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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Chapter 7: Nonverbal Communication Skills

Multiple Choice Questions

1) Which of the following choices have Ekman and Friesen identified as key sources of
nonverbal cues?
A) face, hands, and feet
B) eyes and face
C) body orientation
D) pitch, volume, and intensity
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.1
Learning Objective: 7.1 Explain why nonverbal communication is an important area of study.
Topic: Identifying the Importance of Nonverbal Communication
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

2) Alejandro was sitting by himself in the quad, leaned over, with his head resting on the heels
of his hands. Joe approached and said, “Hey Alejandro, you look sad.” Alejandro responded,
“Huh? No, I’m just thinking.” Which difficulty in interpreting nonverbal behavior does this
exchange exemplify?
A) Nonverbal messages are often ambiguous.
B) Nonverbal messages are continuous.
C) Nonverbal cues are multichanneled.
D) Nonverbal interpretation is culture-based.
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply the Concepts

3) President Nixon visited Latin America on a goodwill tour. As he exited the plane he gave the
A-OK sign. Many Latin Americans were offended by this gesture, because in their region
this was an obscene gesture. Of which difficulty in interpreting nonverbal behavior should
President Nixon been more aware?
A) Nonverbal messages are often ambiguous.
B) Nonverbal messages are continuous.
C) Nonverbal cues are multichanneled.
D) Nonverbal interpretation is culture-based.
Answer: D
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.

Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply the Concepts

4) In what stage of quasi-courtship behavior are we engaging when we manipulate our

appearance by combing our hair, straightening our tie, and double-checking our appearance?
A) courtship readiness
B) preening
C) positional cues
D) appeals to invitation
Answer: B
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

5) In what stage of quasi-courtship behavior are we engaged when we move closer to someone,
adopt an open body posture, and make eye contact?
A) courtship readiness
B) preening
C) positional cues
D) appeals to invitation
Answer: D
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

6) Dr. Wheeler walks into class several minutes late. He has always been strict about classes
starting on time, so you think about teasing him by saying, “You’re lucky we didn’t all just
leave.” But then you notice that Dr. Wheeler’s voice is flat, his brow is furrowed, and his eye
contact is indirect and decide he may not receive your good-natured ribbing in the way you
intend. What theory describes how you adapted to Dr. Wheeler’s nonverbal communication?
A) expectancy violation theory
B) emotional contagion theory
C) interaction adaptation theory
D) interactional synchrony theory
Answer: C
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.1
Learning Objective: 7.1 Explain why nonverbal communication is an important area of study.

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Topic: Identifying the Importance of Nonverbal Communication

Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

7) Josephus can’t seem to talk without using his hands. He is always pointing, shaping, and
indicating size when he talks. How would you classify Josephus’ actions?
A) illustrators
B) regulators
C) emblems
D) adaptors
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

8) In your public speaking class, you are asked to evaluate the delivery of a classmate. You
critique her vocal characteristics, eye contact, gestures, and appearance, but find that you can
really only pay attention to one category at a time. Your experiences support what challenge
of interpreting nonverbal messages?
A) Nonverbal messages are often ambiguous.
B) Nonverbal cues are multichanneled.
C) Nonverbal messages are continuous.
D) Nonverbal interpretation is culture-based.
Answer: B
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

9) Which function is involved when eye contact gives you information about another person’s
thought processes?
A) cognitive
B) monitoring
C) regulatory
D) expressive
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Skill: Remember the Facts

10) An open mouth, tense skin under the eyes, and wrinkles in the center of the forehead are
facial expressions that indicate
A) surprise.
B) fear.
C) disgust.
D) anger.
Answer: B
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

11) Which function is involved when we use eye contact to signal when we want to talk and
when we don’t?
A) cognitive
B) monitoring
C) regulatory
D) expressive
Answer: C
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

12) Which function is involved when our eye contact reveals our emotions to others?
A) cognitive
B) monitoring
C) regulatory
D) expressive
Answer: D
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

13) What is the study of personal space and the meaning of distance in our interpersonal
relationships called?
A) proxemics

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

B) kinesics
C) chronemics
D) paralanguage
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

14) Which of the following is the name for the zone of personal space used for personal
interactions, typically ranging from 0 to 1.5 feet?
A) personal space
B) intimate space
C) social space
D) public space
Answer: B
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

15) Ekman called some ________ “gymnasts of the mind,” because they were surprisingly
sensitive to detecting microexpressions.
A) Buddhists
B) police officers
C) women
D) judges
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

16) In which zone are you most comfortable talking with friends and family?
A) intimate
B) personal
C) social
D) public
Answer: B
Chapter number: 07

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Module number: 7.2

Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

17) While a person’s facial expression and vocal cues communicate a specific emotional
response, his or her posture and gestures communicate the ________ of the emotion
expressed.
A) reality
B) interpretation
C) intensity
D) specificity
Answer: C
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

18) Oftentimes, a student will sit in the same seat all semester and may become upset if someone
else takes his or her seat. This behavior reflects which category of nonverbal behavior?
A) territoriality
B) proxemics
C) appearance
D) body movement
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

19) What are nonverbal cues that communicate liking and engender feelings of pleasure called?
A) immediacy cues
B) arousal cues
C) dominance cues
D) friendship cues
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Easy

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Skill: Remember the Facts

20) The face, voice, and movement are the primary indicators of
A) immediacy cues.
B) arousal cues.
C) dominance cues.
D) friendship cues.
Answer: B
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

21) Which of the following theories suggests that people tend to “catch” the same emotions that a
communication partner is displaying?
A) expression mimic theory
B) facial reaction theory
C) reflection theory
D) emotional contagion theory
Answer: D
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal messages
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

22) Keith is studying human communication so he can gain greater expertise in the study of
human movement and gesture, or
A) cryogenics.
B) kinesics.
C) proxemics.
D) backchannel cues.
Answer: B
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

23) Allan notices that Paul is mirroring his gestures as they hold a conversation. This is an
example of which of the following?
A) perception checking

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

B) regulators
C) territorial markers
D) interactional synchrony
Answer: D
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.1
Learning Objective: 7.1 Explain why nonverbal communication is an important area of study.
Topic: Identifying the Importance of Nonverbal Communication
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

24) What is the first step to improving how you express your feelings to others?
A) being aware of your nonverbal behaviors
B) being aware of your verbal behaviors
C) practicing how you communicate verbally
D) asking others for feedback
Answer: A
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.4
Learning Objective: 7.4 Enhance your skill in expressing nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Expressing Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

25) Mara's goal is to express her support and encouragement to Clay, who is going through a
hard time at home. She needs to ensure that her
A) support is primarily in the form of listening.
B) verbal messages convey her support, even if her nonverbal ones don't.
C) nonverbal messages convey her support, even if her verbal ones don't.
D) nonverbal messages express the same sentiments that she conveys verbally.
Answer: D
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.4
Learning Objective: 7.4 Enhance your skill in expressing nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Expressing Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

True/False Questions

1) When the verbal and nonverbal messages contradict, we tend to put more faith in the verbal.
Answer: FALSE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.4
Learning Objective: 7.4 Enhance your skill in expressing nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Expressing Nonverbal Messages

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

2) Verbal messages are easier to fake than nonverbal messages.

Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.1
Learning Objective: 7.1 Explain why nonverbal communication is an important area of study.
Topic: Identifying the Importance of Nonverbal Communication
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

3) While words are discrete entities, nonverbal behaviors are continuous.

Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

4) The more at ease you are sharing silence in a relationship, the more comfortable you are
together.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

5) English speakers tend to use nonverbal illustrators at the beginning of clauses and phrases.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

6) Pushing your glasses back up on your nose, scratching a mosquito bite, or combing your hair
are examples of adaptors.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes

Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

7) Research suggests that women have greater variety in their emotional expressions and spend
more time smiling than men.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

8) Research suggests that facial expressions are contagious, meaning that when other people
smile, we smile, and when they frown, we frown.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

9) Trying to interpret what an individual is expressing through his or her nonverbal behavior is
part of the perception-checking process.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

10) Interaction adaptation theory describes how people adapt to the communication behavior of
others and suggests that we respond not only to what people say, but also to their nonverbal
expressions.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.1
Learning Objective: 7.1 Explain why nonverbal communication is an important area of study.
Topic: Identifying the Importance of Nonverbal Communication
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

11) When trying to detect lying, it is more accurate to focus on a particular cue like eye contact

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

than to try to look for clusters of cues.

Answer: FALSE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

12) If you extend your hand to be shaken, only to have it kissed by your partner, you experience
expectancy violation.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

13) You are more likely to make eye contact with another person if you are talking, rather than
listening to him or her.
Answer: FALSE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

14) Nonverbal cues are "leaked," or unintentionally communicated, by most people when
interacting with others.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.4
Learning Objective: 7.4 Enhance your skill in expressing nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Expressing Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Easy
Skill: Remember the Facts

15) Your nonverbal behaviors may be sending messages that you are feeling anxious or nervous,
even if you are not aware that you are feeling anxious or nervous.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.4
Learning Objective: 7.4 Enhance your skill in expressing nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Expressing Nonverbal Messages

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

Essay Questions

1) List the names and distances, in order from closest to farthest, of Hall’s four spatial zones.
Answer:
 Intimate, 0 feet to 1.5 feet
 Personal, 1.5 feet to 4 feet
 Social, 4 feet to 12 feet
 Public, 12 feet and beyond
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

2) Identify and explain two of the four stages of quasi-courtship behavior.

Answer:
 Courtship readiness occurs when we are initially attracted to someone. We try to adjust
our image by sucking in our stomach, standing straighter, and tensing our muscles.
 Preening behaviors occur when we begin to manipulate our appearance by straightening
our clothes, smoothing our hair, and double-checking our appearance in the mirror.
 Positional cues occur when we adjust our posture and orientation so as to be noticed.
 Appeals to invitation are signals that communicate our availability by close proximity,
exposed skin, open body posture, and direct eye contact.
The most common nonverbal cues used to communicate liking within a U.S. population
sample included an open body and arm position, a forward lean, and a relaxed posture.
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

3) Name and give examples of three of the five categories of movement and gestures identified
by Ekman and Friesen.
Answer:
 Emblems are nonverbal cues that have specific, generally understood meanings in a given
culture and may substitute for a word or phrase. An example would be when a parent puts
up a finger to his or her pursed lips to indicate to a child to stop talking.
 Illustrators are nonverbal behaviors that accompany a verbal message and either
contradict, accent, or complement it. An example would be when a professor slams a
book on the desk while proclaiming, “I don’t want to read this anymore!”
 Regulators are nonverbal messages that help to control the interaction or flow of

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

communication between two people. An example would be when you are eager to
respond to a message, you make eye contact, raise your eyebrows, open your mouth, put
up your index finger, and lean forward slightly.
 Affect displays are nonverbal behaviors that communicate emotions. For example, when
you are feeling friendly, you use a soft tone of voice, an open smile, and a relaxed
posture.
 Adaptors are nonverbal behaviors that satisfy a personal need and help a person adapt or
respond to the immediate situation. When you adjust your glasses, scratch a mosquito
bite, or comb your hair, you use movement to help manage your personal needs and
“adapt” to your surroundings.
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

4) Identify and briefly describe three of the four functions researchers have identified for eye
contact in interpersonal interactions.
Answer:
 a cognitive function that gives information about another person’s thought process
 a monitoring function to help us determine if someone is receptive or understands us
 a regulatory function used to signal our desire to talk or not talk
 an expressive function that reveals our emotions to others
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply the Concepts

5) Explain interactional synchrony and give an example.

Answer: Interactional synchrony refers to relating by mirroring the posture or behavior of
others or gesturing in sync with their communication patterns. For example, sometimes we
may find ourselves consciously gesturing in synch with someone’s vocal pattern. Or, at other
times, we may not be aware as when our friends are folding their arms across their chests as
we do, too. Being nonverbally in synch with someone helps to establish rapport with another
person.
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.1
Learning Objective: 7.1 Explain why nonverbal communication is an important area of study.
Topic: Identifying the Importance of Nonverbal Communication
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

6) Identify the role that each of the four spatial zones identified by Hall plays in interpersonal

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 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

relationships.
Answer:
 Allowing someone into our intimate zone suggests that we have or desire an intimate
relationship with the other person. If this is not the case, such as in an elevator or fast-
food line, we may feel uncomfortable and ill at ease.
 The personal zone is reserved for people with whom we have a close, yet not intimate,
relationship: friends, family, and some acquaintances. If someone you don’t know well
invades this space on purpose, you many feel uncomfortable.
 Social space reflects a more formal or professional relationship. Most group interactions
take place in this zone.
 Public space reflects relatively impersonal relationships. This zone of space is most often
used by public speakers or anyone speaking to many people.
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

7) Provide an appropriate perception check for the following situation: You walk into the
Student Union to meet Brandy for lunch. When you sit down at the table, Brandy turns away
from you, averts her eyes, says she isn’t hungry, and gives only brief replies to your
comments.
Answer:
 A perception check needs to focus on your interpretation of Brandy’s emotional state.
 A simple perception check would be, “Brandy, I’m gathering by your body language, the
fact that you won’t even look at me, and your lack of responsiveness that you’re upset.
You look angry. What’s up?”
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skills in interpreting nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

8) Describe one way to improve your interpretation of someone else’s nonverbal behavior to
improve accuracy.
Answer: Nonverbal messages are more ambiguous than verbal messages, so it’s important to
check your interpretations for accuracy. One of the most important ways is to be aware of a
person’s normal, baseline way of responding. For example, the fidgeting of fingers or tapping
of toes may signal inattention, frustration, or anxiety, but if you know that your
communication partner normally fidgets or taps, then it’s just his or her habit.
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.4
Learning Objective: 7.4 Enhance your skill in expressing nonverbal messages.
Topic: Improving Your Skill in Expressing Nonverbal Messages

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
14
 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Understand the Concepts

9) Explain how understanding our own use of each of the following can help us understand how
we communicate interpersonally with others: emblems, illustrators, affect displays,
regulators, adaptors.
Answer:
 Noting how often we use emblems instead of words might help us recognize how
important they are to our relationships. We may use emblems that have unique meanings
for us and the people with whom we communicate.
 Monitoring illustrators can help us determine whether we are sending mixed messages
that confuse the people with whom we communicate.
 If other people have trouble reading our emotional state, then we may not be using affect
displays appropriately, thus not projecting our feelings nonverbally.
 If we don’t use regulators, or use them improperly, we may not give others a chance to
talk or we may not let them know when we want to express something.
 If we misuse adaptors—scratching at the wrong time or wrong place, for example, we
may offend or confuse the people with whom we communicate. Frequent self-adaptors,
such as touching your cheek, may signal increased nervousness or self-consciousness.
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.2
Learning Objective: 7.2 Identify and describe eight nonverbal communication codes.
Topic: Understanding Nonverbal Communication Codes
Difficulty: Difficult
Skill: Apply What You Know

10) In what ways do understanding the concepts of immediacy, arousal, and dominance help us
understand how our nonverbal cues are interpreted?
Answer:
 Immediacy cues increase our sensory awareness of others. If people move away from us,
we will probably interpret that as a negative reaction and vice versa. Touch is another
immediacy cue that implies closeness or a preference to stay away. High feelings of
affection may be accompanied by more immediacy cues. We tend to reciprocate
immediacy cues from others, including proximity, body orientation, eye contact, facial
expressions, gestures, posture, touch, and voice. We move toward persons and things we
like, and we avoid or move away from those we dislike.
 People who are aroused and interested in us show animation in their face, voice, and
gestures. A forward lean, a flash of the eyebrows, and a nod of the head are other cues
that implicitly communicate arousal. Understanding these aspects of arousal can make us
aware of when others are interested or uninterested in us.
 Dominance is often exercised nonverbally by the use of space, eye contact, facial
expression, touch, voice, gesture, and posture. Our dominance over other people or vice
versa is interpreted by others according to how we use these cues.
Chapter number: 07
Module number: 7.3
Learning Objective: 7.3 Enhance your skill in interpreting nonverbal messages.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
15
 Beebe, Beebe and Redmond - Interpersonal Communication, 8e Testbank

Topic: Improving Your Skill in Interpreting Nonverbal Messages

Difficulty: Moderate
Skill: Apply What You Know

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
16
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
The angle I was not able to determine with absolute accuracy, as the
vertical circle of the theodolite I had with me was out of adjustment.
Taking the latitude of Edfû as 25°, and assuming the angle of 40°
to be not far from the truth, the North Polar distance of the star
observed would be 15°.
Within a degree or so—and this is as near as we can get till more
accurate observations have been made on the spot—this satisfies
Dubhe, the chief star in the Great Bear in the time of the Ptolemies.
Supposing the temple was originally oriented to Dubhe, its
amplitude, 86½° S. of W., gives us the date 3900 b.c. I shall show,
however, that it is more probable that the temple was oriented on
some southern star.
I may here remark that, so far as I know, Edfû is the temple in
Egypt nearest the meridian. If, therefore, it were used as, on my
theory, all other temples were, it could only have picked up the light
from each of the southerly stars, as by the precessional movements
they were brought into visibility very near the southern horizon.
In this respect, then, it is truly a temple of Horns, in relation to the
southern stars—the southern eyes of Horus. But it was not a sun-
temple in the sense that Karnak was one; and if ceremonies were
performed for which light was required, perhaps the apparatus
referred to by the writer Dupuis[48] was utilised. He mentions that in
a temple at Heliopolis—whether a solar temple or not is not stated—
the temple was flooded all day long with sunlight by means of a
mirror. I do not know the authorities on which Dupuis founds his
statement, but I have no doubt that it is amply justified, for the
reason that doubtless all the inscriptions in the deepest tombs were
made by means of reflected sunlight, for in all freshly-opened tombs
there are no traces whatever of any kind of combustion having taken
place, even in the inner-most recesses. So strikingly evident is this
that my friend M. Bouriant, while we were discussing this matter at
Thebes, laughingly suggested the possibility that the electric light
was known to the ancient Egyptians.
 With a system of fixed mirrors inside the galleries, whatever their
length, and a movable mirror outside to follow the course of an
Egyptian sun and reflect its beams inside, it would be possible to
keep up a constant illumination in any part of the galleries, however
remote.
Dupuis quotes another statement that the greatest precautions
were taken that the first rays of sunlight should enter a temple (of
course, he means a solar temple).
But it is possible that there might have been another temple at
right angles, facing nearly due east. In this case, the larger temple
would have been named after the worship to which the smaller one
was dedicated. If so, unlike the solar temples at Heliopolis, Abydos,
and Thebes, the Edfû temple was sacred to the Equinoctial Sun, or,
at all events, to the Sun very near an equinox.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
THE STAR-TEMPLES AT KARNAK.

When I began my studies of the Egyptian temples the building

inscriptions referred to in the preceding chapter lay forgotten in the
Egyptologist's archives. I purpose now to give some account of my
work at Thebes, where I made a special study of the temples,
because there is a very great number there, and many are in a fair
state of preservation. These investigations convinced me that
temples were oriented to stars before the inscriptions in question
were known to me, although the whole temple field is so crowded
with temples, each apparently blocking up the fair-way of the other,
that it seems well-nigh impossible that any such process as that
described in the last chapter could have been applied.
This difficulty will be gathered from the accompanying folding
plate giving a reproduction of Lepsius's general maps of the temple
region of Karnak, showing his reference letters and also the true
north and the orientation of the chief temples. We have already
dealt with the solar temple of Amen-Rā.
We find, beginning at the south, a large temple with a long line of
sphinxes, the temple of Mut (x) facing the large temple of Amen-Rā
(k). To the north of the latter is another temple system (a and b and
c), also with an avenue of sphinxes. On the east side of k another
temple (o) is only slightly indicated.
 PLAN OF THE TEMPLES AT KARNAK (FROM LEPSIUS), FOLLOWING THEIR
ORIENTATIONS.

To the south of the large temple k is another one—that of Khons

(t), also with its sphinxes. Connected with k are two other temples,
l, nearly, and m, exactly, at right angles to it. There is also such a
rectangular temple (y) added to the temple of Mut. I also call
attention to the temples v and w, chiefly to point out that when I
went over the ground with M. Bouriant it seemed to us as if the
temple v faced S.E. and not N.W. as indicated by Lepsius. Very few
traces of the temple are left.
Since the labours of the French and Prussian Governments gave
full records of Karnak a memoir on the temples has been published
by Mariette, which gives us not only plans, but precious information
relating to the periods at which, and the kings by whom, the various
parts of the temples were constructed or modified. No doubt those
which are still traceable form only a very small portion of those
which once existed; but however that may be, I have now only to
call attention to some among them.
I have previously shown that the magnificent work of Mariette has
supplied us with building dates for the solar temple to which
reference has been made; so that we have, with more or less
accuracy, the sequence of the various parts of the completed
building.
 If we consider the plan without any reference to the building dates
at all, the idea that the smaller temples were built for observations
of stars seems to be entirely discountenanced. The temple l, for
instance, instead of having a clear horizon, is blocked by the very
solid wall (2) and its accompanying columns; the temple m, instead
of having a clear horizon, is absolutely blocked by two of the line of
pillars (1) very carefully built in front of it. But if we consult Mariette,
we find in both cases that the wall was built long after one temple,
and the pillars were built long after the other.
This result is satisfactory, inasmuch as it indicates that a natural
objection to the orientation hypothesis is invalid. But can we
strengthen it by supporting Mariette's statement as to the dates?
Mariette states that the temple m was built by Rameses III., a king
of the twentieth dynasty. With this datum, we consider the
orientation of the temple. The problem is one of this kind:—Taking
the Egyptologist's date for Rameses III. at 1200 b.c., and taking the
amplitude of the temple as 63½° N. of E., was there, when that
temple was built, any star opposite to it, any star to which it
accurately pointed? We can translate the amplitude of that temple
into the declination of a star, making a slight correction for the
stated conditions of observation in Egypt, which would make the
apparent amplitude less than the true one, because the star would
appear to rise more to the south. In the absence of precise
information, we are justified in taking the mean of the values
referred to by Biot—that is, an apparent amplitude due to a stratum
of haze 1½° high, especially as the temple looked away from the
Nile.
Searching the astronomical tables, we find that there was a star
visible along the temple axis. The star was γ Draconis.
So much for the temple m. We now proceed to the other one
lettered l, the temple of Seti II.
The amplitude of temple L is 63° S. of W., and the date, according
to Mariette, 1300 b.c. We find the declination, proceeding as before,
and assuming hills 1½° high, to be 53½° S., and about that date
the bright star Canopus set on the alignment of the temple.
It will hence be gathered that just as truly as the temple m seems
to have been pointed to the northern star γ Draconis rising, the
temple l was pointed to the southern star Canopus, setting.
But this is not all. There is another temple to which I have already
directed attention—the temple of Khons (t of Lepsius), founded by
Rameses III., though as it comes to us it is a Ptolemaic structure, it
having been enlarged and restored by the Ptolemies. It is very
nearly, but not quite, parallel to the temple of Seti II.
My measures and those of Lepsius give, approximately, amplitudes
as under—
Temple of Seti (t) 63° S. of W.
Temple of Khons (l) 62° "

Continuing, therefore, the same line of inquiry, and assuming that

Mariette was right, and that the temple was really finally completed
(and no doubt its axis revised) by the Ptolemies, and that they
flourished about 200 b.c., we have the same problem. Was there a
star towards which that temple could have been directed, and which
could have been seen in that temple with its actual orientation?
Calculation shows that the change of amplitude of Canopus due to
the precessional movement between 1300 b.c. and 200 b.c. is almost
exactly 1°, the difference in the amplitude of the temples. We seem,
then, to have in the temples l and t two temples directed to the
same star at different times.
These statements must be taken as provisional only. To render
them absolute, careful measurements must be made, on the spot, of
the heights of the hills towards which the temples point.
Leaving this for the moment on one side, we get in this manner
astronomical dates of the reigns of Seti II. and Rameses III. within a
very few years of those given by the Egyptologists.
 More than this, the application of this method entirely justifies
Mariette's view with regard to these more modern temples at
Thebes, and shows that when they were built the outlook was clear,
so that the building ceremonials referred to in the last chapter might
have been performed.
I am next anxious to point out that not only is this so, but,
accepting it, we can explain exactly why the walls and temples and
columns were erected in the sequence which Mariette indicates. We
not only know when they were built, but we can presently
understand why they were built.
The first point to which I draw attention in this matter is the
following:—Referring to the plan, we find that before the time of
Rameses III. the temple of Seti II. was right out in the open. It thus
represented just one of those external rectangular temples which
have been found at Denderah and at very many other places in
Egypt. It was one of the Egyptian ideas to have two temples at right
angles to each other. That temple, then, stood alone. The next
change seems to have been this: The star Canopus, the setting of
which it was built to watch, was, through the processional
movement to which I have referred, no longer conveniently
observed in that temple. To obviate this the temple t was built by
Rameses III. with a change of amplitude equivalent to the actual
precessional change of the star's declination, to carry on the
observations.
Further, at the same time another temple (m) was built to observe
γ Draconis. It is now easy to understand what the 21st—a Theban—
dynasty did. Seti's temple (l) had been superseded; the temple m
was a second rectangular temple outside the great temple of Karnak
(k). They said to themselves: "We will make Karnak more beautiful,
and we will extend it. We can now build walls in continuation of the
old walls, and we can build still another pylon, because Seti's temple
is no longer being used, the worship having been transferred to the
temple of Rameses III. (Khons). By building the northern wall we
prevent the use of temple M, sacred to our enemy Sutech."
 I should add that the opening in the wall, in prolongation of the
axis of temple m, is not directly opposite the temple m, but a little to
the east; it was probably made later, possibly by the twenty-second
dynasty, who were Set worshippers. Again, coming to the time of
Taharqa, returning at the end of the exile of the priests of Amen in
Nubia, the temple, M was again thrown out of use. Pillars were built
in front of it, right in the fair-way, affording an instance that when a
temple was thrown out of use, not by the precessional movement of
the star to which it had been directed, but by the partisans of
another creed, the fact of its being no longer in operation was
insured by something being built in front of it, to prevent
observation of the stellar divinity no longer in vogue.
It may be added that long after the temple of Seti II. fell out of
astronomical use, and was on that account blocked by the walls of
the twenty-first dynasty, the Ptolemies built a new temple of Osiris,
which, if built before, would have been in the fair-way of the temple
of Seti. Thus, there is a reason for all the changes made at all the
dates referred to by Mariette.
I think we find in this result of the inquiry a valuable corroboration
of Mariette's conclusions, and another reason why we should not
cease to admire his magnificent works.
So far I have only referred to the relatively modern parts of
Karnak. I now pass to the more ancient ones, in which we ought to
note the same laws holding good, if there be any value in the view
we are discussing.
We find that some of the most important temples given by Lepsius
and Mariette (b, x, and w) are just as effectively blocked by the mass
of the temple of Amen-Rā as those we have already considered were
by the walls of the twenty-first dynasty and Taharqa's columns; and,
looking at the plan, it seems at first perfectly absurd to continue to
hold for one moment the idea that these temples were built for
observations of stars on the horizon.
 The temple x (Mut) is blocked by the pylon marked 3, the temple b
by the eastern end of the great temple, the temple w by the temple
o.

Mariette here again comes to our rescue to a certain extent. He

shows, as I have stated in Chapter XI., that in the beginning of
things, certainly in the twelfth dynasty, possibly in the eleventh
dynasty, and possibly even before that, only the central part, marked
4, of the solar temple existed, less as a temple than as a shrine, with
nothing to the west of it and nothing to the east of it.
That being so, the temple b gets its fair-way to the south, and the
temple of Mut (x) and the smaller temple (w) to the north.
Mariette in his two plates shows the growth of the temple of
Amen-Rā in a most admirable way, from the central portion of the
temple to which I have referred—that, is, the small central court,
which, he is careful to note, existed before Thothmes I.; how much
before, he does not say. Afterwards, the pylons are added; then they
are elaborated; then the sanctuary is thrown back to the eastward,
and the temple O built, and B thereby blocked, and then thrown
forward to the westward, thus blocking x and z.
If there is anything in these considerations at all, it is suggested
that all the temples to which 1 have referred were founded before
these easterly and westerly extensions, of which Mariette gives us
such ample evidence.
In a subsequent chapter it is suggested that this great lengthening
of the original shrine of Amen-Rā was undertaken for the purpose of
blocking temples x, z, and w, all dedicated to Set. Thothmes III. and
Taharqa had precisely the same objects in view, apparently.
Here, however, we meet a real difficulty. Mariette states that, so
far as he has been able to find, the temple b, a temple of which the
worship is Amen, and the temple x, in which the worship is Mut,
were built by Amen-hetep III. If that were so, they would have been
built blocked; none of the usual ceremonials could have been
employed at their foundation. They could not have been used at all
for astronomical purposes, because their horizons were blocked by
these extensions of the temple of Amen-Rā.
Here I must refer specially to temple b. Its amplitude is, according
to Lepsius, 63½° S. of W. I have already shown that the amplitudes
of temples l (Khons) and t (Seti II.) are 62° and 63° S. of W., and
that in the times of the Ptolemies and Seti II., each faced the star
Canopus in turn. Hence the probability that we have three temples
of nearly equal orientation sacred to the same divinity.
Temple. Orientation. Declination. Date.
Khons 62 52½° 300 b.c.
Seti II. 63 53½° 1350 b.c.
b 63½ 54 1800 b.c.

The statement is that the part of the temple of Amen-Rā, the

building of which blocked b, was commenced by Thothmes III.,
whose date, according to Brugsch, is 1600 b.c., and continued by
Amen-hetep III. (1500 b.c.). Unless, then, some other provision was
made, the observations of Canopus were not continued until another
shrine was built. We know that another shrine was built, that of Seti
II., and that its orientation gives a date of 1350 b.c. It might have
been commenced by Seti I. after the Khu-en-Aten troubles, and
finished by Seti II.
One is therefore tempted to ask whether we have not here one of
those crucial cases which Mariette himself contemplated, in which
the true foundation is so far anterior to the last restoration or the
last decoration, from which, for the most part, the archæologist gets
his information, that one is absolutely misled by the restorations or
decorations as to the true date of the original foundation of the
shrine.[49]
If the archæologists are right in attributing the granite temple of
Osiris (?), near the sphinx, to a date anterior to, or even
contemporaneous with, the second pyramid, we have evidence that
in the early dynasties the temple building in stone, and even in
granite brought from Aswân, was as perfect in the matter of
workmanship as in the eighteenth dynasty; and that it was not then
the fashion to inscribe walls, but only statues and stelas. May it
possibly be that the fashion in question came in, or reached its
greatest development, during the eighteenth dynasty, and that on
this account so many temples are ascribed to that period, whereas
they were actually in existence before?
If the prior dynasties built no temples, why did they not do so?
and if they did, where are they, if some of those inscribed by the
eighteenth dynasty be not they?
In the absence of final archæological evidence—that is, admitting
Mariette's own doubt as to the mere existence of inscriptions—are
there any astronomical considerations which may possibly help us?
Assuming that the temples were astronomically oriented, we have
one registering for us the time elapsed since the original direction of
the axis was laid down, in terms of the change in the obliquity of the
ecliptic.
We have others registering time in like manner in terms of the
change due to precession, if we can get any light as to the stars
towards which the temples were oriented.
I have already dealt with the temple of Amen-Rā in Chapter XI.,
and we found a foundation date of 3700 b.c. for the original shrine,
so far as the rough observations already available can be trusted.
Assuming the accuracy of this determination, it is clear that we must
look for stars with appropriate amplitudes between that date and say
2500 b.c.
Let us take the temple of Mut (x of Lepsius); its amplitude is 72½
N. of E. This was the amplitude of γ Draconis about 3500 b.c. This
temple, then, bore the same relation to m as t did to l! We have two
cases of two temples erected at different dates to the same star.
Although it has been convenient to begin with Thebes for the
reasons given, the records concerning any one temple there are far
more restricted than those which relate to some temples elsewhere;
while the cult can only be determined in few instances. I propose,
therefore, for the present to content myself with the above general
considerations showing the first application of the method of
investigation adopted, and to pass on to Denderah, where we are
sure of the cult and where many particulars are given.
 CHAPTER XIX.
THE PERSONIFICATION OF STARS—THE
TEMPLE OF ISIS AT DENDERAH.

We have now to pass from the building ceremonials and a general

consideration of the temples at Karnak, to the worships to which the
various temples were dedicated. And to do this we must face the
problems of Egyptian mythology, so far as the names and origins of
the various gods and goddesses are concerned.

PLAN OF DENDERAH. (Mariette.)

There is ample evidence that each temple was sacred to some god
or goddess, although in many cases the name of the patron divinity
has been lost.
Fortunately, at Denderah the patron divinities are well known, so it
will be well to begin with the temples there. We find a general plan
of Denderah among the magnificent drawings which we owe to the
French expedition of 1798. This shows the wall round the temple-
space containing the temple of Hathor, the great temple; and the
smaller temple of Isis at right angles to it. We find, roughly, that the
great temple points to the north-east; the smaller temple of Isis
points to the south-east. A later plan has been published by Mariette
in his work on Denderah.
These, then, are the main conditions of the temples at Denderah.
But we can go a little more closely into them by referring to the map
which accompanies Biot's memoir, to which I have previously
referred. He gives the axis of the Hathor temple pointing, not merely
to the north-east, but to 18° E. of N. Since the other temple lies at
right angles to the great one, its direction, according to Biot, is 18°
S. of E.
To show the uncertainty in these inquiries brought about by the
absence of a proper survey, I may give the following later values:—
1. Lepsius, 1844—
Magnetic azimuth of the axis N. 25° E.
" amplitude " 65° N. of E.
Correction 8½°
∴ Astronomical amplitude 73½° N. of E.
2. Mariette, 1870—
Astronomical azimuth N. 15° E.
" amplitude 75° N. of E.
3. Lockyer, 1891—
Magnetic azimuth of axis N. 23° E.
" amplitude " 67 N. of E.
Assumed correction 4½°
Astronomical amplitude 71½°

As my value agrees closely with that of Biot, I adhere to it; and it

gives, for the amplitude of the temple of Isis at right angles to the
Hathor temple, 18½° S. of E.
Now, it is stated distinctly in the inscriptions that "the place of the
birth of Isis is to the north-west of the temple of Hathor, its portal is
turned to the east, and the sun shines on its portal when it rises to
illuminate the world."[50] We learn from this that the small temple
was locally celebrated as the birthplace of Isis.
It is, then, a temple of Isis. Who was Isis?
Let us begin by considering the temple, remarking that the
inscriptions, apparently relating to both temples, are found in one
only. On this point, I, for the present, content myself with quoting
Plutarch's statement[51] that Isis and Hathor were the same
divinities—at all events, in later Egyptian times.
If we study the inscriptions—and this, thanks chiefly to Mariette's
magnificent book on Denderah, we can do—we find that they give
out a very certain sound. Here is one of them:—
"She [i.e. her Majesty Isis] shines into her temple on
New Year's Day, and she mingles her light with that of her
father Rā on the horizon."
Here we have nothing more nor less than a distinct and perfectly
accurate statement relating to the cosmical rising of a star, i.e., as I
have before explained, of the sun and the star both rising at the
same instant of time.
 RUINS OF THE MAMISI (PLACE OF BIRTH) OR TEMPLE OF ISIS AT DENDERAH.

Further, in the inscriptions the "rising of Hathor" is mentioned

distinctly. "La grande déesse Sefekh [Sesheta] apporté les écrits qui
se rapportent à ton lever, ô Hathor, et au lever de Rā."[52] Everybody
knows that "Rā" means the sun, and therefore the rising of Rā is at
once accepted by everybody as obviously meaning sunrise. But if we
find "Hathor" treated in the same way as the sun, then Hathor must
be a celestial body rising like the sun. I consider this a very
important conclusion to arrive at, for many reasons.
But, further, Hathor was also worshipped, according to the
inscriptions,[53] under the name of Sothis.
Now we know, quite independently of all mythology, that Sothis is
simply the Greek form of the Egyptian name (Sept) of the star Sirius.
Taking, then, all these inscriptions together, we have an absolute
astronomical demonstration of the fact that the "rising of Hathor,"
which is referred to mythologically in the inscriptions given by
Mariette, was the rising of Sirius; that the star which "shone into the
temple, and which mingled her light with the light of her father Rā,"
was really the star Sirius. We get the demonstration of the fact that
mythologically the star Sirius was Hathor, or otherwise Isis.
In other words, we find a star personified; Sirius being personified
as Hathor or Isis.
But we can go much further than this. It is possible, as I have
shown, to determine the position of Sirius in past times, and
therefore to determine whether the light of that star ever did fall
along the axis of the temple. We know its orientation approximately
—18½° S. of E.—so that any celestial body which rose at that
amplitude would shine upon any object enshrined in the sanctuary.
In the case of Sirius, the conditions are such that, owing to the
precessional movement, the distance of the star from the equator
has been gradually lessening from the earliest times. Its declination
in 8000 b.c. was 50° S.; it became something more than 17° S. in
a.d. 1000.

Knowing the declination, it is easy to determine the amplitude—

and given the conditions at the temple of Isis at Denderah, viz., that
we are practically dealing with a sea horizon, we find that the temple
really pointed to Sirius about 700 b.c., which is the date Biot found
for the construction of the zodiac in the temple of Osiris, referred to
in Chapter XIII.
Further, it is easy to show that Sirius at that date rose with the
sun on the Egyptian New Year's Day;[54] in mythological language,
she mingled her light with that of her father Rā on the great day of
the year.
As this is the first instance of such personification that we have
come across, it behoves us to study it very carefully. Why was Sirius
personified and worshipped?
The summer solstice—that is, the 20th of June, the longest day—
was the most important time of the Egyptian year, as it marked the
rise of the all-fertilising Nile. It was really New Year's Day. It has
been pointed out, times without number, that the inscriptions
indicate that by far the most important astronomical event in
Egyptian history was the rising of the star Sirius at this precise time.
Now it seems as if among all ancient peoples each sunrise, each
return of the sun—or of the sun-god—was hailed, and most
naturally, as a resurrection from the sleep—the death—of night: with
the returning sun, man found himself again in full possession of his
powers of living, of doing, of enjoying. The sun-god had conquered
death; man was again alive. Light and warmth returned with the
dawn in those favoured Eastern climes where man then was, and
the dawn itself was a sight, a sensation, in which everything
conspired to suggest awe and gratitude, and to thrill the emotions of
even uncivilised man.
What wonder, then, that sunrise was the chief time of prayer and
thankfulness? But prayer to the sun-god meant, then, sacrifice; and
here a practical detail comes in, apparently a note of discord, but
really the true germ of our present knowledge of the starry heavens
which surround us.
To make the sacrifice at the instant of sunrise, preparations had to
be made, beasts had to be slaughtered, and a ritual had to be
followed; this required time, and a certain definite quantity of it. To
measure this, the only means available then was to watch the rising
of a star, the first glimmer of which past experience had shown to
precede sunrise by just that amount of time which the ritual
demanded for the various functions connected with the sunrise
sacrifice.
This, perhaps, went on every morning, but beyond all question the
most solemn ceremonial of this nature in the whole year was that
which took place on New Year's morning, or the great festival of the
Nile-rising and summer solstice, the 1st of Thoth. Besides the
morning ceremonial there were processions of the gods during the
day.
 How long these morning and special yearly ceremonials went on
before the dawn of history we, of course, have no knowledge. Nor
are the stars thus used certainly known to us. Of course any star
would do which rose at the appropriate time before the sun itself,
whether the star was located in the northern or in the southern
heavens. But in historic times there is no doubt whatever about the
star so used. The warning-star watched by the Egyptians at Thebes,
certainly 3000 B.C., was Sirius, the brightest of them all, and there is
complete evidence that Sirius was not the star first so used.[55]

CEREMONIAL PROCESSION IN AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE. (From a Restoration by

the French Commission.)

The astronomical conditions of the rising of this star have,

fortunately for us, been most minutely studied both by Biot and, in
more recent times, by Oppolzer, and from their labours it seems to
be abundantly clear that the rising of Sirius at the solstice was
carefully watched certainly as early as 3285 b.c., according to Biot's
calculations; and, further, that the rising of the same star was still
studied in a relatively modern time. At the earlier date its heliacal
rising was observed, but in later times means had been secured of
noticing its cosmical rising, because although it rose long before the
sun on the longest day 3000 b.c., it rose with the sun on the same
day in the later times referred to. This "cosmical rising" observation
was doubtless secured by the construction of their temples, as I
have shown.
We are, then, astronomically on very firm ground indeed. We have
got one step into the domain of mythology. I assume it is agreed
that we have arrived at the certain conclusion that the goddess
Hathor or Isis personified a star, Sirius, rising at the dawn; and that
the temple of Isis at Denderah was built to watch it.
 CHAPTER XX.
THE PERSONIFICATION OF STARS
(CONTINUED)—THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT
DENDERAH.

In Chapter XVII. I quoted from the inscriptions relating to the

alignment of the axis of the temple of Hathor at Denderah. It will be
remembered that the king, while stretching the cord, had his glance
directed to the āk of the constellation of the Thigh. Further, we saw
in the last chapter that the amplitude of the temple axis is 71½° N.
of E.
A copy of Biot's plan giving his value of the orientation is given on
the next page.
I have shown how truly the temple of Isis was pointed to Sirius.
We have now to try to find a star towards which the temple of
Hathor may have been pointed in like manner.
It will be generally understood that in an inquiry of this kind there
are very many difficulties, chiefly depending upon the uncertainty of
the building-date of the original foundation, and upon the
indeterminate nature of the information available. But although we
meet with these difficulties in the case of the temple of Hathor, there
are many from which we are free. In the case of many of the
temples in Egypt we have no knowledge of the tutelary divinity. For
a great many temples no observational data exist; they have not
been properly measured—that is, we do not know exactly in what
direction they point or what their amplitudes are; and, further we do
not know anything of the horizon at the temple building, so as to be
able to make the necessary corrections due to heights of hills.
ORIENTATION OF THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDERAH (BIOT). (THE TEMPLE
OF OSIRIS ON THE ROOF IS ALSO SHOWN ON A LARGER SCALE.)

This premised, I will now return to the statement regarding the

temple of Hathor, to see what can be made of it on the view that
either the middle or the chief point, that is, the brightest star, of the
constellation of the Great Bear as we now know it, was the one
referred to, and that the cord was stretched to the star on the
horizon.
The first question which arises is, Was there any reason why δ
Ursæ Majoris at the centre, or α the brightest, should have been
used as the orientation point at any time? Was there any reason why
any special sanctity should have been associated with either?
Certainly not, in the case of δ, on account of its magnitude, because
Dubhe, not far from it, is much brighter; and possibly not, in the
case both of δ and α, on account of the time of their heliacal rising.
We seem therefore in an impasse along this line of inquiry; but a
further consideration of the question brings out the remarkable fact
that at three widely-sundered points of time the stars α Lyræ, α
Ursæ Majoris, and γ Draconis have been the brightest stars nearest
the North Pole, and with such declinations that α Lyræ would be
visible at one of the dates, α Ursæ Majoris at another, and γ
Draconis at another still—all rising in nearly the same amplitude far
to the north.
In Chapter XVIII. I have shown that one of the temples, and
possibly a series of them, at Thebes were directed to γ Draconis. It
is interesting, then, to carry the inquiry further. It may possibly
explain how it is that we get a definite statement about the āk of the
Great Bear in one case and a certain sure orientation to γ Draconis
in the other.
In the first place, it has to be borne in mind that when a star is
circumpolar—that is, never sets—no temple can be directed to its
rising. Now, accepting the āk as the brightest star (and as I stated in
Chapter XVII., it might, indeed, have been the central one as well in
the old constellation, for we do not know its limits), we have to deal
with the facts concerning α Ursæ Majoris, called by the Arabians
Dubhe.
The latitude of Denderah is a little over 20° N., therefore all stars
with a less polar distance than that—or, to put it another way, all
stars with a declination greater than (90°-26° = 64°. N.)—will be
circumpolar. Now, the declination of Dubhe was greater than 64°
between 4000 b.c. and 1500 a.d. (I neglect refractions and hills);
hence, if there is any truth in the statements made in the building
ceremonials, the temple could not have been founded between
those dates.
 But what are the records concerning this temple? We know that
the structure as we see it was built in the time of the last Ptolemies
and the first Roman emperors, and I have already shown that at
those dates the Great Bear (the old Thigh) did not rise at all, as it
was circumpolar.
It is also known that there was a temple here in the time of
Thothmes III., and even earlier, going back to the earliest times of
Egyptian history. King Pepi, of the Sixth Dynasty (circ. 3233 b.c.), is
portrayed over and over again in the crypts.
Even this is not all the evidence in favour of a high antiquity. In
one of the crypts (No. 9), according to Ebers and Dümichen, there
are two references to the earliest plans of the temple. One
inscription states that the great ground-plan (Senti) of Ant
(Denderah) was found in old writing on parchments of the time of
the followers of Horus (sun-worshippers) preserved in the walls of
the temple during the reign of King Pepi. Another inscription goes
further, referring to the restoration by Thothmes III. (circ. 1600 b.c.)
of the temple to the state in which it was found described in old
writings of the time of the King Chufu (Cheops) of the Fourth
Dynasty (circ. 3733 b.c.). If any faith is to be placed in this
inscription, it seems to me to suggest a still higher antiquity. There
would have been more reason for describing an antique shrine than
a brand new one.
Still another inscription runs:—
"King Tehuti-mes III. has caused this building to be
erected in memory of his mother, the goddess Hathor, the
Lady of An (Denderah), the eye of the Sun, the heavenly
queen of the gods. The ground plan was found in the city
of An, in archaic drawing on a leather roll of the time of
the Hor-Shesu: it was found in the interior of a brick wall
in the south side of the temple in the reign of King Pepi."
[56]
 But let us see what the facts are regarding the date supplied by
the temple itself, accepting the statement made regarding the actual
operations at the laying of the foundation stone originally.
To determine the dates approximately, we find that an amplitude
of 71½° N. of E. in the latitude of Denderah gives a declination of
57¾° N., with a sea horizon (correcting for refraction) 58¾° N. with
hills 1° high, and 59¾° N. with hills 2° high, which is not far from
the exact conditions.
The star Dubhe had the declination of 60° N. in 5000 b.c.
If, then, I am right in my suggestion as to the word āk referring to
α Ursæ Majoris, we find the closest agreement between the
astronomical orientation; the definite statement as to a certain star
being used in the building ceremonies; the inscriptions in the crypts
referring to Cheops as the earliest historical personage who
describes the building, and to the Shesu-Hor as the original
designers of the building. According to most authorities, 5000 b.c.
lands us in the times of the Shesu-Hor before Mena.
I must confess that this justification of the double record strikes
me as very remarkable, and I think it will be generally conceded that
further local observations should be made in order to attempt to
carry the matter a stage beyond a first approximation.
We have got so far, then. If we take the history as we find it, and
further take the trouble to work out the very definite statements
made, we find that the temple was founded pointing to the rising of
Dubhe before it became circumpolar, and that in those times this
star was symbolised by the name of Hathor.
We may accept, then, the possibility that as the temple of Isis was
oriented to Sirius, that dedicated to Hathor was directed to Dubhe.
It will have been obvious from what has preceded, that if the
worship of Hathor was to go on at all, and if it were in any way
connected with the observations of a star rising near the north point
of the horizon, a new star must be chosen when α Ursæ Majoris
became circumpolar. That is the first point.
 I have already stated that α Ursæ Majoris began to be circumpolar
at Denderah 4000 b.c. I may now add that γ Draconis ceased to be
circumpolar about 5000 b.c. They had the same declination (62° N.)
and the same amplitude (78° N.) 4400 b.c.
Mariette's plan shows a second temple oriented to N. 6° E., which
we may perhaps be justified in taking as N. 9° E., since his azimuth
of the great temple differs from Biot's and my own by 3°.
The corresponding declination would be 68° N. of E., the
declination of Dubhe in 4200 b.c. and of γ Draconis in 4300 b.c. The
temple may well, therefore, have been erected when both stars had
the same amplitude, the apparent difference of 100 years being due
to the uncertainty of the measures available.
The second point, then, is that when Dubhe, which, while it rose
and set, was the brightest star near the pole which did so, became
circumpolar; γ Draconis, when it ceased to be circumpolar, fulfilled
these conditions; astronomically, then, it became the natural
successor of α Ursæ Majoris.
I have before pointed out that it is not impossible that a temple
once oriented to a certain star, and long out of use on account of the
precessional movement, may be utilised for another, and be
rehabilitated in consequence, when that same movement brings
another conspicuous star into the proper rising amplitude.
This consideration at once leads to my third point, which is, that
after Dubhe became circumpolar the temple of Hathor at Denderah
would become useless—there would be no star to watch—unless a
new star was chosen.
Now, let us suppose this to have been so, and that the natural
successor of the star in question were chosen. Studying the facts as
before approximately, as final data are not yet available, we have the
declination 59¾° N. This was the declination of γ Draconis about
3500 b.c., assuming hills 2° high, which I think is too much; 3300
b.c., with hills 1½° high.
 In the present case the orientation fits γ Draconis in the historic
period, but it also fits Dubhe in the times of the Hor-shesu, the
dimly-seen followers of Horus, or sun-worshippers, before the dawn
of the historic period.
Next let us go back to the inscriptions. We found that King Pepi is
portrayed over and over again in the crypts, and, which is more
important, that the plan of the temple on parchment, dating from
the times of the Shesu-Hor, had actually been walled up in the
temple during the reign of the same king, no doubt at the ceremony
of restoration or laying a new foundation stone, as is sometimes
done to this day.
Now, Pepi's date, according to the chronologists, is 3200 b.c., a
difference of 100 years only from the rough orientation date.
We see, therefore, the full importance of the work done in Pepi's
reign. The āk of the Thigh was no longer of use; but a new star was
now available. Hathor was rehabilitated. Perhaps even the priests
alone knew that the star had been changed.
By the temple of Hathor, then, if we assume that the record is
absolutely true (and I, for one, believe in these old records more and
more), and that Cheops only described a shrine founded by the Hor-
shesu, we are carried back to circ. 5000 b.c. I am indebted to my
friend Dr. Wallis Budge for the suggestion that the position of
Denderah as the terminus of the highway from the Red Sea—which
may soon again be reached by a railway from Keneh to Kosseir!—
would have made it one of the most important places in ancient
Egypt.
It is important to note that at a very early date the traffic between
the Nile Valley and the Red Sea, and thence probably with Arabia
and South Africa, flourished, and grew to be a by no means
insignificant commerce.
According to Ebers,[57] "the oldest and most famous of all these
highways is that which led from Koptos (Keneh, Denderah) to the
Red Sea, through the valley now known as the Wady Hammamāt,
and called by the ancient Egyptians Rohanu. It was a busy high-
road, not alone for trading caravans, but from time to time for
stonemasons and soldiers, whose task it was to hew the costly
building materials from the hard rocks, which here abound, and to
prepare the vast monoliths which were finished in situ, and then to
convey them all to the residence of the Pharaohs. A remarkably
beautiful kind of alabaster, of a fine honey yellow or white as snow,
is found in these mountains." Another road led from Esneh or Edfû
to the ancient port of Berenice. We shall see in the sequel that the
temple of Redisieh on this route was dedicated to the same cult as
that at Denderah.
If the above results be confirmed, we have a most definite
indication of the fact that in the rebuilding in the times of Pepi,
Thothmes III., and the Ptolemies, the original orientation of the
building was not disturbed; and that in the account of the building
ceremonies we are dealing as surely with the laying of the first
foundation-stone as with the original plan.
In any case the consideration has to be borne in mind that the
series of temples with high northern (and southern) amplitudes at
Denderah, Thebes, and possibly other places, were nearly certainly
founded before the time at which the heliacal rising of Sirius, near
the time of the summer solstice, was the chief event of the year,
watched by priests, astronomers—if the astronomers were not the
only priests—and agriculturists alike. Now we know, from Biot's
calculations, that this became possible circ. 3285 b.c., and that Sirius
—though, as I am informed by Prof. Maspero, not its heliacal rising—
is referred to in inscriptions in pyramid times.
Subsequent research may possibly show that these temples had to
do with the heralding of sunrise throughout the year, the Sirian
temples being limited to New Year's Day.
 CHAPTER XXI.
STAR-CULTS.

The last two chapters, then, have brought us so far. There are two
principal temples at Denderah. The smaller is called the temple of
Isis. It is oriented 18½° S. of E. The inscriptions tell us that the light
of Sirius shone into it, and that Sirius was personified as Isis. We can
determine astronomically that the statement is true for the time
about 700 b.c., which was the date determined independently by
Biot for the circular zodiac referred to on page 18.
The larger temple is called the temple of Hathor. It is oriented
71½° N. of E. The inscriptions very definitely tell us what star cast
its light along its axis, and give also definite statements about the
date of its foundation, which enable us to determine astronomically
that in all probability the temple was oriented to Dubhe somewhat
later than 5000 b.c.
Now we are certain that Isis personified Sirius. That "Her Majesty
of Denderah" was Sirius, at all events in the later times referred to in
the inscriptions, is not only to be gathered from the inscriptions, but
has been determined astronomically.
It is also probable that Hathor personified Dubhe. Now this looks
very satisfactory, and it seems only necessary to test the theory by
finding temples of Isis and Hathor in other places, and seeing
whether or not they were oriented to Sirius and Dubhe respectively.
But, unfortunately for us, we have already learned from Plutarch
that Isis and Hathor are the same goddesses, although they
certainly personify different stars, if they personify stars at all.
We seem, then, in a difficulty, and at first sight matters do not
appear to be made any clearer by the fact that Hathor (and,
therefore, Isis) was worshipped under different names in every
nome.
Lanzoni, in his admirable volumes on Egyptian mythology, gives
us, not dealing with the matter from this point of view at all, no less
than twenty-four variants for Hathor!
In the temple at Edfû no less than 300 names are given with the
various local relations and forms used in the most celebrated
shrines.[58]
In the inscriptions at Denderah itself a great number of variants is
given.[59] It is important to give some of them in this place; the full
value of the information thus afforded will be seen afterwards.
Hathor of Denderah = Sekhet of Memphis.
" Neith " Saïs.
" Saosis " Heliopolis.
" Nehem-an " Hermopolis.
Bast }
" " Bubastis.
Bes-t}
" Anub-et " Lycopolis.
" Amen-t " Thebes.
" Bouto " Unas.
" Sothis " Elephantine.
" Apet
" Mena-t
" Horus " Edfû.
(female)

One variant is of especial importance in the present connection,

and is emphasised in a special inscription in one of the chambers of
the temple of Hathor—not, be it remarked, in the temple of Isis.
"Elle est la Sothis de Denderah, qui remplit le ciel et la
terre de ses bienfaits. Elle est la régente et la reine des
villes.... Au Sud elle est la reine du maître divin; au nord
elle est la reine des divins ancêtres. Rien n'est établi sans
elle.... Elle est la grande dans le ciel, la reine parmi les
étoiles."[60]