receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant
alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter
going. Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate
between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious
thought.
The interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused.
While the linear model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not
it was received, the interactive model is more concerned with the communication
process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being
sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also
unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in
this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and
received.
The interactive model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical
context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size,
layout, temperature, and lighting of a space in uence our communication. Imagine
the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may
affect your communication. I have had job interviews over the phone, crowded around
a table with eight interviewers, and sitting with few people around an extra large

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 conference table. I’ve also been walked around an of ce to unexpectedly interview
one-on-one, in succession, with multiple members of a search committee over a period
of three hours. Whether it’s the size of the room or other environmental factors, it’s
important to consider the role that physical context plays in our communication.
Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication
encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological
in uences that can affect our communication. Seemingly positive psychological states,
like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication. Feedback and
context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the
communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful
tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

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 Transaction model of communication
As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of
the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a
process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send
messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender
and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop
communicating because communication is more than sending and receiving messages.
The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in
signi cant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender
and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).
The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in
which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural
contexts. In this model, which is shown in the Figure below we don’t just communicate
to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural
alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create
communities.
The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ
signi cantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and
receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators.
Unlike the interactive model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as
sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders
and receivers. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to
understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal
message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are
simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.
The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The
interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological in uences that
enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on
message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication
views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after speci c
interactions occur, it must account for contextual in uences outside of a single
interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and
cultural contexts frame and in uence our communication encounters.
Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide
communication. Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through

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observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a
social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or
teases us. Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of
relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just
met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend
to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we
have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms
and rules more easily. Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as
race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We all have
multiple cultural identities that in uence our communication. Some people, especially
those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of
how their cultural identities in uence their communication and in uence how others
communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in
the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in
their communication. Cultural context is in uenced by numerous aspects of our
identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity.

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 References
Barnlund, D. C. (1970). A transactional model of communication in K.K. Sereno and
C.D. Mortenson (Eds.), Foundations of communication theory (pp. 83-92). New York,
NY: Harper and Row.
Ellis, R. and McClintock, A. (1990). You take my meaning: Theory into practice in
human communication. London: Edward Arnold.
Schramm, W. (1997). The beginnings of communication study in America. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Shannon, C. and Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of
communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

2) Give ve differences between hearing and listening .

Hearing
The natural ability or an inborn trait that allows us to recognize sound through ears
by catching vibrations is called the hearing. In simple terms, it is one of the ve senses;
that makes us aware of the sound. It is an involuntary process, whereby a person
receives sound vibrations, continuously.
A normal human being’s hearing capability ranges from 20 to 20000 Hertz, called as
audio or sonic. Any frequency above and below the given range is known as ultrasonic
and infrasonic respectively.

Listening is de ned as the learned skill, in which we can receive sounds through ears,
and transform them into meaningful messages. To put simply, it is the process of
diligently hearing and interpreting the meaning of words and sentences spoken by the
speaker, during the conversation.

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Listening is a bit dif cult, because it requires concentration and attention, and the
human mind is easily distracted. People use it as a technique to comprehend, what is
being said, through different verbal and non-verbal signs, i.e. how it is being said?
What type of words is used? Tone and pitch of voice, body language and so on.
Active listening is the key element; that makes the communication process effective.
Further, it encompasses making sounds that show listener’s attentiveness and providing
feedback. It had a greater in uence in our lives and used to gain information, learn
and understand things and so on.
Listening can be broken down into one step further: active and passive listening.
Experts often use these terms in the communication world when talking about healthy
relationships among peers, co-workers, romantic partners, friends, and family
members.
Passive vs. active listening
Active listening requires curiosity, motivation, purpose, and effort. The active listener
attempts to internalize and understand what they are hearing to connect with the
other person and participate in a meaningful conversation. In other words, active
listening is the way you want to listen if you want to understand or if you are looking
to solve a problem with another individual.
On the opposite end of the listening spectrum is passive listening. Passive listening is
listening that is characterized as being disconnected, inattentive, and unreceptive. A
passive listener has no desire to contribute effectively to the conversation. A passive
listener most likely already has an opinion formed and is unwilling to work with the
other individual to come to a solution. Passive listening is not a great way to
communicate with people you are striving to form relationships with.
Types of Listening
We don't always listen for the same purpose - we actually listen in several different
ways:
Informational listening: We engage in this type of listening to gain and understand
information. This is the type of listening we generally do in class when we are trying
to process new information.
Critical listening: We engage in this type of listening when we are trying to form
opinions, make judgments, or to evaluate people and ideas. This is the type of
listening a professor does as she listens to a student speech or as she reads a student’s
persuasive essay.

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Relational listening: We engage in this type of listening when we are trying to focus on
supporting another person or maintaining a relationship. This is the type of listening
we engage in with our closest friends and our relatives.
Listening for pleasure: We engage in this type of listening for entertainment or
enjoyment. This is the type of listening we engage in as we listen to music or to a
comedy group.
Listening to discriminate: We engage in this type of listening when we are
discriminating between sounds. This is the type of listening a parent does when he
hears his baby crying. The parent is discriminating between a “I am hurt” cry, a “I am
hungry” cry, or a “I am alone is there someone out there?” cry.

HEARING LISTENING

Hearing is the act of perceiving sound Listening is the act of hearing

and receiving sound waves or vibrations a sound and understanding
through your ear. what you hear.

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 Hearing is one of the ve senses and it Listening Requires
just happens all the time – whether you concentration so that your
like it or not – unless you have a hearing brain processes meaning
problem from words and sentences.
Hearing simply happens. Listening leads to learning.

Hearing is a skill where you use your Listening uses different

ears only. It one of the ve senses. senses, like the sense of
hearing, seeing, or sense of
Hearing is an involuntary act where you Listening is a skill that lets the
simply receive vibrations through your sound you hear go through
ears. your brain to process the
meaning of it.
Physiological Psychological

Subconscious level Conscious level

Concentration is not required Concentration is required

Summary:
1. Hearing and Listening uses both your ears.
2. Hearing is receiving sound waves through your ears, while listening
means hearing and understanding what you’ve heard.
3. Hearing is part of the ve senses, while listening is a choice to hear and
analyze what you hear.
4. Hearing is using your ears only, while listening is using your body’s
other senses.
5. Listening is observing other’s behavior that can add meaning to the
message, while hearing is simply receiving sound vibrations.
6. Listening can build better relationships with others, while hearing
cannot.
7. Take good care of your ears; you cannot listen when you cannot hear.
References: Online
• http://www.differencebetween.net/science/nature/difference-between-
listening-and-hearing/
• http://www.differencebetween.info/difference-between-listening-and-
hearing

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 3) With appropriate illustrations give the formats of note
taking

Note making (also known as note-taking) is the practice of keeping the record from
different sources. By taking notes, one can record the essence of the information,
freeing their minds from having to recall everything. Notes are commonly drawn from
a brief source, such as a lecture or an oral discussion at a meeting in which case the
notes may be the only record of the event or from a long content. Note making is not
just only about writing down everything you read or hear but also a process of
synthesizing and reviewing ideas from your lectures or reading
Advantages of Note Making
Few advantages of note-making are as follows
• It has great importance in exams or academic writing
• It is a record of the main points of a meeting, lecture, or study for future use
• It helps in keeping the information handy whenever we require it
• Note making helps in recollecting and recalling the past events said or heard
• It helps in understanding, concentrating, and provides a permanent record
• The format helps a writer to go through bulky documents faster
• It helps in understanding a concept easily, if the notes are in your own words
• It helps to distinguish between the key points and details.
• Few common Note making Methods are listed below.

• The Cornell Method

• The Outlining Method
• The Mapping Method
• The Charting Method
• The Sentence Metho
Cornell Note Taking”
It is a system for taking, organizing and reviewing notes and has been devised by
Prof. Walter Pauk of Cornell University in the 1950s. In fact, the outline method is
likely inspired by this method as there are similarities to it
In this method, you are still using key points, but this method goes deeper into the
organizing method. For one, the page is broken into three sections:
• a narrow column called the “cue”
• a wider column for your actual notes
• a summary at the bottom

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The cue section is the section where you fill out main points, people, potential test
questions and more. This section is devoted to helping you recall larger topics and
ideas.
The note section is devoted to expanding and explaining those cue points. You still
want to summarize them to an extent using headings. When getting into specifics,
you want to indent them and use a numbering system, either roman numerals,
numbers, or letters.
The summary section is the section you write up at the end summarizing all of the
information in a clear sentence or two. You want both the summary and the cue to
be simple seeing as your notes are where you want all of the details.

The Outline Metho

This method is used for simplicity and is one of the easiest methods of taking notes.
Anyone can pick up this method and use it with no issues.
When using this method, the idea is to select four or five key points that are
going to be covered in a specific lesson. Under those key points, you write
more in-depth sub-points based on what is being discussed on those topics.
The idea with this form of note taking is so it doesn’t overwhelm you. But you’ll pay
attention in a different manner. In the case of this approach, if you know what’s
being discussed, you’ll focus on the important aspects of that topic rather than
wonder what’s coming up next.
Use this method in cases where:
• You want your notes to be organized from the start.
• To see the relationships between both topics and subtopics.
• You want to convert the points into questions to quiz yourself on later.

Mind Mapping Metho

Mind mapping is a method that works for subjects that have interlocking topics or
complex and abstract ideas. Chemistry, history, and philosophy are examples where
this method shines.
The use of the map is to serve as a visual aid for how every topic is related to one
another. It also allows you to go into detail on particular ideas or topics. An example
of this at work is looking at the French Revolution.
First, you’d start with that concept at the center and then begin branching off that led
to events, and people that sparked the French Revolution.
You can start off with broad general ideas and during the course or when you
are reviewing, you can add in sub-concepts to those branches. Things like
dates, support facts, concepts that you see between people and events.

That being said, this method doesn’t apply to only those kinds of topics. Any kind of
topic that you can break into various points can also help as well. Another example
can be talking about different forms of learning and using the nodes to discuss each
method and what each one is like.

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. Flow Notes Metho

Discussed in a post in College Info Geek,[4] this method is for those who want to
maximize active learning in the classroom and save time in reviewing.

The idea of flow notes is to treat yourself as a student rather than transcribing word
for word. In this method, you’ll jot down topics, then start drawing arrows,
make doodles, diagrams and graphs to get a general idea out there.
This method also helps in drawing other bridges and form connections in various
fields or within the subject. If some information reminds you of another piece of
information or technique, make a note and jot it down.The only catch with this
method is that while it’s great for learning at that moment, you may have a tough
time reviewing them later. You may want to pair this method with another method
mentioned above.

The Sentence Metho

Another simple method and is a lesser version of flow notes. The idea with this is a
simple note-taking. You’re jotting down everything that’s being said to the
best of your ability. It’s genuine transcription at it’s finest.
The problem with this method is that it can be tough to keep up with everything else
that’s happening. If you’re writing notes by hand, you will definitely be missing key
points and ideas. On a computer, you may be able to keep up, however, you may face
challenges still.

Despite those problems, there are still advantages to this method. Compared to every
other method, this provides the most details and information for review:
• You can still be brief by covering the main points.
• Your notes are already simplified for you to study and review them
immediately.

Charting Metho

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Charting notes take the Cornell method and divide a sheet into three columns.
Similar to the mind mapping method, this helps you in connecting relationships and
facts together between topics.
This method is a lazier method than the other ones mentioned above but works for
the people who want to highlight key pieces of information on various topics
and want to organize facts for easy review.

Writing on Slide
The final method is another strategy for people who can’t be bothered to take
extensive notes. This method works well particularly in classes where the instructor
provides slides that they’re using for their lectures.
Whether it’s a handout or you can download them online, all you need to do is print
them off and start writing away on them.
This method is great because it removes a lot of the worry of taking general notes.
Since ideas and concepts are already discussed, it’s a matter of expanding those
notes already.

References
AJPE: Effect of Pre-class Preparation of Legal Cases on In-class
Performance
^ MiaMioh: Note Taking Styles – Miami University
^ COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES: Cornell Notes
^ College Info Geek: How To Take Better Notes: The 6 Best Note-
Taking Systems

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