Filtration

Filtration
• Filtration is the separation process used to remove
undissolved, particulate suspended solids from a solid–
liquid mixture through a solid medium.
• Solid medium is porous that retains the solid either on it or
within itself.
Aim
1. Separation: Filtration isolates solids from fluids.
2. Purification: Cleans fluids by removing impurities.
3. Clarification: Improves fluid transparency.
4. Contaminant Removal: Eliminates harmful substances.
5. Quality Control: Ensures fluid quality in diverse
applications.
6. Environmental Safeguard: Protects the environment by
removing pollutants.
• The separation of solids from a suspension in a
liquid by means of a porous medium or which
retains the solids and allows the liquid to pass is
termed filtration.
• Filtrate may contain some fine particles.
(depending on the pore size)
• Filtration of the thick pulp gives rise to a moist filter
cake of between 80 to 90% solids
 Filtration terms
• Slurry: The suspension of solid and liquid to be
filtered.
• Filter medium: The porous medium used to retain
the solids.
• Filter cake: The accumulation of solids on the filter
medium.
• Filtrate: The clear liquid passing through the filter
and collected in the receptor.
 Mechanism of Filtration
In the early stages of liquid filtration particles are retained on the fibers
of filter medium by the following mechanisms:
1. Straining
The particles larger than the pore size of filter
medium will be retained on the latter.
2. Impingement
Solids having the momentum move along the path
of streaming flow and strike the filter medium and
retained on the filter medium.
3. Entanglement
If the filter medium consists of a cloth or is a porous
felt, then particles become entangled in the mass of
fibers. Usually, particles are smaller than the pores.
4. Attractive forces
Solids are retained on the filter medium as a result
of attractive force between particles and filter medium.
 Classification of Filtration
Filtration

Desired Filtration Driving Operating

Product Mechanism Force Cycle

Cake Gravity
Solid Batch
Filtration
Particle size is higher and solids
Solid and are collected above the filter Mechanical
Clarified medium as cake. Pressure Continuous
Liquid Clarifying
Filtration Vacuum
Pressure
Clarified Particles are smaller than the
pores of the filter medium, the
particles will penetrate a Centrifugal
considerable depth and are Force
Cross flow trapped within the pores of the
Filtration filter medium.

Feed of suspension flows under pressure at a fairly high

velocity across the filter medium
 Types of Filters:
1.Cake Filter
2.Clarifying Filter
3.Crossflow Filter
 Classification of Cake Filters
Depending on the driving force used during filtration, cake filters
can be classified into 4 types:

S. No. Filter Type of Operation

Batch Continuous
1. Gravity filters Sand filter, Paper filter

2. Pressure filters Filter presses, Rotary drum

Pressure leaf filters pressure filters

3. Vacuum filters Nutsche filters, Rotary drum

Vacuum leaf filters filters,
Disk filters
4. Centrifugal filters Filtration through centrifuges
• The volume of filtrate collected per unit time (dV/dt) is
termed as the rate of filtration.
As the thickness of the cake increases:
• resistance to flow of filtrate increases
• rate of filtration gradually decreases.
• Filtration rate constant pressure drop increase
• Pressure drop constant filtration rate decrease
 Types of Cake Filtration
Cake filtration can be operated at constant pressure and
constant rate conditions.
• Constant pressure filtration
The pressure drop across the filter is constant throughout the run.
The rate of filtration is maximum at the beginning and decreases
continuously with the time.
• Constant rate filtration
Pressure drop is increased with time as so that rate of filtration is
constant throughout run.
In cake filtration, the liquid passes through two resistance
• Resistances because of formation of cake
• Resistance of filter medium
• Filter medium resistance is normally important
only during the early stages of the cake
filtration.
• Cake resistance is zero at start of filtration and
increases with time as filtration proceeds

• If cake is washed after it is filtered, both

resistance are constant during the washing
period; in general, and that of the filter medium
is usually negligible.
 PRINCIPLE OF CAKE FILTRATION
• Cake filtration is a process like flow
through porous medium.
• During the process, the thickness of
solid deposited on the filter medium
will start increasing.
• Therefore, flowrate of filtrate will start
decreasing.
• The overall pressure drop is the sum
of pressure drop across the cake and
across the medium.
• (∆𝑝) = (∆𝑝𝑐) + (∆𝑝𝑚)
= (pa − p’) + (p′ − pb).
• The pressure drop must be increased
to keep the flow rate constant.
 PRESSURE DROP THROUGH FILTER CAKE
Lc thickness of the cake
• The flow rate through the small
thickness dL is very low to ensure
laminar flow.
• The flow is assumed to flow through
porous medium and pressure drop is
given by Kozney-Carman equation low
Reynolds numbers

Because of lower cake porosity near filter medium,

across the cake layer the pressure gradient is in
general non-linear.
Where 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑡/ 𝐴
• V is the volume of filtrate pa pressure upstream in the filter
• A is filter area normal to the direction of flow. pb pressure filtrate side in the filter
• The filtrate must pass through the entire cake and V/A
is constant through all layers and u is independent of
L.
𝒅𝒗/𝒅𝒕
U=
𝑨
• The volume of solids in the layer is 𝐴 (1 − 𝜀) 𝑑𝐿 and mass
becomes dm = 𝜌𝑝𝐴 (1 − 𝜀) 𝑑𝐿
• 𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝑚/[𝜌𝑝𝐴 1 − 𝜀 ]
• Therefore, the pressure drop can be written as

This equation is valid for low pressure drop filtration of slurries having uniform particles,
in RHS of this equation, except this dm, other parameters are independent of L,
 • Total pressure drop across the cake:

For incompressible cake

Specific Cake resistance

The above expression shows that the cake resistance is independent of pressure drop
and position in the cake.
 COMPRESSIBLE CAKE
• Most cakes encountered industrially are not made up of
individual rigid particles.
• Practically the slurry contains agglomerates of fine
particles and cake properties depend on the properties of
those agglomerates.
• The individual geometric shape of particles not affect the
cake resistance significantly.
• The presence of flocs makes the flow channel complicated
and unpredictable.
• Therefore, such cakes are compressible in nature.
• In compressible cake, the cake resistance varies with
distance from the septum. The cake nearest to septum is
subjected to greatest compressive for and has lowest void
fraction.
• Filter medium resistance

Total pressure drop is (∆𝑝) = (∆𝑝𝑐) + (∆𝑝𝑚)

• Rm in general ranges 1010 to 1011 m-1

• Filter medium resistance varies with higher liquid
velocity. It also changes after long operational time.
• In general, during important stage of filtration, when the
cake is of appreciable thickness, ∆pm is very small in
comparison to ∆pc.
 DESIGN EQUATION OF FILTRATION
𝑑𝑉
• Rate of filtration if defined as:
𝑑𝑡
• Mass concentration of particles (C) deposited on the filter
medium per unit volume of the filtrate, then mass of solids in
the filter at time t is given as V.C,
1 𝑑𝑉
• 𝑚𝑐 = V. C and 𝑢 =
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
 Constant pressure filtration
When ∆p is constant the only variables are V and t. when t=0, V=0 and ∆p=
∆pm

The equation is useful to calculate the cake resistance and filter

medium resistance from experimental data.
• For incompressible sludge or cake the cake resistance is
independent of pressure drop.
• In general, cake resistance increases with pressure drop
but all cakes formed are compressible at least to some
extent.
• Let us assume 𝛼 = 𝛼0(∆𝑝) 𝑠 (Sperry correlation)
• Where 𝑠 is the compressibility coefficient of the cake.
S=0, for totally incompressible cake
S=1, for completely compressible cake
S=0.1-0.8, for commercial slurries
Factors Affecting the Rate of Filtration
• Pressure drop across the cake and septum
• Resistance of the cake
• Resistance of the filter medium
• Area of the filtering surface
• Viscosity of the filtrate
CONTINUOUS FILTRATION
 CONTINUOUS FILTRATION
• Continuous filtration in the rotary-drum filter
• Assumptions: feed rate, filtrate rate & cake movement at steady
constant rates.
• The pressure drop across filter during the cake formation is held
constant
• If t is actual time of filtration, then (the time any filter element is
immersed in the slurry)

Where V is the volume of filtrate collected during the time

CONTINUOUS FILTRATION
 CONTINUOUS FILTRATION

A= f * AT
• If the filter medium is washed after cake is discharged
then Rm is negligible, can be reduced to

AT

• Valid for the both Continuous vacuum filters and

Continuous pressure filters.
CENTRIFUGAL FILTRATION

• Centrifugal filtration works on

the principle of centrifuge.

• It is constant pressure filtration

process.

• The treatment applies after the

cake has been deposited and
clear filtrate pass through the
cake.

r1= radius of the inner surface liquid.

ri= radius of the inner surface of the cake
r2= insife radius of the basket
A2= Area of filter medium
͞Aa= Arithmetic mean of cake area
͞AL =logarithmic mean of cake area
 Constant rate filtration
• The technique in which the pressure drops are varied
usually from a minimum at the start of filtration to a
maximum at the end of filtration so that the rate of
filtration is throughout the run is called Constant rate
filtration.
• When filtrate flows at a constant rate, the linear
velocity u is constant
dV/dt V
U= = At
A
We have ∆Pc A
α=
u μ Mc
Mc = cV
• Substituting u and Mc into Equation α and rearranging, we
get
𝟐
∆Pc μc V
=
α t 𝑨
• If α is known as a function of ∆Pc, and if ∆Pm can be estimated, the
above equation can be used for relating the overall pressure drop to
time when the flow rate of the filtrate is constant.
• Cake resistance is α = α₀ (∆Pc)s is substituted in equation
𝟐
𝟏−𝒔 V
∆Pc = α₀ μct
𝒕𝑨
• ∆Pc is substituted by (∆Pc - ∆Pm) then the result is
𝟐
𝟏−𝒔 V
∆P − ∆P𝒎 = α₀ μct
𝒕𝑨
• The simplest method of correcting the overall pressure drop for the
pressure drop through the medium is to assume the filter medium
resistance constant during a given constant rate filtration. Then,

∆P − ∆P𝒎 𝟏−𝒔 = 𝑲𝒓 𝐭 Where Kr = μ u² c α₀

The values of s and Kr can be obtained by taking the logarithms

of both sides of equation (8.22): (1-s).log ∆ pc = log Kr + log t. A
plot of log t against log (∆ p - ∆ pm) gives a straight line of slope
(1 - s). The value of ∆ pm can be obtained by first plotting ∆ p
against time. At zero time the value of ∆ p equals ∆ pm
 Filtration practice
Modes of filtration
• In practical operation, it is customary to have neither constant
pressure nor constant rate filtration. However, in case of filters
run under positive pressure, a centrifugal pump is used to drive
the slurry to the filter. In this case the mode of operation is that
of constant rate during the early stages of filtration and of
constant pressure in the later stages.
• In filtration, it's common to wash the cake after filtration by
passing a wash liquid, often water, through the cake. The initial
washing rate is usually the same as the final filtration rate, but
the overall washing rate is typically about one-fourth of the
overall filtration rate. The overall filtration rate, which
includes both filtration and washing, is given by the equation
• The output is generally expressed in terms of the filtrate
produced per batch of operation which is completed in a
given specified time called cycle time, tcycle.

The cycle time consists of

• time for filtering, t;
• time for washing (if washing is required), tW;
• time for dismantling, tD;
• time for reassembling, tR; and
• time for filling, tFL
• Defined as the ratio between the filtrate volume collected during the total
filtration period t and the total time of the filtration cycle which consists of
the sum (t + tT) where tT is known as the Tare time which is the time taken to
dismantle the filter (in case of batch filters) , to remove the cake etc…On the
other hand, a cycle including both filtration and washing will have an overall
rate of filtration defined by

𝑽
𝑹=
𝒕+𝒕𝒕 +𝒕𝒘
If filtration is affected under constant pressure, then from equation is
related to V by:
𝑽
𝑹 = 𝑲𝑪 𝑽
𝟐 + +𝒕 +𝒕
𝟐
𝑽 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝒘

The maximum overall rate of filtration will be obtained by equating

dR/dt to zero. Once the value of V corresponding to that maximum
rate is obtained, we can calculate the total filtration period.
 Filter Media
The choice of a proper filter medium can often be the most important
consideration in assuring satisfactory operation of a filter. It should be capable of
properly retaining the solids that are to be separated from the liquid, with suitable
length of life. The following criteria are usually used in the selection of a filter
medium:

• Ability to bridge solids across its pores quickly after feed is started.
• The solids should not blind the filter openings.
• Minimum filter medium resistance.
• Resistance to chemical attack.
• Acceptable resistance to mechanical wear.
• Sufficient strength to support the filtration pressure.
• Ability to discharge the cake easily and cleanly.
• Relatively low cost.

Filter media are manufactured from textiles woven of cotton, synthetic fibers and
sometimes, in case fine crystals are filtered, from metal fabric of about 400 mesh
opening.
 Filter Media
Here are some filter materials and their characteristics:
1. PO (PONG) - Polypropylene Felt:
1. Popular and cost-effective non-woven material.
2. Offers excellent chemical resistance.
3. Suitable for applications up to 200°F.
4. Available as plain or glazed (high heat treated).
2. PMO - Polypropylene Mesh:
1. Polypropylene monofilament mesh.
2. Better acid resistance than nylon.
3. Cost-effective for temperatures up to 200°F.
3. PEMF - Polyester Microfiber Felt:
1. Made from raw microscopic fibers.
2. Long life and ultra-fine micron rating.
3. Replaces expensive high maintenance cartridges.
4. Ideal for hot oil and applications up to 325°F.
4. NMO - Nylon Mesh:
1. Monofilament mesh with single filament threads.
2. Strong material suitable for various applications
 Filtration Equipment
For any given filtration operation, the choice of a suitable filter largely
depends on the minimum overall cost of the equipment.
There are some important factors which should be considered for the
selection of a filter:

• Nature of solids present in the solid (Particle shape and size, size
distribution, and their cake forming characteristics)
• Properties of the fluid (Viscosity, density, and corrosiveness)
• Quantity of slurry to be filtered
• Concentration of solids in the slurry
• Desired product (Solid, liquid or both)
• Washing of the cake
Classification of the filtration equipment
TYPES OF FILTERS
 Filter Press
A filter press is a machine that separates liquids and solids
using pressure filtration and used in a variety of industries,
including:
• Food and beverage processing
• Chemical manufacturing
• Wastewater treatment
These are available in two basic designs:
(i) Plate-and-frame filter
(ii) Recessed-plate filter
Regardless of the design, filter presses separate solids and
liquids by forcing the liquid fraction of a feed slurry
through a permeable filter cloth.
 Plate and Frame Filter Press
• A standard plate-and-frame filter press consists of plates
and skeleton frames arranged alternatively.

• The frames are

Frame

Slurry
in
covered with a
filter cloth on both
of its sides, while
Filter
cloth
the frames are
hollow and provide
Cake space for cake
Accumulation
Filtrate Filtrate Filtrate Filtrate
accumulation.
 Advantages of Filter Press
In general, the advantages of the filter press are
• They are simple to construct and have low initial cost
• They have low maintenance cost
• Most joints are external, hence leakage, if any, is easily detected
• They provide large filtering area per unit floor space.
• High operating pressures are easily obtained.

Disadvantages
• Labour requirement is very high.
• Filter cloth life is relatively short.
• Not suitable for high throughputs.
• Presses frequently drip and leak, making housekeeping in the area a problem.
• Cake washing is likely to be imperfect.
 Shell and Leaf Filter
• Leaf filters consist of flat filtering elements, known as leaves, which are supported either in
a horizontal or vertical pressure vessel. The leaves are of circular or rectangular shape and
have filtering faces on both of its sides.
• A leaf consists of a heavy coarse-mesh wire screen over which finer wire screen is fitted on
both of its sides
• The horizontal pressure leaf filter offers optional jacketing and cloth-enveloped filters.
• The retractable filtered shell is equipped with four external wheels, and all nozzle
connections are located on the fixed head of the filter vessel.
• Key features include appropriate interlocking to prevent opening under pressure.
Range:
•Available in sizes ranging from 5 square meters to 250 square meters.
Advantages:
The horizontal leaf filter provides several advantages:
▪ Prevents spillage due to close and compact operation.
▪ Eliminates the use of filtered cloth, reducing operational expenses.
▪ Offers high productivity thanks to a rapid filtration rate.
▪ Provides cost-effective and economical operational costs.
▪ Is highly user-friendly.
This type of filter is a versatile and efficient device suitable for a range of applications.
The space between the leaves may
vary from 30-100 mm depending on
the cake formation properties
The vessel is locked and the slurry is
pumped under pressure into the vessel.
Filtration occurs on the leaf surfaces
and the filtrate gets discharged from the
bottom of each leaves into the manifold
Applications of Filter Leaf

The vertical pressure leaf filter is used for the polishing slurries with a
very low solid content of 1- 5% or for cake filtration with a solid
concentration of 20 - 25%.

The vertical leaf filters are suitable for handling flammable, toxic, and
corrosive materials since they are autoclaved and designed for
hazardous environments when high pressure and safe operation are
required.

The vertical leaf filters may be readily jacketed for applications

whenever hot or cold temperatures are to be maintained.
 Screw Press filter
The solid material is introduced through
the feed inlet. The screw element is
allowed to rotate using a suitable power
supply. The material is trapped between the
gaps (clearance) of the spiral blade and the
stationary disc plate. The material gets
pressed in the clearance and passes through
the outlet. The extracted oil is filtered and
collected in a settling tank. The settled
solids are sent back to the fresh material
feed. The cake contains 8 to 10% oil. The
cake is crushed into the coarse meal
(material) and solvent extraction is
attempted with hexane or heptane in order
to further extract the oil.
 Horizontal Belt Filters

Horizontal Belt Filters provide a

continuous vacuum on a horizontal
plane. Slurries are fed onto a filter
cloth supported by a traveling
drainage belt. Horizontal belt filters
are especially adaptable to
applications where low cake
moisture is desirable.
Reference.
McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., and Harriott, P. Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering. McGraw Hill ( Chapter 29).
K. Swain, Hemlata Patra, G. K. Roy, “Mechanical Operations” McGraw-Hill
Education Private Limited, 2011. (Chapter no. 6).
Mass concentration of particles deposited in the filter
• Concentration of solid in slurry fed to the filter (CF) is less than C.
• Since wet cake includes sufficient liquid to fill it's pores actual
filtered volume V is slightly less than the total Liquid in the
original slurry.
• Correction for this retention of liquid in cake can be made by
material balance.
• Mass of the wet cake : MF ( Includes filtrate retained in voids).
• Mass of dry cake by washing cake free of soluble material and
drying Mc
• Concentration of solids in slurry in kg /m3 of liquid fed to the filter
medium, CF. And concentration of solids in filtered collected, if it
is CS. Density of filtrate is ρ.