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GE 3 – Art Appreciation Module 6 Elements and Principles of Art

Module No. 8
MODULE TITLE

PERFORMING ARTS

MODULE OVERVIEW

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

a. Appreciate the importance of dance as an artistic and social activity;
b. Familiarize with the different forms of dance;
c. Identify the various genres in music and the different elements of music;
d. Make a creative interpretation of the different musical genres
e. Appreciate theatre as a form of art and identify the various elements of
theatre. f. Define improvisation and performance art
g. Utilize the body as the basic tool in expression and communication
h. Strengthen students’ initiative and artistic sensibilities.

LEARNING CONTENTS

PERFORMANCE ART
Art which can include any variety of media and is executed before a live audience.
The setting does not have to be a traditional theatre, it could be on the street.
Traditional
theatrical performances present illusions of events, while Performance Art presents
actual events as art. The same Performance Piece could have a completely different
outcome based on the audience. There won’t necessarily be a script written in advance.
It usually includes interaction with the audience.
Performance art is a type of artistic production that focuses upon actions, audiences
and sites- specific activities done in a particular location for a particular time.
It was an avant-garde movement that has its artistic roots in the futurist and dada
gatherings, demonstrations, protests, and unconventional exhibitions & poetry readings
of the teens and twenties. their activities were meant to confront, shock & outrage
conventional society (the bourgeoisie) in an artistic response to the to the atrocities of
WW1. They saw their rejection of traditional culture as clearing the way for new thinking
and new Institutions.
Some push the roots of performance art much further back to the very beginnings of human
culture. They argue that all art has its origin in performative symbolic actions such as rituals
and rites of passage. Many performance artists, especially in the 1960’s and 1970’s
consciously cultivated the idea of the artist as shaman. This is especially evident in the
body works of artists such as chris burden.

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Art

Often these early performance works dealt with taboo, social isolation and
the transformative/cathartic role of artist as the hero/martyr/fool.
Individual artist actions are still a common approach to performance, but as early as the
1950’s a more social form of performance art emerged, focused not so much on the role
of the shaman but more on the social character of ritual. allan Kaprow’s Happening’s and
the activities of the artist collective fluxus focused on involving the audience as
participants rather than as spectators and they were very interested in blurring or
eliminating the distinctions between art and life.

DANCE

Dance is an art form that refers to movement of the body used as a form of expression,
social interaction or presented in spiritual performance. Dance can be participatory,
social or performed for an audience. It can also be ceremonial, competitive or erotic.
Dance can embody or express ideas, emotions or tell a story. Dancing has evolved
many styles. Break dancing and Cramping are the hip hop culture. African dance is
interpretive. Ballet, Ballroom, Waltz, and Tango are classical styles of dance while
Square and the Electric Slide are forms of step dances.
Archeology delivers traces of dance from prehistoric times such as the 9,000-year-old
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka paintings in India and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting
dancing figures from circa 3300 BC. One of the earliest structured uses of dances may
have been in the performance and in the telling of myths. It is also linked to the origin of
"love making.
Many early forms of music and dance were created and performed together. This paired
development has continued through the ages with dance/music forms such as: jig,
waltz, tango, disco, salsa, electronica and hip-hop. Some musical genres also have a
parallel dance form such as baroque music and baroque dance whereas others
developed separately: classical music and classical ballet.
Right after harvest, the Subanun of Sindangan Zamboanga Del Norte holds a seven-day
festivity, a thanks giving to the gods. This feast is called buklug this is a kind of feast
which program of activities is centered on dancing on a wooden flat form called buklugan.

Dance throughout the ages is connected with the supernatural being. Ancient people danced
to show their gratitude to the gods, or to ask favor from the gods. Modern man dances
because he likes to Children on the street dance as a natural response to the beating of
sounds played nearby, or an old man taps his feet in harmony with the music around while
he peers down over his cup of coffee.

Dance can be both an art and a form of recreation. As an art, dance may interpret a story,
a history or an expression of mood. Ballet is an example for dance as art. The gestures of
a ballet dancer can simulate a soaring eagle and can let audience feel what Juliet felt as
she beholds the dying Romeo.

Unity, the universal element of art is basic to dancing. Dancing is beautiful and glorifying to
see if there is a perfect harmony of movement. If one member of the group of dancing
makes
a mistake of movement, the whole presentation is instinctively ruined. In dancing going against
unity is a grievous act, grievous because it brings the whole art to a total downfall.
This element of unity does not only refer to the harmony of gestures or motions. Other

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elements of dance are design, music, costume and properties; they should always cling
to each other in accordance with the theme of the dance.
Manalo (2012) it is indeed a very sad party if it goes on without a dance. At the same time, it
would be an ostracized man if he lives unable to make a very simple dance step. Anywhere
in the world so long as the place is inhabited with human there are always dances. In fact,
without human among the animals’ dance is a form of communication. A rooster dances to
attract the hen; a peacock dances to say his liking to the peahen.

Dance is among the early things humanity learned. It is well explained in the early
development of a child. A child dances even to the sound of clapping hands. As already
argued anthropological investigations could never be complete without looking at the
dances of the subject. It is theorized that dances were present during the early hominid.

Modern period dance is performed as a medical technique of healing. In the past it was
used by the shaman of India and of the Pacific islanders to drive away evils that caused the
sickness of the person hence it was a technique of healing.

More on the modern times dance now is considered as one of the branches of art. In the,
course Physical Education dance is taken because of its rhythmic characteristics and not
exactly its artistic value. Courses of the humanities consider dance in the curriculum because
of the beauty it exemplifies when performed. Art appreciation could never be complete
without dance. Students in the course have to perform two tasks, to watch a great
performance and themselves to perform a dance number. It looks like knowledge of the
students in art is half baked if they could not watch a classical dance, the ballet. Exponents in
the development of dance anchored the art of dance to the words like: baroque and to the
popular ones like salsa, disco, hip-hop, break dance, twist, waltz, tango and many others.

Dance is for healing, entertainment and recreation. It is wise to mention that dance is also a
means to improve self-defense. In martial arts there is what they call kata. Its execution is
exactly a dance. Martial artist notably the actor Jean Claude Van Damme combined his
knowledge in ballet dance to his execution of kata. Almost 90 percent of the criteria in
making judgment of a dance presentation are applied to kata presentation.

Whatever purpose the performance of dance may have, the world had seen several reasons
why men dance. One of which is for recreation. Dance is a form of relaxation, a rewinding
from the day's hard work. Second, men dance for health purposes. In olden times it was used
to drive away the evils. In the modern times, it may not be performed to drive away the evils,
but
it is proven to have a therapeutic effect to the performers. Third, human dance to express
sexual desire, or dance is used to provoke sex. The dance movie Lambada epitomizes
this
claim.

Dance Forms

Ballet is a theatrical dance form with a codified technique. Developed from court productions
of the Renaissance, ballet was renewed under Louis XIV, who in 1661 established France's
Académie Royale de Danse, where Pierre Beauchamps developed the five positions of the
feet Significant developments in the early 19th century included pointe work (balance on the
extreme tip of the toe) and the emergence of the prima ballerina, exemplified by Marie
Taglioni and Fanny Elssler. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia became the
centre of ballet production and performance through the work of innovators such as Serge
Diaghilev , Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, Marius Petipa and Michel Fokine. Since then, ballet

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has appeared on stages and in dance schools around the world.

Jazz dance was developed in the United States by African-Americans in the early part of the
20th century. It drew on African rhythms and techniques that isolated various parts of the body
in movement. The name was first used during World War I, and by the 1920s jazz had been
taken up by general society. Its presence in film, on television and on Broadway provided a
large and enduring audience. One of the earliest instances of theatrical jazz dance was
George Balanchine's ballet Slaughter on Tenth Avenue (1936). Katherine Dunham and Bob
Fosse
were leading American jazz choreographers. Calgary, Alberta's Decidedly Jazz
Danceworks, founded in 1984, is an important promoter of jazz dance.
Modern dance usually refers to 20th-century concert dance that developed in the United
States and Europe. Rebelling against classical ballet, early modern dance pioneers began to
practice "free dance", often in bare feet. In America, Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan and Ruth
St. Denis developed their own styles of free dance, paving the way for American modern
dance pioneers Martha Graham, Doris Humphrey and José Limón. In Europe, Rudolf von
Laban, Émile Jaques-Dalcroze and François Delsarte developed theories of human
movement and methods of instruction that led to the development of European modern and
expressionist dance.

Today the term modern dance is sometimes used interchangeably with contemporary
dance. However, for some people, modern dance refers only to dance that was aligned with
the modernist art movement of the 1930s and all dance that developed afterwards, from
these early roots, is contemporary dance. See also Contemporary Dance.
Unlike ballet choreographers, who usually work within an established vocabulary of steps,
modern choreographers explore their own movement styles, creating steps as they go and
passing them on to their dancers. Sometimes this results in the establishment of a specific
style and technique.

Folk dance, generally, a type of dance that is a vernacular, usually recreational, expression
of a past or present culture. The term folk dance was accepted until the mid-20th century.

Philippine Traditional Folk Dances

The Philippines has many popular folk dances which have evolved and changed as they
have been passed down from generation to generation. Although a particular dance might be
performed slightly differently from one region to the next, its remains true to its roots.
Dancing

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plays an important role in Filipino culture, telling their history and preserving traditions through
folk dances and music. These dances are entertaining to observe, and even more fun to learn
and perform yourself.
Here are some of the most popular dances from the region.

The Itik-Itik
The best description of the Itik-Itik is that the steps mimic the way a duck walks, as well as the
way it splashes water on its back to attract a mate. According to popular tradition, the dance
was created by a lady named Kanang who choreographed the steps while dancing at a
baptismal
party. The other guests copied her movements, and everyone liked the dance so much that it has
been passed along ever since.
The Tinikling
The Tinikling is considered by many to be the Philippines' national dance. The dance's
movements imitate the movement of the tikling bird as it walks around through tall grass and
between tree branches. People perform the dance using bamboo poles. The dance is composed
of three basic steps which include singles, doubles and hops. It looks similar to playing jump
rope,
except that the dancers perform the steps around and between the bamboo poles, and the
dance becomes faster until someone makes a mistake and the next set of dancers takes a turn.
The Sayaw sa Bangko
The Sayaw sa Bangko is performed on top of a narrow bench. Dancers need good balance
as they go through a series of movements that include some impressive acrobatics. This
dance traces its roots back to the areas of Pangapisan, Lingayen and Pangasinan.

The Binasuan
The Binasuan is an entertaining dance that is usually performed at festive social occasions like
weddings and birthdays. Dancers carefully balance three half-filled glasses of rice wine on
their heads and hands as they gracefully spin and roll on the ground. The dance originated in
Bayambang in the Pangasinan province, and though it's usually performed alone, it can also
become a competition between several dancers.

The Pandanggo sa Ilaw

The Pandanggo sa Ilaw is similar to a Spanish Fandango, but the Pandanggo is performed
while balancing three oil lamps - one on the head, and one in each hand. It's a lively dance that
originated on Lubang Island. The music is in 3/4 time and is usually accompanied by castanets.

The Pandanggo Oasiwas

The Pandanggo Oasiwas is similar to the Pandanggo sa Ilaw, and is typically performed by
fishermen to celebrate a good catch. In this version, the lamps are placed in cloths or nets
and swung around as the dancers circle and sway.

The Maglalatik
The Maglalatik is a mock war dance that depicts a fight over coconut meat, a highly-prized food.
The dance is broken into four parts: two devoted to the battle and two devoted to reconciling.
The men of the dance wear coconut shells as part of their costumes, and they slap them in
rhythm
with the music. The Maglalatik is danced in the religious procession during the fiesta of Biñan
as an offering to San Isidro de Labrador, the patron saint of farmers.
The Kuratsa
The Kuratsa is described as a dance of courtship and is often performed at weddings and other
social occasions. The dance has three parts. The couple first performs a waltz. In the second
part, the music sets a faster pace as the man pursues the woman around the dance floor in a
chase.
To finish, the music becomes even faster as the man wins over the woman with his mating dance.

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La Jota Moncadeña
The La Jota Moncadeña is adapted by the Filipinos from an old Spanish dance. It's a
combination of Spanish and Ilocano dance steps set to Spanish music and castanets. A more
solemn version of this dance is sometimes used to accompany a funeral procession, but it is also
performed at celebrations.
The Kappa Malong-Malong
The Kappa Malong-Malong is a Muslim-influenced dance. The malong is a tubular garment,
and the dance essentially shows the many ways it can be worn. There are men's and women's
versions of the dance since they wear malongs in different ways.

The Habanera Botolena

The Habanera Botolena is a strongly flamenco-influenced dance that comes from Botolan,
Zambales. It combines Filipino and Spanish steps, and is a popular dance at weddings. It is
also considered a courting dance in some situations.

The Pantomina
Also known as the Dance of the Doves, the Pantomina mimics the courtship between doves and
is often also a courtship dance between the couples that perform it. This dance is an important
part of the Sorsogon Kasanggayahan Festival held each October, where it is mainly performed
by the elders of the community.

The Cariñosa
The Cariñosa is a dance made for flirting! Dancers make a number of flirtatious movements as
they hide behind fans or handkerchiefs and peek out at one another. The essence of the dance
is the courtship between two sweethearts.

The Surtido
Surtido literally means "assortment," and this square dance combines influences of French,
Spanish and Mexican dance. Traditionally the Surtido is performed by a head couple
accompanied by two other couples who lead all the dancers through various formations
that resemble an old-fashioned quadrille.

The Singkil
The Singkil is a dance traditionally performed by single women to attract the attention of potential
suitors. Dancers perform a series of graceful movements as they step in and out from
between bamboo poles which are rhythmically clapped together. Fans and scarves are often
used to
enhance the dancers' movements.
The Polkabal
The Polkabal shows some European influence in its steps. The dance is composed of nine
different steps which include various movements such as fluttering, stepping heel-to-toe,
a reenactment of a bull fight, and even a leisurely walk.

The Magkasuyo
The Magkasuyo is a variation of the balse - the one-two-three graceful triple meter that Filipino
traditional dance borrowed from the Spanish waltz. It is a formal series of close-step-close
movements with a couple facing each other in a courtship configuration. Balse incorporates
German and Spanish influence, but the Magkasuyo is the specific invention of Quezon province,
a large farming and fishing region southeast of Manila with a rich tradition of outside influences,
including Spanish, Malay, and Muslim. A popular song Magkasuyo Buong Gabi (Lovers for the
Night) expands on the romantic nature of the dance.

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5 Rythms
Each of the five rhythms is interpreted by individuals in a uniquely personal way,
opening up a new sense of freedom and possibilities. This is surprising, exhilarating,
and restorative. It is, in essence, an exercise for the right brain. The movement is the
m edicine, the meditation, and the metaphor. Together we peel back layers, take off
masks, and dance till we disappear, only to rediscover ourselves through it all. 5Rhythms is
flowing,
staccato, chaos, lyrical, and stillness.
Flowing We physically practice the art of being fluid in our bodies. Flowing is the
impuls e to follow the flow of one’s energy, to be true to oneself, listen and attend to
one’s needs, be receptive to one’s inner and outer world. When we open up to the flow of our
physical beings, all other possibilities open.
Staccato We physically practice the power of masculine energy. It is percussive and stro
ng and promotes connection with the rest of the world. Staccato is the
gateway to the heart. It shows us how to step out into the world connected to our feet
a nd feelings. It is the part of us that stands up for what we care about and who / what
we love.
Chaos We physically practice releasing our bodies. We let go of the head, spine, hips, f
eet, and move faster than we can think. Chaos breaks us free from our illusions.
It takes us on a journey from ‘I can’t’ to ‘I will’. The simple practices of Chaos
immediate ly bring us back to our bodies, to the moment. This rhythm liberates us from
all ideas about who we are and gives us a real experience of being total, free, intuitive, and
creative.
Lyrical We practice how to break out of destructive patterns and surrender to the depths
of the fluid, creative repetitions of our soulful selves. Lyrical is expansive and connects
us to our humanity, timeless rhythms, repetitions, patterns, and cycles. Lyrical is more of a state
of being than a rhythm.
Stillness Being still and doing nothing are different. Stillness moves, both
within and all around us. The
dance is our vehicle, our destination is the Rhythm of Stillness;
our challenge is to be a vessel that keeps moving and changing. Each
time we dance into Stillness we practice the art of making humble and mindful
endings. This
carries through to all of our endings in life - the end of this dance, this day, this relation
ship, or this life cycle. Good endings mean taking responsibility for the whole
journey, distilling wisdom from our experience so that we may begin the next wave or cycle
clean of
carrying the past with us.

MUSIC

Like dance music in the ancient period has something to do with spirits. People sung to appease
the spirits, to ask favor or to give thanks. Music then was made vocally that means there was no
accompaniment. It was only composed of a human voice. Slowly some musical instruments
came. How did they come mankind can only speculate? As human lifestyle progresses so do the
musical instruments. However, its effect to the listeners from time immemorial to the present does
not change.

Musical sounds
Sound is the most basic medium of music. It is produced either through a voice of instrument, or
a
combination of both. This is about mediums of music, which are all discussed in the
following pages. Right here let us discuss the properties of musical sound. There are four
properties of sound namely pitch, duration, volume and color (timbre) (C.A. Sanchez et al
1982).
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1. Pitch. This refers to the place of tone in the musical scale. This also refers to the highness
or lowness of tone.
2. Duration. Sound is a result of vibrations. Duration as a property of sound refers to the length
of time over which vibration is maintained.

3. Volume. Refers to the softness or loudness of sound.

4. Timbre tone color. This has something to do with the quality of sound. The quality of tone or
color. Quality of sounds depends on the size, shape and form of instrument. The place where
a musical performance is done is also a contributing factor to the quality of sound. A building
built for acoustic purposes can produce a sound with a high fidelity to the purpose of the
musicians than in any ordinary places.

The Mediums of Music

There are two mediums of music namely: vocal medium and the instrumental medium.

1. The vocal medium is a human voice, the oldest and the most popular. Human voices
are different in register or range in timbre and quality.

There are six classes of vocal register.

a) Soprano - high register female voice

b) Mezzo - soprano medium register, female voice
c) Alto or contralto – medium register, female voice
d) Tenor - high register, male voice
e) Baritone – medium register, male voice
f) Bass - low register male voice

Vocal qualities

1. Coloratura Soprano - an ornamented vocal music. It is labeled as the highest and

lightest of all human voices.
2. Lyric Soprano- voice that is less high and less ornamented. This quality of voice is best
suited to melodies.
3. Dramatic Soprano - heavier voice that can convey intense emotion in dramatic situation.
4. Mezzo-soprano- a woman's voice mezzo means between. Mezzo- soprano
means between soprano and contralto.
5. Contralto - lowest of all female voices, it is low but rich in quality.
6. Tenor – the highest natural adult male voice.
7. Lyric tenor – similar description of lyric soprano. It is also best suited to sing like a melody.
8. Dramatic tenor – it is also like dramatic soprano, a voice that is less heavy
in characteristics and can convey emotion in dramatic situation.
9. Baritone - a male voice between tenor and bass
10. Bass – a deep voice or sound.

2. The instrumental medium There are three main types of musical instruments namely:
bowed. blown and struck. The instruments that are considered bowed are the strings. Those that
are blown are brasses because they are made of brass. The woodwinds are named because
originally they are made of wood. The last classifications are those, which are struck. They are
called percussion instruments.

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Elements of music
Rhythm
Often associated to the terms beat, meter, and tempo, rhythm is the element of music that
situates
it in time. It is the pulse of the music. Beat is the basic unit of music while tempo refers to its
speed (beats/second). Beats can be organized into a recognizable recurrent pattern, which is
called the meter.
Classical terms
 Largo are used
- slowly to refer to the variations in tempo, some of which
and broadly
 Andante - walking pace
 Moderato - at moderate speed
 Allegro - fast
 Vivace - lively
 Accelerando-gradually speeding up
 Rallentado-gradually slowing down
 Allargando-getting slower, broadening
 Rubato - literally "robbed time," rhythm is played freely for expressive effect
 Adagio – slow and stately
 Andantino – alternatively faster or slower than andante
 Allegreto – moderately fast
 Presto – very fast
 Ritardando – gradually becoming slower

Dynamics
It is the element of music that refers to the loudness or quietness of music is dynamics.
Classical terms are used to refer to the different levels pertaining to this:
 Pianissimo [pp] - very quiet
 Piano [p] - quiet
 Mezzo-piano [mp] - moderately quiet
 Mezzo-forte [mf] - moderately loud
 Forte [f] - loud
 Fortissimo [ff] - very loud

When composers indicate an increase, or decrease in loudness, they use the terms crescendo
for the former; and decrescendo or diminuendo for the latter.

Melody
Melody refers to the linear presentation (horizontal) of pitch. By horizontal, it means that in musical
notation, it is read in succession from left to right. Pitch is the highness or lowness of musical sound.

Harmony
Harmony refers to the linear presentation (vertical) of pitch. By vertical, it means that in
musical
notation, it arises when pitches are combined to form chords. When several notes are
simultaneously played, this refers to a chord. Harmony can be described in terms of dissonance
which means harsh-sounding combination and consonance which refers to the smooth-sounding
combination.
Timbre
Timbre is likened to the color of music. It is a quality that distinguishes a voice or an instrument from
another. The timbre may give a certain tone or characteristics to music, much like how a
painter evokes different effects or impressions onto the canvas.

Texture
The number of melodies, the type of layers, and their relatedness in a composition is the texture of
music. It may be:

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 Monophonic – single melodic line

 Polyphonic – two or more melodic lines
 Homophonic – main melody accompanied by chords

MUSICAL STYLE
Knowing the unique style traits of particular historical eras can greatly enhance your musical
experiences by offering clues about what the composer was trying to express, and what you
should listen for when hearing a piece.

The Six Historical Style-Periods of Western Art Music:

Middle Ages (approximately 450-1450): An era dominated by Catholic sacred music, which began
as simple chant but grew in complexity in the 13th to 15th centuries by experiments in harmony
and rhythm. Leading composers of the later Middle Ages include Pérotin and Machaut.

Renaissance (approximately 1450-1600): A more personal style emerged in this era with a
greater focus on Humanism, and a rebirth of learning and exploration. During this "golden age of
vocal music," the leading composers include Josquin Desprez, Palestrina, and Weelkes.

Baroque (approximately 1600-1750): This era—the last great age of aristocratic rule— is
represented by extremely ornate and elaborate approaches to the arts. This era saw the rise
of instrumental music, the invention of the modern violin family and the creation of the first
orchestras. Great composers of the late Baroque include Vivaldi, Handel and JS Bach.

Classic (approximately 1750-1820): The music of this politically turbulent era focused on
structural unity, clarity and balance. The new expressive and dramatic approaches to composition
and performance that were developed in this era became the standards that all "Classical" music
are judged by. Great composers of the Classic era include Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.

Romantic (approximately 1820-1900): This era witnessed an explosion of flamboyance,

nationalism, the rise of "superstar" performers, and concerts aimed at middle-class
"paying" audiences. Orchestral, theatrical and soloistic music grew to spectacular heights of
personal expression. Among the leading Romantic composers are Berlioz, Chopin, Wagner

Modern (approximately 1900-present): Since approximately 1900, art-music has been impacted
by daring experimentation and advances in musical technology, as well as popular/non-Western
influences. Leading composers of the early 20th century were Debussy, Schoenberg and
Stravinsky, while many of the most prominent composers since 1950 have come from the US.

Ensemble
This is a combination of different musical instruments mentioned above or two or more performers
engaged in playing the instruments or singing a piece of music called ensembles. Some kinds
of ensembles are cited below.

1. Orchestra. This is the most elaborate kind of ensemble production. Several instruments of
the same kind are usually given a part. Typically, there 34 Violins and a number of instruments
belonging to brass and woodwind.

2. Symphony Orchestra. Orchestra is designed as elaborate kind of ensemble. At least 100

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players are demanded. However, this varies according to the need of instruments for a
particular music. There are four sections according to the instrumental groupings. Each of the
section has instrument for the four basic ranges namely: soprano, alto, tenor and bass.
3. Concerto. A written piece for one or more solo instruments and orchestra in three movements.

4. Band. Like orchestra, it is large but it is mainly consisting of wind and percussion, handy
which answer to the outdoor events. Band is usually for outdoors-musical rendition like parade
although it is also used as concert ensemble.

5. Rondalla. The most popular musical group of the Philippines. It is mainly composed of
stringed instruments though it also used piccolo.

THEATRE

Theatre, also spelled theater, in dramatic arts, an art concerned almost exclusively with live
performances in which the action is precisely planned to create a coherent and significant
sense of drama.

Though the word theatre is derived from the Greek theaomai, “to see,” the performance itself may
appeal either to the ear or to the eye, as is suggested by the interchangeability of the
terms spectator (which derives from words meaning “to view”) and audience (which derives from
words meaning “to hear”). Sometimes the appeal is strongly intellectual, as in W illiam
Shakespeare’s Hamlet, but the intellectual element in itself is no assurance of good theatre.
A good performance of Hamlet, for example, is extremely difficult to achieve, and a poor one
is much less rewarding than a brilliant presentation of a farce. Moreover, a good Hamlet
makes
demands on the spectator that may be greater than what that spectator is prepared to put
forward, while the farce may be enjoyed in a condition of comparative relaxation. The full
participation of
Theatre is a collaborative art form which combines words, voice, movement and visual elements
to express meaning. The field of theatre encompasses not only live improvised and scripted
work, but also dramatic forms such as film, television and other electronic media. Due to the
increasingly pervasive influence of contemporary theatrical media, theatre has enormous
importance in citizens’ lives. It is not possible for students to achieve media literacy
without understanding and having hands-on experience with theatre.

Theatre is about the examination and resolution of fundamental human issues, and is built on
understanding and presenting interactions between people. Theatre work provides a vehicle for
students to reflect on important aspects of life, in the process developing their sensitivity to and
deepening their understandings of others’ points of view. The broad, worldwide base of theatrical
literature or repertoire ranges from classical forms such as Japanese Kabuki and Shakespeare,
to folk forms such as traditional puppetry, to contemporary forms such as animated cartoons and
movies. Quality theatre education is similarly broad-based, extending beyond the teaching of
acting to develop students’ abilities in areas ranging from technical theatre to directing, and from
researching the cultural and historical context of repertoire to creating their own improvised or
scripted works.

Theatre is an integral part of English language arts as well as the performing arts, so the
foundation for theatre begins at birth as children develop personal communication skills. Parents
and preschool and elementary teachers should encourage imaginative play and role-playing,
both

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for their own sake and as important components of the learning process across the curriculum.
All students should study creative writing, improvising and writing scripts; expressive public
speaking, media literacy, theatrical production and interpretation; and other key communication
skills as part of their basic K-12 language arts curriculum, and should deepen and apply these
skills in formal theatre experiences under the guidance of expert theatre teachers. Secondary
schools should incorporate theatre courses into their required language arts sequence, and also
offer sequential elective courses in areas such as acting, technical theatre, script writing,
animation and video/film.
There is a widespread misconception that the art of theatre can be discussed solely in terms of
the intellectual content of the script. Theatre is not essentially a literary art, though it has been so
taught in some universities and schools. For many years the works of the Greek dramatists,
Shakespeare, and other significant writers such as Friedrich von Schiller were more likely to be
studied than performed in their entirety. The literary side of a theatrical production works most
effectively when it is subordinated to the histrionic. The strongest impact on the audience is
made by acting, singing, and dancing, followed by spectacle—the background against which
those activities take place. Later, on reflection, the spectator may find that the meaning of the
text has made the more enduring impression, but more often the literary merit of the script, or its
“message,” is a comparatively minor element.

Yet it is often assumed that the theatrical experience can be assimilated by reading the text of a
play. In part, this is a result of the influence of theatrical critics, who, as writers, tend to have a
literary orientation. Their influence is magnified by the fact that it is difficult to make serious
theatre widely available; for each person who sees an important production in a theatre,
thousands of others will know it only through the notices of critics. While reviewers in the
mainstream press may give greater credence to such elements as acting and dancing, critics in
the more serious journals may be more interested in textual and thematic values. Such influences
vary from country to country, of course. In New York City a critic for one newspaper, such as The
New York Times, may determine the fate and historical record of a production, assuring it a
successful run or forcing it to close overnight. In London, however, audiences have notoriously
resisted the will of the critics.
This is not to say that the contribution of the author to the theatrical experience is unimportant.
The script of a play is the basic element of theatrical performance. In the case of many
masterpieces it is the most important element. But even these dramatic masterpieces demand
the creative cooperation of artists other than the author. The dramatic script, like an operatic
score or the scenario of a ballet, is no more than the raw material from which the performance is
created. The actors, rather than merely reflecting a creation that has already been fully
expressed in the script, give body, voice, and imagination to what was only a shadowy indication
in the text. The text of a play is as vague and incomplete in relation to a fully realized
performance as is
a musical score to a concert. The Hamlets of two great actors probably differ more than two
virtuoso renditions of J oh a nn S eb as tia n B a c h ’s Goldberg Variations possibly can. In
general, the
truly memorable theatrical experience is one in which the various elements of performance are
brought into a purposeful harmony. It is a performance in which the text has revealed its
General Considerations

Exactly how the theatre came into being is not known. While it is indisputable that the traditions
born in ancient Athens have dominated Western theatre and the theories of Western drama up
to the present, it is impossible to state with certainty what the theatre was like even a few years
before the appearance of Aeschylus’s earliest extant play, Persians (472 BCE). Legend
attributes the invention of the dithyramb, the lyrical ancestor of tragedy, to the poet Arion of
Lesbos in the
7th or 6th century BCE, but it was not until the creation of the Great Dionysia in Athens in 534
that tragic drama established itself. The Dionysiac festivals were held in honour of Dionysus, a
god
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concerned with fertility, wine, and prophecy. Dionysiac celebrations, held in the spring, were
traditionally occasions for frenzy, sexual license, and ecstatic behaviour welcoming the return
of fertility to the land after the winter (reflected dramatically in the Bacchants by Euripides). The
Great Dionysia was a more formal affair, with its competition in tragedy, but its religious purpose
is often cited as a pointer to the origin of drama itself.

In the theories that see drama as a development from primitive religious rites, the dramatist is
often described as a descendant of the priest. Theatrical representation could have arisen first
from the substitution of an animal for a human sacrifice, say, a goat for a virgin or a young
warrior. In time, the formula of the sacrifice might have been enacted ritualistically without the
actual sacrifice of the animal. (The word tragedy is descended from the Greek tragōidia, meaning
“song of the goats.”)

Considered in such a way, the most famous of Greek tragedies, Oedipus the King by
Sophocles, can be seen as a formalistic representation of human sacrifice. Oedipus becomes a
dramatic embodiment of guilt; his blinding and agony are necessary for the good of all Thebes,
because it was by killing his father and marrying his mother that he first brought the gods’ curse
upon his people. Aristotle felt that the representation on stage of Oedipus’s suffering was a
means
of catharsis—vicarious purgation or cleansing—for the spectators.
However, other explanations for the origin of drama have been offered. Mimesis, the artistic
representation or imitation of an event, has been discerned in such rituals as war dances, which
are intended to frighten the enemy and instill courage into the hearts of the participants. These
dances may imitate the action of battle itself, or at least the way in which the participants hope
to see the battle develop.

The origins of drama have also been attributed to simple storytelling, as when the storyteller
adopts a false voice or adds characterization through movement and costume. In such terms,
the art of theatre could be described at its most fundamental as the presence of an actor before
an audience.

Whatever the primary motivation, the first systematic elaboration of theatre can be seen through
the work of the Greek playwrights of 5th-century-BCE Athens. Aeschylus apparently inherited a
form that consisted of a single actor responding to or leading a chorus. His innovation is generally
considered to have been the use of a second actor, and it was either Aeschylus or Sophocles
who added a third actor as they competed each year for prizes in the Great Dionysia. Once a
third
actor appeared, the chorus gradually declined, and it was the multiplying individual characters
who assumed importance. In this way, ancient Greece left to posterity a measure of
specialization among theatrical performers.
Beyond these formal elements, however, Classical drama offers a pattern of development that
has been reenacted continually in other cultures throughout history. The rapid rise and decline of
drama in ancient Athens paralleled the rise and decline of Athenian civilization itself. Great
periods of achievement in theatre have tended to coincide with periods of national expansion
and achievement, as in Elizabethan England. Conversely, periods of excessive materialism,
such as those during which ancient Greece or ancient Rome declined, tend to produce theatre in
which ostentation, spectacle, and vulgarity predominate.

Probably more than in other arts, each theatrical style represents an amalgamation
of diverse heritages. Greek theatre has long had the most direct influence on Western culture,
but in the late 20th century Balinese and Japanese arts were frequently adapted in the West.
Chinese
and Indian theatrical practices have had wide influence in Asia. A fundamental difference between
borrowings from Greek theatre and borrowings from Asian traditions is that the techniques of

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Greek performance have not been handed down with the texts. Most of what is known about
the actual performance of Greek plays is the result of scholarly and archaeological research.
Information about the nature of the music and of choral dances, for example, is very skimpy.

In Asian theatre, on the other hand, techniques as well as texts have survived. For example,
the Noh theatre of Japan has been handed down through families of performers with few
changes for hundreds of years. In addition to the instructions for performers contained in India’s
Natya- shastra, there is a major descriptive treatise on music, giving guidance on musical
techniques.
The Natya-shastra, which may be as old as Aristotle’s Poetics (4th century BCE), is a book with
very specific injunctions to performers, including dancers. Some of its techniques may be found
in surviving theatre forms such as the Indian kathakali dance. In turn, some of these techniques
were assimilated during the second half of the 20th century by such Western directors as Jerzy
Grotowski, Peter Brook, and Eugenio Barba. Other writers and directors created new
relationships between Eastern and Western theatre by consciously exploiting techniques and
traditions from such forms as Kabuki and Noh.
There is little doubt that the Greek theatre—and especially the study of its literature—has
provided Western theatre with a sense of continuity in stories, themes, and formal styles. The
plays themselves are regularly revived, with discernible references to specifically modern
concerns. It is also notable that the Greek theatre has served as a model for a wide range of great
writers,
from Jean Racine and Pierre Corneille in 17th-century France to E ug e ne O ’N e ill in the United
States during the 20th century. When Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman (1949) touched its
audiences with awe and pity in the manner of Aristotle’s prescriptions, critics debated whether
the
play could be genuinely tragic in the Greek sense, given that it had no nobler a protagonist
than the salesman W illy Loman.

Theatre As Expression

Mimesis in theatre

The art of the theatre is essentially one of make-believe, or mimesis. In this respect it differs
from music, which seldom attempts to imitate “real” sounds—except in so-called program
music, such as P yo tr Ily ic h Tc h a ik ov sk y’s 1812 Overture, which suggests the sounds
of a battle. In this
respect the art of narrative in literature is much closer to that of the theatre. In a story,
considerable attention must be paid to plausibility. Even if the story is not intended to be
believed as having actually happened, plausibility is essential if the story is to hold the auditor’s
attention. The principal factor in plausibility is not precise correspondence with known facts but
inner consistency in the story itself.
Theatre as social expression

In different contexts, various aspects of humanity have seemed important and have therefore
been stressed in Western theatrical representation. Much Renaissance drama, for instance,
emphasized the individuality of each character, while in later 17th-century theatre, which was
much more restricted in its philosophy and in its setting, a character was presented not as a
creature who occupied a unique place and status in the universe but rather as someone
adapted to and determined by the quite limited environment of 17th-century society. The
greatness of the Elizabethan theatre was the universality of its outlook and the breadth of its
appeal. Since the latter part of the 17th century, the art of the theatre has been concerned with
smaller themes and has aimed at a smaller section of society.

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From the 17th through the 18th century, the theatre’s leading characters were almost exclusively
persons of breeding and position; the “lower classes” appeared as servants and dependents,
mostly presented in low comedy. Rustics were almost automatically ridiculous, although
sometimes their simplicity might be endearing or pathetic. The 17th-century plays of Molière are
a good deal more egalitarian than English plays of similar date or even of a century later; but
even Molière never allowed the audience to forget that his plays were about, and for, persons of
high station. A very clear line is drawn between employers and employed in these plays, and the
latter, though often more intelligent, never seem to belong to even the same species as the
former. However, such English plays as John Gay’s The Beggar’s Opera (1728) and George
Lillo ’s The London Merchant; or, The History of George Barnwell (1731) were influential and
theatrical successes that stood out against the norm.

By the early 19th century, European theatre had become at least as much a middle-class as an
aristocratic entertainment. Nevertheless, it was still thought important, especially in London, that
the actors suggest gentility. George Bernard Shaw, in Our Theatres in the Nineties (1932),
remarked that, to be employed in a good production, it was far less important that a young actor
be talented than that he speak “well” and be beautifully dressed. The plays that succeeded
throughout Europe were plays about men and women of good social position, and the plots were
concerned with some infringement, usually sexual, of the genteel code of behaviour; The
Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893) by Arthur W ing Pinero is an example. The melodrama that
dominated
19th-century European (and especially British) theatre championed the values of the middle
class. However, the new literary drama of Henrik Ibsen that emerged during the second half of
the century challenged those values.
Elements Of Theatre

The theatrical hierarchy

Theatrical art demands the collaboration of the actors with one another, with a director, with the
various technical workers upon whom they depend for costumes, scenery, and lighting, and
with the businesspeople who finance, organize, advertise, and sell the product.

Collaboration among so many types of personnel presupposes a system that divides duties. In
the commercial theatre the most powerful person is usually the producer, who is responsible for
acquiring the investment that finances the production. The rehearsal of the play is conducted by
the director, who is responsible for interpreting the script, for casting, and for helping to determine
the design of the scenery and costumes. Under the director’s general direction, a stage
manager, possibly with several assistants, looks after the organization of rehearsal and the
technical elements of the performance—light and curtain cues, properties, sound effects, and so
on.
Naturally, the hierarchy varies somewhat in different circumstances. In the state-subsidized Royal
National Theatre of Great Britain, for example, the apex of the pyramid has traditionally been
occupied by an artistic director, who is more concerned with guiding the policy of the theatre than
with details of administration or the preparation of any single production—though the artistic
director may, of course, also assume responsibility for the preparation of a number of
productions. In regional theatres, implementation of artistic policy may be subordinate to a board
of directors that is ultimately responsible for overseeing costs.

The dominant expression—so far as the audience can tell—is nearly always that of the actor. It
may therefore be wondered why theatres are no longer dominated by the actor-manager system,
as they were during the 19th century in Europe and the United States. In London, for example,
Sir Henry Irving managed the Lyceum for 21 years (1878–99) as its artistic director,
administrator,

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producer-director, and leading actor. After Irving’s day, theatrical business became infinitely
more costly and complicated. Budgets in Irving’s time were only a fraction of what they are today.
A single Broadway musical can now cost many millions of dollars, while the running costs of
organizations such as the Royal Shakespeare Company are tens of millions of pounds each
year. In addition, negotiations with trade unions make oversight of a theatre significantly more
complicated.
Although the leading actor seems to dominate a performance completely, that actor is often only
a mouthpiece: the words spoken so splendidly were written by someone else; the tailor and
wigmaker must take some credit for the actor’s appearance; and that the actor should play the
part at all was usually the idea of a producer or director.

Even before the actors assemble for the first rehearsal, the producer, director, designer, and—if
available—the author have conferred on many important decisions, such as the casting and the
design of scenery and clothes. In the commercial theatre, the capacity of the theatre that is
selected and the anticipated number of the show’s performances determine the budget and
therefore the scale of the production. (Different considerations affect the planning of programs
in the subsidized theatre, including responsibility to new writing, to the national heritage, and to
a balanced repertoire.) Certainly the most lively part of the work still lies in the period of
rehearsal, but much of the artistic imprint has been determined before rehearsals.

The role of the audience

The theatre depends more than most arts upon audience response. If the house is not full, not
only does the performance lose money but it also loses force. It is unusual—but not impossible
— for new ideas, even for new ways of expressing old ideas, to achieve wide commercial
success. With few exceptions, people apparently do not go to the theatre to receive new ideas;
they want the thrilling, amusing, or moving expression of old ones.

If a performance is going well, the members of its audience tend to engage in collective
behaviour that subordinates their separate identities to that of the crowd. This phenomenon
can be observed not only at the theatre but also at concerts, bullfights, and prizefights. The
crowd personality is never as rational as the sum of its members’ intelligence, and it is much
more emotional. Members of an audience lose their powers of independent thought;
unexpected reserves of passion come into play. Laughter becomes infectious; grave and solid
citizens, as members of an audience, can be rendered helpless with mirth by jests that would
leave them unmoved if they were alone.

While an audience may typically be a passive participant in a modern theatrical performance,

this norm is neither universal nor transhistorical. Until the late 19th century, when auditoriums
were first darkened, audiences were highly responsive, demonstrating disapproval as
boisterously as
approval. This type of involvement is still evident in British pantomime, which is produced
annually during the Christmas season. During the 20th century, audience passivity was
challenged through the theories of drama associated with Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal and
through the breaking
of various social codes, as occurred in the Théâtre Action in France or the Théâtre Parminou in
Quebec. Such interactive relations with the fictional stage world—either bringing audience
members onstage to interrupt and redirect action or involving the public unwittingly as witness to
a theatre event—are typically engineered to challenge individuals’ political beliefs as well as a
society’s norms.

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The Basic Elements of Theatre

Script/Text, Scenario, Plan:
This is the starting point of the theatrical performance. The element most often considered as the
domain of the playwright in theatre. The playwright’s script is the text by which theatre is
created. It can be simplistic, as in the 16thcentury, with the scenarios used by the acting troupes
of the Commedia dell’ arte, or it can be elaborate, such as the works of William
Shakespeare. The script, scenario, or plan is what the director uses as a blue print to build
a production from.

The Process:
This is the coordination of the creative efforts usually headed up in theatre by the director. It is the
pure process by which the playwright’s work is brought to realization by the director, actors,
designers, technicians, dancers, musicians, and any other collaborators that come together on
the script, scenario, or plan. This is the works in progress stage.

The Product:
This is the end result of the process of work involved. The final product that results from all of the
labors coming together to complete the finished work of script, scenario, and plan, in union with
all of the collaborators in the process to create the final product. This is what the audience will
witness as they sit in the theatre and view the work.

The Audience:
Theatre requires an audience. For all of the arts public is essential. The physical presence of an
audience can change a performance, inspire actors, and create expectations. Theatre is a living
breathing art form. The presence of live actors on the stage in front of live audiences sets it
apart from modern day films and television.

The Playwright:
The person who is responsible for the starting point of the theatrical event. The initial creator of
the script, scenario, or plan, as outlined above. This person is the playwright. A playwright
works in that branch of literature dealing with the writing and producing of plays for the theatre.

The Director:
The individual who stages the play and makes the artistic choices.

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Doria & Abarcio, (2012), Humanities Today (An Experiential Approach), C and E Publishing Inc.
Roldan and Dellosa, (2019), A Course Module in Arts Appreciation, Rex Bookstore
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