Introduction

Purpose of a communication system convey information

through a medium or communication channel.
The information is often represented as a baseband
signal , i.e. a signal whose spectrum extends from 0 to
some maximum frequency.
Proper utilization of the communication channel often
requires a shift of the range of baseband frequencies into
other frequency ranges suitable for transmission, and a
corresponding shift back to the original frequency range
after reception.
A shift of the range of frequencies in a signal is accomplished
by using modulation, which is defined as the process by which
some characteristic of a carrier is varied in accordance with a
Modulating wave (signal).
1
A common form of the carrier is a sinusoidal wave, in
which case we speak of continuous-wave modulation.

The baseband signal is referred to as the modulating

wave, and the result of the modulation process is referred
to as the modulated wave.

Modulation is performed at the transmitting end.

At the receiving end, we require the original baseband signal

to be restored. This is accomplished by using a process known
as demodulation, which is the reverse of the modulation
process.

2
 FREQUENCY BAND CLASSIFICATIONS
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of frequencies from just
above 0 Hz to  Hz.
The frequency spectrum is broken up into different segments
which indicate the usage for particular frequency range.

Classification of frequency bands

3
The(ELFs) are in the 30- to 300-Hz range. These include ac power
line frequencies (50 and 60 Hz are common)
The VFs (Voice frequencies) are in the range of 300 to 3000 Hz.
This is the normal range of human speech
The VLF extend from 9 kHz to 30 kHz and include the higher end of
the human hearing range up to about 15 or 20 kHz. The VLF range is
also used in some government and military communication.
The LF, MF, HF and VHF bands are used by commercial radio
stations to convey programmers from the studio to listeners
The VHF and UHF bands are used by commercial TV stations to
convey television pictures from the studio to viewers.
The SHF band is used for direct line-of-sight communication by
means of microwaves. This band is also used for satellite
communication
The EHF extend from 30 to 300 GHz. Electromagnetic signals with
frequencies higher than 30 GHz are referred to as millimeter waves.
Frequencies Between 300 GHz and the Optical Spectrum. This
portion of the spectrum is virtually uninhabited. It is a cross between
RF and optical
 Communication system
Communication systems are designed to send message of
information from source to one or more destinations.
In general, communication system can be represented by the
block diagram shown in figure

Communication system block diagram

The heart of the communication system consist of three basic

parts :-
5
1- The Transmitter
The transmitter converts the electric signal into a form that is suitable
for transmission through the physical channel or transmission
medium. In general , the transmitter performs the matching of the
message signal to the channel by a process called modulation .

2- The Channel
The communication channel is the physical medium that is used to
send the signal from the transmitter to the receive.
In wireless transmission ,that channel is usually the atmosphere free
space .
On the other hand , telephone channel usually employ a variety of
physical media , including wire line , optical fiber cable

2- The Receiver
The function of receiver is to recover the message signal contained
in the received signal , if the message signal is transmitted by
carrier modulation, the receiver performs carrier demodulation in
order to extract the message from the sinusoidal carrier
6
Types of Electronic Communication
Electronic Communications are classified according to whether they are
(1)one-way(simplex)or two-way(full duplex or half duplex) transmissions
(2) analog or digital
-Simplex:- Transmission in one way e.g. The most common forms of
simplex communication are radio and TV broadcasting
-full Duplex:- Transmission in both direction at the same time e.g.
telephone
-Half Duplex :- transmission in either directions but not at the same
time e.g. Most radio transmissions, such as those used in the military,
fire, police
Analog Signals
An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or
current. Some typical analog signals are shown

Analog signal (a) sine wave (b)voice 7

 Digital Signals
Digital signals, in contrast to analog signals, do not vary continuously,
but change in steps or in discrete increments. Most digital signals use
binary or two-state codes

Digital signal (a) telegraph (Morse code) (b) Serial binary code

Notice
In order to understand how transmission systems translate the
input frequency band to a higher frequency band it is necessary to
understand the fundamentals of modulation and modulators.
It is also necessary to understand the demodulation process and
demodulators.

8
 Modulation
It is a fundamental requirement of a communication system.
Modulation may be defined as a process by which some
characteristic of a signal knows a carrier is varied according to
the instantaneous value of another signal knows as modulating
signal. This signal containing information to be transmitted

We may classify the modulation into

1- Continuous wave modulation

In Continuous wave modulation a sinusoidal wave is used as
carrier and We have three type of continuous modulation
1- Amplitude modulation [AM] …. ( linear modulation )
2- Frequency modulation [FM] …. ( non-linear modulation )
3- Phase modulation [PM] …..( non-linear modulation )

9
2-Pulse Modulation
In pulse modulation the carrier consist of a periodic
sequence of rectangular pulses ..
1- Pulse position modulation. [PPM]
2- Pulse width modulation. [PWM]
3- Pulse amplitude modulation. [PAM]
4- Pulse code modulation. [PCM]
5- Delta modulation. [DM]

Note .
 Carrier signal :- a high frequency signal usually sinusoid
Information signal that signal containing information to
transmitted it is also called message signal , baseband signal or
modulating signal
Baseband signal : is the signal which occupies the frequency
band from 0 to W Hz
10
Modulation benefits and application
Modulation for efficient transmission
Modulation to overcome hardware limitation
Modulation to reduce noise and interference
Modulation for frequency assignment
Modulation for multiplexing
Amplitude modulation
We will study four types of the amplitude modulation
family :-
1-Double sideband large carrier(DSB-LC or AM)
2-Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)
3-Single sideband (SSB)
4-Vestigial sideband (VSB)
11
Double-Sideband with Large Carrier (DSB-LC) or AM
AM is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier
wave c(t) is varied about a mean value, linearly with baseband
signal m(t).

An amplitude-modulated (AM) wave may thus be described as a

function of time as follows:

S (t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )] cos2f ct 
The carrier Ac and message signal m(t ) are measured in volts,
in which case the k a is measured in volt -1.

The envelope of S (t ) has essentially the same shape as the

baseband signal m(t ) provided that two requirements are satisfied

1-The amplitude of k a m(t ) is always less than unity, that is

k a m(t )  1 for all t
2. The carrier frequency fc is much greater than the highest frequency
component W of the message signal m(t) , that is fc>>W
We call W the message bandwidth. the condition of Eq. fc>>W is not
satisfied, an envelope can not be visualized Satisfactorily.
We find that the Fourier transform of the AM wave s(t) is given by

where we have used the relations:

and
From the spectrum of S(f), we note the following:
1- As a result of the modulation process, the spectrum of
message signal m(t) for negative frequencies extending from –W
to 0 become completely visible for positive frequencies ,
provided that the carrier frequency satisfies the condition fc<W

2- for positive frequencies : the spectrum of AM wave above fc is

referred to as the upper sideband , below –fc is referred to as the
lower sideband. For negative frequencies : the upper sideband is
below –fc and lower sideband is above –fc the condition fc<W
ensures that the sideband do not overlap

3-for positive frequencies , the highest frequency component of

the AM wave equals fc+W, and the lowest frequency component
fc-W. the difference between these two frequencies defines the
transmission bandwidth BT for AM wave
BT=2W
Example
Determine the frequency of the lower sideband and upper
sideband for an amplitude modulator where the carrier frequency
is 8 kHz and the modulating frequency is 1 kHz.
solution
The upper sideband: USB  f c  f m  8KHz 1KHz  9KHz
The lower sideband: LSB  f c  f m  8KHz 1KHz  7KHz
Example
Determine the frequency band of the upper sideband and the
lower sideband for an amplitude modulator having a carrier
frequency of 8 kHz and a modulating signal of 300 Hz to 3400 Hz.
solution
The upper sideband:
USB  f c  f m  8KHz  (0.3KHz  3.4KHz)  8.3KHz 11.4KHz
The lower sideband:
LSB  fc  f m  8KHz  (0.3KHz  3.4KHz)  7.7KHz  4.6KHz
Modulation Depth

The modulation depth, sometimes referred to as the

modulation index, is normally measured as a percentage.
The modulation depth is a measure of the efficiency of
the modulator .
The modulation depth is given by

  Max.Amplitude  Min.Amplitude  ( A  A )  ( A  A )
c m c m

Max.Amplitude  Min.Amplitude ( A  A )  ( A  A )
c m c m

 A m

Ac

where Ac is the peak amplitude of the carrier frequency

and Am is the peak amplitude of the modulating signal.
One-hundred percent modulation   1
Example
Determine the modulation index for an amplitude
modulator when a carrier frequency having peak amplitude
of 2 V is modulated with a modulating frequency having a
peak amplitude of 1.5 V.
Solution

  A 100%  1.5v 100%  75%

m

Ac 2v
Over modulation
Over modulation occurs when the modulation depth is greater
than 100%. Over-modulation causes frequencies to appear in
the output signal other than the expected products for the
modulator. It results in increased bandwidth requirements, and
less power in the desired sidebands.
 Example
Calculate the modulation depth for an amplitude modulator
where the carrier frequency has a peak-to-peak amplitude of
500 mV and the modulating frequency has a RMS amplitude
of 194.45 mV.
Solution
Convert to the same unit o f measurement:

A ( peak )  A (r.m.s)  2  194.45mV  2  274.994mV

m m

A ( peak  to  peak ) 500mV

A ( peak )  c
c   250mV
2 2
  A  274.994mV  1.09998
m

Ac 250mV
 %  109.998%

This example demonstrates how over-modulation can take place.

Single tone modulation
Consider a modulating wave: m(t)  Am cos(2f mt)
Carrier wave: c(t)  Ac cos(2f ct)

S (t )  Ac [1   m(t )] cos2f ct 


Am  : modulation factor
Where   k a Am  
( or percentage modulation )
Ac
To avoid over modulation |μ|<1

Envelope of S (t ) : Ac [1   m(t )]

Amax and Amin denote the maximum and minimum values of the
envelope of the modulated wave .
Can be represented in this form cos Acos B  12[cos( A B)  cos( A B)]
Example
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 5 KHz. What is the
bandwidth needed if we modulate the signal using AM?
Solution
An AM signal requires twice the bandwidth of the original signal:
BW = 2 x 5 KHz = 10 KHz

Example: An audio signal m(t )  30 cos(5 103t )v

modulates the amplitude of a carrier c(t )  65 cos(50 103t )v
Sketch the AM waveform
What is the modulation factor
Determine the frequency component present in the AM
waveform and the amplitude of each component.
Solution
 m(t )  30 cos(5 103t )v  Am cos(2f mt )
 f m  2.5KHz
c(t )  65 cos(50 103t )v  Ac cos(2f ct )
 f c  25KHz

the modulation factor

Amax  A

Am 30
  0.462 or  min  190  70  0.462
Ac 65 Amax  A 190  70
min
 the frequency component
 LSF  22.5KHz ; amplitude  7.5v
 USF  27.5KHz ; amplitude  7.5v
 carrier  25KHz ; amplitude  32.5v

double sideband spectrum of s(t)

Example: An audio signal given as 15 sin 2 (1500t)vamplitudes a

carrier given as 60 sin 2 (100 103 t)v
Determine the following
Sketch the audio signal
Sketch the carrier signal
Construct the modulated wave
Determine the modulation index and percent modulation
What are the frequencies of the audio signal and the carrier .
What frequencies would present in a spectrum analysis of the
modulated wave?
Solution
 d) the modulation index is given by
A 15
  m   0.25
Ac 60
percent modulation  0.25  100  25%

e) the expresion for audio signal is given by 15 sin 2 (1500t )

f m  1500Hz
the expresion for carrier signal is given by 60 sin 2 (100,000t )
f c  100KHz

f)we know that the frequency spectrum of an amplitude - modulated wave consists of
fc , fc  fm, fc  fm
f c  100KHz
f c  f  101,500Hz
f c  f  98,500
 Power content in Am wave
The total power PT of the AM is the sum of the carrier
power Pc and the power contained in the two sidebands.

In practice, the AM wave S(t) is a voltage or current wave.

In either case, the average power delivered to a 1-ohm
resistor by S(t) is comprised of three components:

PT  Pc  PUSB  PLSB

1 2
Carrier power : - Pc  Ac
2
2 2
Lower side - frequency power : - PLSB  Ac
8
2
Upper side - frequency power : - PUSB  Ac2
8
The power in the carrier frequency (Pc) where the carrier
amplitude is given as a peak voltage (Ac) is given by

voltage2 2 2
 A (r.m.s) 
Pc   c  / R  Ac 
load .ampedance  2  2

The total power

PT  Pc  PUSB  PLSB
1 2 2 2 2 2
PT  Ac  Ac  Ac
2 8 8
1 2 2 2
PT  Ac  Ac
2 4
1 1
PT  Pc   2 Pc  Pc (1   2 )
2 2
Example :-An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30 W. The
percentage of modulation is 85 percent. Calculate
(a) the total power and (b) the power in one sideband.
1  0.85 
2
2
PT  Pc (1   )  30 1    30(1.36125)  40.8W
2  2 
PT  Pc  PUSB  PLSB  PSB (both)  Pt  Pc  40.8  30  10.8
PSB 10.8
PUSB  PLSB    5.4W
2 2
Example :- An antenna has an impedance of 40Ω. An
unmodulated AM signal produces a current of 4.8 A. The
modulation is 90 percent. Calculate (a) the carrier power, (b) the
total power, and (c) the sideband power.
Transmission Efficiency of AM signal
We know that the total modulated power of AM signal is
expressed as :-
PT  Pc  PSB
1 2
PT   Ac  m 2 (t )
2 

m 2 (t ) :- Mean square value of modulating signal

P
  SB 100%
PT
The best efficiency occurs when modulation index =1
The   33%

2
 100%
2 2
Example :- A 400 watt carrier is modulated to a depth of
75% calculate the total power in the AM wave .
Assume the modulating signal to be sinusoidal
Solution
1 2
PT  Pc (1   )  400(1  0.75
2
)  512.5Watt
2 2

Example :- An AM broadcasting station transmits a total

power output of 50 w and uses a modulation index
0.707 calculate carrier power , transmission efficiency
and the peak amplitude of carrier if antenna has a 50Ω
resistive load
Solution
1
PT  Pc [1  (0.707) 2 ]  Pc  4  50w  40w
2 5
 2 (0.707) 2
 100%  100%  20%
2  2
2  (0.707) 2

PSB PLBS  PUBS

 100%  100%
PT PT
 PT  Pc  PSB
PT  Pc 10
  100%  100%  20%
PT 50
the peak amplitude of carrier

Ac2
Pc   Ac2  2  R  Pc
2R
 2  50  40  4000
Ac  63.24v
Virtues, Limitations, and Modifications of Amplitude
Modulation
Amplitude modulation is the oldest method of performing
modulation. its biggest virtue is the ease with which it is
generated and reversed. The net result is that an amplitude
modulation system is relatively inexpensive to build
Suffers from two major practical limitations:
1-Amplitude modulation is wasteful of transmitted power. The
carrier wave c(t) is completely independent of the information-
bearing signal m(t) The transmission of the carrier wave
therefore represents a waste of power,
2- Amplitude modulation is wasteful of channel bandwidth.
Insofar as the transmission of information is concerned, only one
sideband is necessary, and the communication channel therefore
needs to provide only the same bandwidth as the message signal.
It requires a transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message
bandwidth 36
Three modifications of amplitude modulation
Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation
-The transmitted wave consists of only the upper and lower
sidebands
- But the channel bandwidth requirement is the same as before
Single sideband (SSB) modulation
-The modulated wave consists only of the upper sideband or the
lower sideband
-To translate the spectrum of the modulating signal to a new
location in the frequency domain.
Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
- One sideband is passed almost completely and just a trace, of
the other sideband is retained.
-The required channel bandwidth is slightly in excess of the
message bandwidth by an amount equal to the width of the
vestigial sideband.
Example
How many AM broadcasting station can be
accommodated in 100 KHz band width if the highest
frequency modulating a carrier is 5KHz
Solution
Total bandwidth =100KHz
Maximum fm=5KHz
We know that , any station beign modulated by a 5KHz signal
will produce an upper –side frequency 5 KHz above its
carrier and a lower-side frequency 5KHz below its carrier
thereby requiring a bandwidth of 10KHz thus , we have
number of station accommodated
total BW 100 KHz
  10
BW per station 10 KHz
Hence , number of station accommodated =10 station

38
Example :-
The total power content of an AM signal is 1000 W determine
the power being transmitted at carrier frequency and at each of
the sidebands when the percent modulation is 100%
Solution :-

Given that Pt  1000w m  100%  1

we know
ma2 Pc ma2 Pc ma2 Pc
Pt  Pc  PUSB  PLSB  Pc    Pc 
4 4 2
1000  Pc  0.5Pc  1.5Pc  Pc  666.6 w
the leaves 1000  666.6  3333.3 w
 3333. 3 w to be shared equally between upper and lower sidebands
i.e
PUSB  PLSB  333.3 but PUSB  PLSB
 PUSB  PLSB  166.6

39
H.W
A sinusoidal modulating frequency is modulated with a carrier
frequency having a peak voltage of 8V. The output is connected
to a 5 kΩ load. Determine each of the following:
1. The power in the carrier frequency.
2. The power in each sideband.
3. The power in both sidebands.
4. The total power.
5. The efficiency of the modulator.
For each of the following modulation indexes μ: 25%, 50%,
75%, 100%.

40
Solution

41
Basic Principles of Amplitude Modulation
Examining the basic equation for an AM signal introduced before
, gives us several clues as to how AM can be generated. The
equation is S (t )  Ac cos2f c t   Am cos2f m t  cos2f c t 

S (t ) Ac [1  cos2f m t ]cos2f c t 

where the first term is the cosine wave carrier and second term is
the product of the cosine wave carrier and modulating signals
When we look at the expression for S(t), it is clear that we need a
circuit that can multiply the carrier by the modulating signal and
then add the carrier. A block diagram of such a circuit is shown
in Fig.

42
Block diagram of a circuit to produce AM.
One way to do this is to develop a circuit whose gain (or
attenuation) is a function of 1+ m sin 2πfmt. If we call that gain A,
the expression for the AM signal becomes
S(t)=Ac(t)
Where the A is he gain or attenuation factor

Multiplying the carrier by a fixed gain A.

Fig(a), A is a gain greater than 1 provided by an amplifier. In Fig.

(b), the carrier is attenuated by a voltage divider. The gain in this
case is less than 1 and is therefore an attenuation factor. The
carrier is multiplied by a fixed fraction A.
43
AM Modulator
Amplitude modulators are generally one of two types: low level or
high level. There are several types of AM modulators such as :-
Square law modulator
Diode Modulator
Collector modulators
1-Low -Level AM
Square law modulator
To produce AM, the carrier and modulating signals are added
and applied to the nonlinear device. A simple way to do this is to
connect the carrier and modulating sources in series and apply
them to the diode circuit. In this case, the output voltage is a
non-linear function of input voltage which can be expressed as :-
Vo (t )  a1Vi (t )  a 2Vi 2 (t )  a3Vi 3 (t )  a 4Vi 4 (t )
When the input signal is very small , the higher power terms can
be neglected, Hence the output is approximately as
44
 Vo (t )  a1Vi (t )  a 2Vi 2 (t )
let Vi (t )  m(t )  cosc t
Vo (t )  a1 [cos 2f c t  m(t )]  a 2 [cos 2f c t  m(t )]2
a
Vo (t )  a1 cos 2f c t  a1 m(t )  2 (1  cos 4f c t )  a 2 [m(t )]2  2a 2 m(t ) cos 2f c t
2
2a a
Vo (t )  a1 [1  2 m(t )] cos 2f c t  a1 m(t )  2 (1  cos 4f c t )  a 2 [m(t )]2
a1 2
  
AM
2a 2
Vo (t )  S (t )  a1 [1  m(t )] cos 2f c t  other
 .terms

a1 sup ressed by bandpass
filter
m

The signals are generated at very low voltage and power

amplitudes. The AM signal is applied to one or more linear
amplifiers , These amplifier circuits class A, class AB raise
the level of the signal to the desired power level before the
AM signal is fed to the antenna.
45
A BPF centered at fc and has a bandwidth BW=2fm will select the
AM signal with a small or low power level.

46
 Diode Modulator :-
One of the simplest amplitude modulators is the diode
modulator The practical implementation shown in Fig.
 The carrier is applied to one input resistor and the modulating
signal to the other. This network causes the two signals to be
linearly mixed ,i.e., algebraically added.
The composite waveform is applied to a diode rectifier. The
diode is connected so that it is forward-biased by the positive-
going half-cycles of the input wave.
These positive-going pulses are applied to the parallel-tuned
circuit made up of L and C, which are resonant at the carrier
frequency
The coil and capacitor repeatedly exchange energy, causing an
oscillation The oscillation of the tuned circuit creates one
negative half-cycle for every positive input pulse.
The resulting waveform across the tuned circuit is an AM
signal 47
48
2-High-Level.
Collector modulator
The output stage of the transmitter is a high-power class C amplifier.
Class C amplifiers conduct for only a portion of the positive half-cycle
of their input signal. The collector current pulses cause the tuned circuit
to oscillate at the desired output frequency

Class C collector modulator is more

efficient than class A or B amplifier .
Class C provides 70% to 80%power
efficiency Class B provides 50 % to
60% power efficiency

-High-level modulation produces the best type of AM, but it

requires an extremely high-power modulator circuit. In fact, for 100
percent modulation, the power supplied by the modulator must be
equal to one-half the total class C amplifier input power 49
Harmonic Distortion Measurements
The distortion can be specified by expressing the fundamental with respect to
the largest harmonic in dB. This is termed the relative harmonic distortion
If the fundamental in Figure is 1 V and
the harmonic at 3 kHz (the largest
distortion component) is 0.05 V, the
relative harmonic distortion is
20 log1 V/0.05 V = 26 dB
A somewhat more descriptive distortion
specification is total harmonic distortion
(THD). THD takes into account the power
in all the significant harmonics:
FIGURE Relative harmonic distortion.

Example :-Determine the THD if the spectrum analyzer display in fig

above has V1=1v,V2=0.03,V3=0.05v,V4=0.02v and V5=0.04v
solution 2 2 2 2
V2  V3  V4  V5
2
(0.03)  (0.05)  (0.02)  (0.04)
2 2 2
THD    0.07348  7.35%
V12 (1) 2
50
 AM Demodulator
Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that accept modulated
signals and recover the original modulating information There are
Several types of AM demodulators such as :-
Envelope Detector (Diode Detectors)
Rectifier detector
Crystal Radio Receivers.
Synchronous Detection
Envelope Detector
The diode is either forward–biased (when the AM signal is higher
in value than the voltage across the capacitor), or reverse-biased
(when the AM signal is lower in value than the voltage across the
capacitor).
When the diode is forward biased, it acts like a short circuit and
the voltage across the capacitor follows the voltage of the source.
When the diode is reverse-biased, it is acting like an open circuit
and the capacitor simply discharges through the resistor
51
If the value of the time-constant of the capacitor and resistor  = RC is
suitable (not too large or too small), the charging and discharging of the
capacitor results in a signal that follows the message signal with some small
ripples.
If the time constant  = RC is too long, the discharge too slow that some
parts of the envelope of the AM signal are not followed This is referred to
as diagonal distortion.
If the time constant is too short, the discharge too fast that the output
signal contains extremely large ripples and it may be hard for any added
low-pass filter to remove these large ripples and the carrier will not be
sufficiently filtered out

52
 The following figure
illustrates the modulation
and demodulation of AM
signals in time–domain.

vo(t)
[A+m(t)]cos(ct) C R

53
 Rectifier Detector
The circuit below is similar in nature to the circuit above where
the AM signal is fed to the diode which rectifies the signal.
The signal to the right of the diode is one that contains many
components at frequencies around 0, c, 2c, 3c, … etc.,
including the message unmodulated signal m(t) and a DC
component A. All components other than these two are filtered
by the LPF and the capacitor at the end has the function of
blocking that DC component so that the output of the signal is a
scaled version of m(t) without any DC.

m(t)
[A+m(t)]cos(ct) LPF
R

54
EXAMPLE :-
An amplitude modulated wave 10[1  0.6 cos 2103t ]cos 2108t
Is to be detected by a linear diode detector
Determine
- The time constant ( )
- The value of resistance R if the capacitor used is 100pF
Solution permissible value of time constant
3
1   .  2 10  0.6  5.886 103  
m
1
 0.17ms
RC 5.886 103
1  2 1 0.62

the limiting case , we have

  0.17ms

 0.17ms
  RC  R    1.7M
C 100 10  12
55
 Crystal Radio Receivers
The crystal component of the crystal radio receivers that were
widely used in the past is simply a diode. In Fig. below

An antenna picks up the radio signal, which is inductively

coupled to the secondary winding of T1, which forms a
series resonant circuit with C1 The variable capacitor C1 is
used to select a station.
This higher-voltage signal is applied to the diode. The diode
detector D1 and its filter C2 recover the original modulating
information, and capacitor C2 removes the carrier. The result
is a simple radio receiver 56
 Synchronous Detection
Synchronous detectors use an internal clock signal at the carrier
frequency in the receiver to switch the AM signal off and on,
producing rectification similar to that in a standard diode detector

The switch in Fig. is turned on

by the clock signal during the
positive half-cycles of the AM
signal, which therefore appears
across the load resistor.
synchronous detector
During the negative half-cycles of the AM signal, the clock turns
the switch off, so no signal reaches the load or filter capacitor.
The capacitor filters out the carrier.
Synchronous detectors are also referred to as coherent detectors,
Their main advantage over standard diode detectors is that they
have less distortion and a better signal-to-noise ratio.
57
 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
DSB-SC signal is obtained by multiplying the message
signal m(t ) with the carrier signal c(t )

S (t )  m(t ).c(t )  m(t ) A cos2f t 

c c

Where m(t ) is assumed to have a zero DC level for the

suppressed carrier case.

Baseband signal DSB-SC modulated wave

The modulated signal S(t) undergoes a phase reversal whenever
the message signal m(t) crosses zero.
The spectrum of modulated signal can be obtained by taking
the Fourier transform of s (t ) .
Ac
S( f )  [ M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c )]
2

Spectrum of Baseband signal Spectrum of DSB-SC modulated wave

Its clear from both the spectrum and the S(f) equation that
the carrier is not present suppressed.
That why it is named DSB-SC
The information is contained in the sideband and the bandwidth of
DSB-SC is 2fm
Example
Suppose that modulating signal m(t )  a cos 2f mt and the carrier
signal is c(t )  Ac cos 2f ct determine the DSB-SC signal and its
upper and lower sidebands
Solution
The DSB-SC is expressed in the time domain as

S (t )  m(t ).c(t )  a cos2f mt Ac cos2f c t 

S (t )  aAc [cos2f mt  cos2f c t ]

using trigonometric function

cos Acos B  1 [cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)] 60
2
 cos 2  f c  f m t  cos 2  f c  f m t
aAc aAc
S (t ) 
2 2

Recall that the Fourier transform of cosine is

In the frequency domain the modulated signal has the form

[  f  f c  f m     f  f c  f m ]
aAc
S( f ) 
4
 [ f  f c  f m     f  f c  f m ]
aAc
4
The spectrum is shown in fig below

61
 Fig(a)
spectrum DSB-SC
signal for sinusoidal
Message signal

Fig(b)
spectrum of lower
s (t )
Sideband signal

Fig(c)
spectrum of upper
Sideband signal

The lower sideband Signal of S L (t ) The upper sideband Signal of S u (t )

is aA is
S L (t )  c
cos 2  f c  f m t S u (t ) 
aAc
cos 2  f c  f m t
2 2
Its spectrum is illustrated in fig (b) Its spectrum is illustrated in fig (c)
Example
Sketch the DSB-SC signal and its spectrum if the message
signal is m(t )  2 cos 2 1000t
and the carrier signal is c(t )  100 cos 2 10000t
what is the transmission bandwidth of the modulated signal
Solution
S (t )  m(t ).c(t )  200 cos2 1000t  cos2 10000t 
S (t )  100[cos2 9000t   cos2 11000t ]
Modulated signal In the frequency domain has the form
S ( f )  50[  f  9000    f  9000]  50[ f  11000    f  11000 ]
 Example
sketch the AM signal [A+m(t)] cosωct for the periodic triangle
m(t)shown in fig. corresponding to the modulation index:-
a)µ=0.5 b)µ=1 c)µ=2 d) µ=∞
how do you interpret the case µ=∞
10 10 -3

- 10

This means that µ=∞ represent the DSB-SC case

30 µ=0.5
20 µ=1
20
10
10
0

15 µ=2 10 µ=∞.
5
0 0
Power Content of DSB-SC Signals
In order to compute the power content of the DSB-SC signal, we
can assume that the phase of the signal is set to zero. This is
because the power in a signal is independent of the phase of the
signal.

The message signal is m(t)=a cos2πfmt,

The carrier signal is c(t)=Ac cos2πfct,
of symmetry of sidebands the powers the upper and lower
sidebands, Pus and Pls , are equal and given by
DSB – SC Modulator
The DSB-SC is the simplest of the four linear modulation schemes
listed before (simplest in terms of the mathematical description of
modulation and demodulation operations).
Generation of DSB-SC signal can be achieved In several ways we
shall discuss here some important categories :-
1-Balanced modulator 2- Ring modulator
Balanced modulator
Two identical square law modulators arranged in balanced form to
cancel the carrier, acting subtracting the output S(t) form the other
yields 2m(t ) cosc t Thus, a balanced modulator is a multiplier

Block diagram of a balanced modulator 66

Ring modulator:-
One of the most popular and widely used balanced modulators is
the diode ring or lattice modulator in Fig. consisting of an input
transformer T1, an output transformer T2, and four diodes
connected in a bridge circuit.

The carrier turns the diodes off and on at a high rate of speed,
and the diodes act as switches that connect the modulating
signal at the secondary of T1 to the primary of T2.
67
Assume that the modulating input is zero.
When the polarity of the carrier is positive, diodes D1 and D2
are forward-biased. At this time, D3 and D4 are reverse-biased
and act as open circuits,
Current divides equally in the upper and lower portions of the primary
winding of T2. The current in the upper part of the winding produces a
magnetic field that is equal and opposite to the magnetic field produced
by the current in the lower half of the secondary.
The magnetic fields thus cancel each other out. No output is induced in
the secondary, and the carrier is effectively suppressed
When the polarity of the carrier reverses, diodes D1 and D2 are
reverse-biased and diodes D3 and D4 conduct. Again,
Current flows in the secondary winding of T1 and the primary
winding of T2. The equal and opposite magnetic fields produced in T2
cancel each other out. The carrier is effectively balanced out.
the goal is exactly equal upper and lower currents and perfect magnetic
field cancellation
68
69
DSB-SC Demodulation (detector)
Coherent (or synchronous) demodulation for DSB-SC
The recover of the message signal m(t) can be accomplished by
first multiplying s(t) with the locally generated sinusoidal wave
and then low pass filtering the product cos   1  1 cos 2
2

2 2

Diagram of coherent detector assuming that the local oscillator

is out of phase by  with respect to the sinusoidal carrier
oscillator in the transmitter 70
the recovery of the message signal m(t) can be accomplished
by first multiplying s(t) with a locally generated sinusoidal
wave and then low-pass filtering the product

At the filter output we then obtain a signal given by

The first term in v(t) is removed by low-pass filter, provided that

the cut-off frequency of this filter is greater than W but less than
2fc – W. This is satisfied by choosing fc >W.
71
At the filter output we then obtain a signal given by

The demodulated signal v0(t) is therefore proportional to m(t)

when the phase error  is a constant. The amplitude of this
demodulated signal is maximum when  =0 , and it is minimum
(zero) when    / 2

The quadrature null effect

The zero demodulated signal , when    / 2
The phase error  in the local oscillator causes the detector
output to be attenuated by a factor equal to cos( )
When the phase error  is constant the detector provides an
undistorted version of the signal baseband signal m(t) 72
In practice, we usually find that the phase error  varies
randomly with time, due to random variations in
communication channel. The result is that at the detector
output, the multiplying factor cos also varies randomly with
time, which is obviously undesired.

Fig:- illustration of the spectrum of v(t) in the coherent detector

The resulting system complexity is the price that must be paid
for suppressing the carrier wave to save transmitted power
73
Costas receiver
One method of obtaining a practical synchronous receiver
system, suitable for demodulating DSB-SC waves.
Coherent detection of a DSB-SC modulated wave requires that
the locally generated carrier in the receiver be synchronous in
both frequency and phase with the oscillator responsible for
generating the carrier in the transmitter

Costas receiver for the demodulation of a DSB-SC modulated wave. 74

The frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted to be the same
as the carrier frequency fc, which is assumed known a prior.

In the upper path is referred to as the in-phase coherent

detector or I-channel, and that in the lower path is referred to as
the quadrature-phase coherent detector or Q-channel. These two
detectors are coupled together to from a negative feedback
system designed in such a way as to maintain the local oscillator
synchronous with the carrier wave.

To understand the operation of this receiver, suppose that the

local oscillator signal is of the same phase as the carrier wave
used to generate the incoming DSB-SC wave. Under these
conditions, we find that the I-channel output contains the
desired demodulated signal m(t) whereas the Q-channel output
is zero due to the quadrature null effect of the Q-channel.
75
 By combining the I- and Q-channel outputs in phase
discriminator (which consists of a multiplier followed by a
low-pass filter), a dc control signal is obtained that
automatically for errors in the voltage controlled corrects local
phase voltage-oscillator (VCO)
Outputs of Product Modulator

Outputs of Low-Pass Filter

Output of Multiplier

76
Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing
Enable two DSB-SC modulated waves to occupy the same
channel bandwidth. It is a bandwidth-conservation scheme.

It is important to maintain the correct phase frequency

relationship between then local oscillators used in the
transmitter and receiver parts of the system 77
 Single sideband suppressed carrier
One way to improve the efficiency of amplitude modulation(AM)
is to suppress the carrier and eliminate one sideband.

Or suppress one of the two sideband in the DSB-SC modulated

wave .
The result is a single-sideband (SSB) signal
In single-sideband (SSB) modulation only the upper sideband or
the lower sideband is transmitted. Thus, SSB modulation requires
half the bandwidth of AM or DSBSC-AM modulation.
We can derive an expression to represent the SSB in time domain
considering special case of signal tone modulation .
Theory
A DSB-SC modulator using the sinusoidal modulating wave
m(t )  Am cos(2f m t ) 78
The resulting DSB-SC modulated wave is
S DSB (t )  c(t )m(t )
 Ac Am cos(2f c t ) cos(2f m t )
1 1
 Ac Am cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ]  Ac Am cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ]
2 2

Suppressing the second term in equation above the upper

and lower SSB modulated wave are
1
SUSSB (t )  Ac Am cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ]
2
1 1
SUSSB (t )  Ac Am cos(2f c t ) cos(2f m t )  Ac Am sin( 2f c t ) sin( 2f m t )
2 2
1
S LSSB (t )  Ac Am cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ]
2
1 1
S LSSB (t )  Ac Am cos(2f c t ) cos(2f m t )  Ac Am sin( 2f c t ) sin( 2f m t )
2 2
79
A sinusoidal SSB modulated wave
1 1
S SSB (t )  Ac Am cos(2f c t ) cos(2f m t )  Ac Am sin( 2f c t ) sin( 2f m t )
2 2
This represent the SSB considering special case of signal tone
modulation.
(+)sign represents the lower sideband
(-) sign represent the upper sideband

We may write the terms sin c t and sin  m t as :-

1 1  
S SSB (t )  Ac Am cos  m t cos  c t  Ac Am cos( m  )t cos( c  )t
2 2 2 2
For a periodic message signal defined by the Fourier series,
the SSB modulated wave is
m(t )   a n cos(2f n t )
n
1 1 
S SSB (t )  Ac cos(2f c t ) a n cos(2f n t )  Ac sin( 2f c t ) a n cos(2f n  )t
2 n 2 n 2
80
 For another periodic signal, the SSB modulated wave is
mh (t )   a n sin( 2f n t )
n
Ac A
S SSB (t )  m(t ) cos(2f c t )  c mh (t ) sin( 2f c t )
2 2
Under appropriate conditions, the Fourier series
representation of a periodic signal converges to the Fourier
transform of a nonperiodic signal
A Hibert transformer is a wide-band phase-shifter whose
frequency response is characterized as follows
H ( f )   j sgn( f )
where sgn(f) is the signum function; In words, the Hilbert
transformer is a wide-band phase-shifter whose frequency
response is characterized in two parts as follows The magnitude
response is unity for all frequencies, both positive and negative.
The phase response is +900 for negative frequencies and - 900 for
positive frequencies.
81
(a)Spectrum of a message signal m(t) with
energy gap centered around zero frequency,
corresponding spectra of SSB-modulated
waves using

S (t ) 

(b)Upper sideband, and (c) lower

sideband, in parts a&b the
spectra are only shown for
positive frequencies

82
Hilbert Transform
If m(t) is a signal and we represent its Hilbert transform by mh(t),
then mh (t) is obtained by providing (-π/2) phase shift to every
frequency component present in m(t)
Formula to calculate:-


1 1 1 m( )
mh (t )  m(t ) 
 t
or mh (t )  
  t  
d

Inverse Hilbert transform

83
The function mh(t) obtained by providing   / 2 phase shifting for every
frequency component present in m(t) defined as :-

1 1 1 m( )
mh (t )  m(t )  or mh (t )   d
 t   t  
|H()| = 1

H() = – jsgn()



sgn
–j /2

Application of the Hilbert Transform –/2

1-for generation of SSB signal
2-for design minimum phase type filter
3- representation of bandpass signal 84
Generation of SSB
SSB SC signal may be generated by two methods as under:-
1-Frequency discrimination methods
2- phase discrimination methods or phase shift methods
Frequency discrimination methods
In frequency discrimination method firstly, DSB SC signal is
generated by using balanced modulator , After this from the
DSB SC signal one of the two sidebands is filtered out by a
suitable band-pass filter .
Note that the design BPF becomes difficult if the carrier
frequency is quite higher than the bandwidth of the baseband
signal .
For the design of the band-pass filter to be practically feasible,
there must be a certain separation between the two sidebands
that is wide enough to accommodate the transition band of the
band-pass filter.
85
 Frequency discrimination
Example
An SSB transmitter using the filter method operates at a
frequency of 4.2 MHz. The voice frequency range is 300 to
3400 Hz.
a)Calculate the upper and lower sideband ranges.
b)What should be the approximate center frequency of a
bandpass filter to select the lower sideband.
86
Solution
Upper sideband
Lower Limit f LL  f c  300  4,200,000  300  4,200,300 Hz
UpperLimit f UL  f c  3400  4,200,000  3,400  4,203,400 Hz
Range, USB 4,200,300 to 4,302,400 Hz

Lower sideband
Lower Limit f LL  f c  300  4,200,000  300  4,199,700 Hz
UpperLimit f UL  f c  3400  4,200,000  3,400  4,196,600 Hz
Range, LSB 4,196,000 to 4,199,700 Hz

The equation for the approximate center frequency of a bandpass

filter to select the lower sideband fLSB is

f LSB  f LL  fUL  4,196,600  4,199,700  4,198,149.7 Hz

An approximation is
f f 4,196,600  4,199,700
f LSB  LL UL   4,198,150 Hz
2 2

87
Phase discrimination methods or phase shift methods
The phase - shift method avoids filter , this method makes use of
two balance modulator and two phase shift networks as shown in the
figure.

The carrier signal is

Ac sin 2f c t
The modulating signal is
Am sin 2f m t
Balanced modulator 1
produces the product of
these two signals :-
Am sin( 2f m t ) Ac sin( 2f c t )

Applying a common trigonometric identity

sin A sin B  0.5[cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)]
we have
( Am sin 2f m t )( Ac sin 2f c t )  0.5 Am Ac [cos(2f c  2f m )t  cos(2f c  2f m )t ]
88
Note that:- These are the sum and difference frequencies or the
upper and lower sidebands.
The 90° phase shifters in Fig. create cosine waves of the
carrier and modulating signals that are multiplied in balanced
modulator 2 to produce ( Am cos 2f m t )( Ac cos 2f c t )
Applying another common trigonometric identity
cos A cos B  0.5[cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)]
we have
( Am cos 2f m t )( Ac cos 2f c t )  0.5 Am Ac [cos(2f c  2f m )t  cos(2f c  2f m )t ]

When you add the sine expression given previously to the

cosine expression just above, the sum frequencies cancel and the
difference frequencies add, producing only the lower sideband.

89
Signal Power Considerations
In conventional AM, the transmitted power is distributed among
the carrier and two sidebands. For example, given a carrier
power of 400 W with 100 percent modulation,
each sideband will contain 100 W of power and the total power
transmitted will be 600 W.
In SSB, the transmitter output is expressed in terms of peak
envelope power (PEP).
PEP is computed by the equation P = V2/R.
Example:- a voice signal produces a 360-V, peak-to-peak signal
across a 50-V load. Calculate the peak envelop power.
The rms voltage is 0.707 times the peak value, and the peak
value is one-half the peak-to-peak voltage. In this example, the
rms voltage is 0.707(360/2) = 127.26 V.
The peak envelope power is then
(Vrms ) 2 (127.26) 2
PEP    324W
R 50 90
OR PEP is computed by the equation
PEP  Vs  I max
where Vs= amplifier dc supply voltage
Imax =current peak
The average power is typically
PEP PEP
Pavg  or Pavg 
3 4
Example :-
An SSB transmitter has a 24v dc power supply .on voice peaks
the current achieves a maximum of 9.3 A.
a)What is the PEP?
PEP  Vs  I max  24  9.3  223.2W
b)What is the average power of the transmitter ?
PEP 223.2 PEP 223.2
Pavg    74.4W or Pavg    55.8W
3 3 4 4
Pavg  55.8 to 74.4 W

91
Recall that
The demodulation of DSB-SC is complicated by the
suppression of the carrier in the transmitted signal.
To make up for the absence of the carrier in the receiver, use
coherent detection.
synchronization of a local oscillator in the receiver with the
oscillator responsible for generating the carrier in the transmitter.
The synchronization requirement has to be in both phase and
frequency
balanced modulator is a circuit that generates a DSB signal,
suppressing the carrier and leaving only the sum and difference
frequencies at the output. The output of a balanced modulator
can be further processed by filters to eliminate one of the
sidebands, resulting in an SSB signal.

92
Coherent Detection of SSB
The demodulation of SSB is further complicated by the
additional suppression of the upper or lower sideband. In
actuality, the two sidebands share an important property: they
are the images of each other with respect to the carrier. Here
again, coherent detection comes to SSB demodulation.

The coherent detector of Fig. applies equally well to the

demodulation of both DSB-SC and SSB; the only difference
between these two applications is how the modulated wave is
defined.

93
To recover the intelligence in a DSB or SSB signal .
Assume that a 3-kHz sine wave tone is transmitted by
modulating a 1000-kHz carrier. With SSB transmission of the
upper sideband, the transmitted signal is 1000 + 3 =1003 kHz.
Now at the receiver, the SSB signal (the 1003-kHz USB) is used
to modulate a carrier of 1000 kHz
If a balanced modulator is used, the 1000-kHz carrier is
suppressed, but the sum and difference signals are generated.
The balanced modulator is called a product detector because it is
used to recover the modulating signal rather than generate
The sum and difference frequencies produced are
Sum: 1003 + 1000 = 2003 kHz
Difference: 1003 - 1000 = 3 kHz
The difference is, of course, the original intelligence or
modulating signal. The sum , the 2003-kHz signal, has no
importance or meaning 94
Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
Instead of completely removing a sideband, a trace of vestige of
that sideband is transmitted, the name “vestigial sideband”
Instead of transmitting the other sideband in full, almost the
whole of this second band is also transmitted
BT  f v  W
where fv is the vestige bandwidth and W is the message
bandwidth. Typically fv, is 25 percent of W, which means that
the VSB bandwidth BT lies between the SSB bandwidth, W, and
DSB-SC bandwidth, 2W.

VSB modulator using frequency discrimination 95

Sideband Shaping Filter
Sideband Shaping Filter
The band-pass filter is referred to as a sideband shaping filter
The transmitted vestige compensates for the spectral portion missing
from the other sideband.
The sideband shaping filter must itself satisfy the following condition.
The spectrum shaping is defined by the transfer function of the
filter, which is denoted by H(f).

H ( f  f c)  H ( f  f c)  1 for  W  f  W

Where fc is the carrier frequency. The term H( f + fc ) is the

positive-frequency part of the band-pass transfer function H( f )
shifted to the left by fc and is the negative H( f - fc ) frequency
part of H( f ) shifted to the right by fc

96
The transfer function of the sideband shaping filter exhibits odd
symmetry about the carrier frequency
H ( f )  u ( f  f c )  H v ( f  f c ), for fc  fv  f  fc  w

The first term u(f-fc)denotes the frequency shift version of the

unit step function
1, for f  0
u( f )  
0, for f  0
The Hv( f – fc ) second term denotes the frequency-shifted
version of a new low-pass transfer function Hv

97
(a) Amplitude response of
sideband-shaping filter; only
the positive frequency portion
is shown, the dashed part of
the amplitude response is
arbitrary.
(b)Unit-step function defined
in the frequency domain.
(c) Low-pass transfer function
Hv(f ).

98
Coherent Detection of VSB
we may use the coherent detector. As with the DSB-SC and
SSB demodulations studied previously
The demodulation of VSB consists of multiplying s(t)with a
locally generator sinusoidal and the low pass filtering the
result product signal v(t)
Fourier transform of the product signal is
v(t )  Ac s (t ) cos(2f c t )
1
V( f )  Ac [ S ( f  f c )  S ( f  f c )]
2
s (t )  S ( f )
1
S ( f )  Ac [ M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c )]H ( f )
2
Shifting the VSB spectrum to the right and the left
1
S ( f  f c )  Ac [ M ( f  2 f c )  M ( f )]H ( f  f c )
2
1
S ( f  f c )  Ac [ M ( f )  M ( f  2 f c )]H ( f  f c ) 99
2
 1
V ( f )  Ac Ac M ( f )[ H ( f  f c )  H ( f  f c )]
4
1
 Ac Ac [ M ( f  2 f c ) H ( f  f c )  M ( f  2 f c ) H ( f  f c )]
4
1
V ( f )  Ac Ac M ( f )
4
1
 Ac Ac [ M ( f  2 f c ) H ( f  f c )  M ( f  2 f c ) H ( f  f c )]
4
The low pas filter in the coherent detector has a cut off
frequency just slightly greater than the message bandwidth
The result demodulated signal is a scaled version of the
desired message signal.

100
The Superheterodyne Receiver (Non coherent receivers)
The radio receiver used in an AM is called the Superheterodyne AM
receiver
Most popular of a radio receiver so far. it consists of :-
1-RF (radio frequency ) section
2- Frequency convertor
3-Intermediate frequency IF amplifier
4-Envelope detector.
5-Audio amplifier
The RF section is basically a tunable filter and an amplifier that picks up
the desired station .
The next section ,frequency mixer (convertor carrier to a fixed IF
frequency of 455KHz for this purpose it uses a local oscillator.
f LO  f c  f IF ( f IF  455 KHz )
Note that : the tuning of the local oscillator and RF tunable filter is done
by one knob.
The tuning frequency of the local oscillator is always 455KHz above the
tuning frequency of the RF filter . (this means every station is tuned in is
translated to a fixed carrier frequency of 455KHzby frequency converter .
101
In reality , practically all of the selective is realized in the IF
section the RF section plays a negligible role.
 The main function of the RF section is image frequency
suppression
 The Superheterodyne receiver performs the following function
-Carrier frequency tuning selecting the desired signal
-Demodulation of the desired signal
-Amplification of the signal
In practical
Antenna

Converter
(Multiplier)
RF Stage IF Stage Envelope Detector Audio Stage
a(t) (radio frequency) b(t) d(t) (intermediate frequency) e(t) f(t) g(t)

RF Amplifier
X IF Amplifier Diode, Capacitor,
Power amplifier
& RF BPF & IF BPF Resistor, & DC blocker

c(t)

Local
Oscillator
Ganged RF
BPF and cos[(c+IF)t]
Oscillator
102
Signal a(t) at the output of the Antenna: The receives signals ranging in
frequency from around 530 kHz to 1650 kHz as shown by a(t) in the
figure. S (t )  Ac [1   m(t )] cos2f c t 
Signal b(t) at the output of the RF (Radio Frequency) Stage
The signal at the output of the antenna is extremely week in terms of
amplitude. so it must be amplified.
Signal c(t) at the output of the Local Oscillator:
This is simply a sinusoid with a variable frequency that is a function of
the carrier frequency of the desired channel. The purpose of
multiplying the signal b(t) by this sinusoid is to shift the center
frequency of b(t) to a constant frequency that is called IF (intermediate
frequency).
Signal d(t) at the output of the Multiplier (Usually called frequency
converter or mixer):
The signal here should contain the desired channel at the constant
frequency fIF regardless of the original frequency of the desired
channel.
103
 S (t )  Ac [1   m(t )] cos2f ct [cos 2 ( f c  f IF )t ]
S (t )  Ac [1   m(t )] cos2f IF t   [cos 2 (2 f c  f IF )t ]
 
rejected by IF stage
Signal e(t) at the output of the IF Stage:
Now that the desired channel is located at the IF frequency, a
relatively simple to create BP filter with BW of 10 kHz and center
frequency of fIF Can be used to extract only the desired channel and
reject all adjacent channels. This filter has a constant Q factor of
about 455/10 = 45.5 (which is not that difficult to create), but more
importantly has a constant center frequency.
Q–factor (Center frequency/bandwidth)

S (t )  Ac [1   m(t )] cos2f IF t 
Signal f(t) at the output of the Envelope Detector
The signal above is input to an envelope detector that extracts
the original unmodulated signal from the modulated signal g(t)
at the output of the Audio Stage (Power Amplifier)
104
In the following sections, the basic function of each circuit is
examined
RF Amplifiers
The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to the
RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier (LNA). Because
RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and selectivity, t hey are
sometimes referred to as pre-selectors. Tuned circuits help
select the desired signal or at least the frequency range in which
the signal resides.
Mixers and Local Oscillators
The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the
mixer. The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator.
The mixer output is the input signal, the local oscillator signal,
and the sum and difference frequencies of these signals. Usually a
tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference
frequency, or intermediate frequency (IF). The sum frequency
may also be selected as the IF in some applications 105
IF Amplifiers
The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same
modulation that appeared on the input RF signal. This signal is
amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages, and most of the
receiver gain is obtained in these stages. Selective tuned circuits
provide fixed selectivity. Since the intermediate frequency is
usually much lower than the input signal frequency, IF
amplifiers are easier to design and good selectivity is easier to
obtain, Crystal filters are used in most IF sections to obtain good
selectivity

106
Example: Consider a superheterodyne receiver designed to receiver the
frequency band of 1 to 30 MHz with IF frequency 8 MHz. what is the
range of frequencies generated by the local oscillator for this receiver ?
An incoming signal with carrier frequency 10 MHz is received at the 10
MHz setting . At the setting of the receiver we also get interference from a
signal with some other carrier frequency if the receiver RF stage band-pass
filter has poor selectivity .
What is the carrier frequency of the interfering signal ?
Solution
The local oscillator generates frequencies in the range
from 1  8  9 MHz to 30  8  38 MHz
when the receiver setting is 10MHz
f Lo  f c  f IF  10  8  18 MHz
now if there is a station at 18  8  26 MHz
it will mix with f Lo  18 to produce two signal centered at
26  18  44MHz and at 26  18  8MHz
the sum component is Suppressed by the IF filter
the difference component which is ceneterd at 8MHz
passes through the IF filter 107