Day II:Kenya Mathematics Olympiad

Teachers’ Training
Combinatorics
1 The Fundamental Principle of Enumeration
RECALL 1.1

Recall the following:

Multiplication Principle If there are a1 ways of doing a job A1 , a2 ways of doing a second job A2 after
A1 has been done, a3 ways of doing a third job A3 after A1 and A2 have been done, and, in general, an ways
of doing the nth job An after A1 , A2 , . . . , An−1 have been done, then there are a1 × a2 × a3 × · · · × an an ways
of doing all the jobs A1 , A2 , . . . , An .

Addition Principle Suppose events A1 , A2 , . . . , An have a1 , a2 , . . . , an outcomes respectively. If all of these

outcomes are distinct, then the number of outcomes due to event A1 or event A2 or . . . or event An is
a1 + a2 + · · · + an

Example 1: How many 3-digit even numbers can be made using the digits 2, 3, 4 and 5 without
repeats (i.e. without using any digit more than once)?
Solution
The number of such 3-digit numbers is the same as the number of ways of filling in the boxes below with
the given digits but, of course,taking care to do this in such a way that we create even numbers only, that is,
we make the last digit even. We see that there are two ways of choosing the last digit (it is either 2 or 4).

Having done that, we are left with three digits from which we select one to go in the first box, after which
we are left with two digits from which we select one to go in the second (middle) box. Hence we have, by the

FPE, a total of 3 × 2 × 2 = 12 ways of filling up all the three boxes – that is, 12 distinct 3-digit even numbers
we can construct from the given set.

Example 2: Twenty players took part in a round robin tournament where every player must
play against every other player exactly once. There are no draws in this tournament. Suppose
the first player won x1 games, the second player won x2 games, the third player won x3 games
and so on. Find the value of

x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + · · · + x1 9 + x2 0
Solution
20 × 19
A total of = 190 games
2
Since there are no draws there are exactly 190 wins.

=⇒ x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + · · · + x1 9 + x2 0 = 190

1
Exercise

1. There are 10 people at a party. Each person shakes hands with the other 9 exactly once. How many
handshakes will there be?
2. While cleaning out the garage, John found four old single-digit house numbers: one 3, one 4 and two
5s. The number of different two-digit house numbers he can create is:

2 Factor Arithmetics
RECALL 2.1

Recall the following:

1. We denote n factorial as n!
Example

4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × · · · × (n − 1) × n = n × (n − 1) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1
2. 0! = 1 This is by convention.

Example 1: Find alternative expression for:

10! + 11!
Solution

10! + 11! =10! + (11 × 10!)

1
=10!(1 + 11) = 12(10!) = 12!
11

Example 2: Find alternative expression for:

n!(n2 + 3n + 2)
Solution

n!(n2 + 3n + 2) =n!(n + 2)(n + 1)

=(n + 2)(n + 1)(n!) = (n + 2)!

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Exercise

Find alternative expressions for:

1.
6! + 7!
2!3!4!
2.
(2n)! − (2n − 1)!
2n! − (n − 1)!

3 Permutations
RECALL 3.1

Recall the following:

1. A Permutation of a group of objects is an ordered arrangement of the objects. The number of different
permutations of a group of n objects is n!

2. If, from a set of n objects, we select r and order them, then we have what are known as permutations of
n objects taken r at a time. The number of such permutations for a given n and r is denoted by n Pr .We
seek a formula for n Pr .
3.
n
Pr =n × (n − 1) × · · · × (n − r + 1)
n × (n − 1) × · · · × (n − r + 1) × (n − r) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1
=
(2 − r) × (2 − r − 1) × · · · 3 × 2 × 1
n!
=
(n − r)!

4. There are (n − 1)! circular permutations of n distinct objects

Example 1: How many distinct even numbers can you form with the digits 0, 1, 2, 3
1. if repeats are allowed
2. if repeats are not allowed

Example 2: How can we place a set of 5 names in some order?

Solution
we have 5 choices for which name to place first, then 4 choices of which to list second, 3 choices for third,
2 choices for fourth, and only one choice for last. By the Fundamental Counting Principle, the number of
different ways to put 5 names in order is thus: 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5!

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Exercise

1. A horse race has 14 horses, how many different possible ways can the top 3 horses finish?

2. In a qualifying heat for the 100 meter dah, the top 3 finishers out of each group of 8 moves on to the
next round. The number of different permutations for first, second, and third place in each heat is:
3. Consider a machining operation in which a piece of sheet metal needs two identical diameter holes
drilled and two identical size notches cut. We denote a drilling operation as d and a notching operation
as n. In determining a schedule for a machine shop, what might be the number of different possible
sequences of the four operations?

4 Combinations
RECALL 4.1

1. When calculating the number of outcomes for experiments involving multiple choices, often we do not
care what order the choices
2. A choice of r objects from a group of n objects without regard to order, is called a combination of n
objects taken r at a time.
3. n
Pr = r!n Cr
n n!
Thus the formula for n Cr = Pr
r! =
(n − r)!r!

Example 1: A committee comprising two women and three men is to be chosen from a group of
five men and four ladies. In how many ways can this be done?
Solution
The three men can be chosen in 5 C3 ways and the two women in 4 C2 ways so that by the FPE the committee
can be chosen in 5 C3 ×4 C2 = 60 ways.

Example 2: How many ways of selecting a 3 person committee from a group of 30.
Solution

30 30! 30 × 29 × 28
C3 = = = 4060
3!27! 3×2×1

Exercise

1. In a classroom, there are 8 women and 5 men. A committee of 3 women and 2 men is to be formed
for a project. How many different possibilities are there?

2. Find the number of all subsets of an n-element set.

3. How many three-element subsets drawn from the set S = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 29, 30 are such that the sum of
the three elements is a multiple of 3?

5 The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

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 RECALL 5.1

• Let |S| denote the number of elements in a set S.

|A1 ∪ A2 | = |A1 | + |A2 | − |A1 ∩ A2 |,

|A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 | = |A1 | + |A2 | + |A3 | − |A1 ∩ A2 | − |A1 ∩ A3 | − |A2 ∩ A3 | + |A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 |

• You can as well draw a venn diagram to represent the above information and aid you solve Such problems.

Example 1: Find the number of positive integers at most 1000 which are divisible by 10 or 12
or 14.
Solution
Let Ak be the set of positive integers at most 1000 which are divisible by k. Since Ai ∩Aj = Alcm(i,j) , lcm(10, 12) =
60, lcm(10, 14) = 70, lcm(12, 14) = 84andlcm(10, 12, 14) = 240, so by IEP,

Example 2: Find all natural pairs of integers (x, y) such that x3 − y 3 = xy + 61

Solution

x3 − y 3 = (x − y) x2 + xy + y 2 = xy + 61

Notice that x > y. Therefore we have to consider x2 + xy + y 2 ≤ xy + 61 or x2 + y 2 ≤ 61.

Since x > y, we have: 61 ≥ x2 + y 2 ≥ 2y 2 =⇒ y ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

y =1 x3 − x − 62 = 0
y =2 x3 − 2x − 69
y =3 x3 − 3x − 89
y =4 x3 − 4x − 125
y =5 x3 − 5x − 186 = 0

Of these equations, we see the only working value for x is when x = 6, y = 5 so the only natural pair of solutions
is (x, y) = (6, 5).

Example 3: How many ordered pairs (x, y) are there which satisfy the equation
Solution

Exercise

1. Solve 43x + 5y = 250 where x and y are positive integers.

2. Bedan’s grandmother has given her Ksh 10, and asked her to buy the maximum possible total number
of mangoes and oranges, using all the money, but getting more oranges than mangoes. Mangoes cost
7 cents each and oranges cost 13 cents each. What should she buy?

3. There are 30 multiple choice questions in a contest. 5 marks are awarded for each correct answer. 3
marks are deducted for each incorrect answer. No marks are awarded for questions left unanswered. If
Jared scored 78 marks in the contest, what is the greatest number of questions he answered correctly?

6 The Pigeon Hole Principle

5
 RECALL 6.1

f n + 1 or more objects are put into n boxes, then at least two of the objects will be in the same box. More
m
generally, if m objects are put into n boxes, then at least objects will be in the same box.
n

7 Binomial Theorem

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 Day II:Kenya Mathematics Olympiad
Teachers’ Training
Number Theory
8 Division algorithm and GCD
RECALL 8.1

Recall the following:

1. In the division algorithm, the last non-zero remainder is the GCD of the two numbers.

2. Any number a can be expressed in the form

a = bq + r

where r and q are the remainder and quotient respectively.

Example 1: Find the GCD of 110 and 490

Solution

490 =110 × 4 + 50
110 =50 × 2 + 10
50 =10 × 5

Therefore the last non-zero remainder is 10, thus gcd(110, 490) = 10

Example 2: Find the greatest common divisor of x2 − 4x + 1 and 5x.

Solution
We proceed with the division algorithm:
 
2 x 4
x − 4x + 1 =5x − +5
5 5
5x =5 × x

At this point we may be tempted to say that gcd(x2 − 4x + 1, 5x) = 5

However, we have to keep in mind the GCD of polynomials is monic, therefore

gcd(x2 − 4x + 1, 5x) = 1

Exercise

1. Calculate the gcd(301, 603)

2. Use the Euclidean Algorithm for polynomials to calculate gcd(x4 − x3 , x3 − x).

3. Prove that the sum and product of two positive relatively prime integers are themselves relatively
prime.

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 9 Divisibility, primes and factorization
RECALL 9.1

Recall the following:

1. We say that b divides a, and we write b|a, if there is an integer c such that a = bc.
2. A prime number is a number that is divisible by only 1 and itself.

3. Any number N can be expressed in the form N = pα α2 αn

1 × p2 × · · · × pn
1

Example 1: Find all positive divisors of N = 47 292.

Solution
As an even number, N is divisible by 2.
Since 92 is divisible by 4, so is N , and since 292 is not divisible by 8, neither is N .
The sum of the digits is 24 which is divisible by 3 and not 9, so this hold for N as well.
Since last digit isn’t 0 or 5, N is not divisible by 5.
Checking for divisibility of 7, we perform transformations N −→ M as in the rest:

47292 −→ 4729 − (2 × 2) = 4725 −→ 472 − 10 = 462 −→ 46 − 4 = 42

Since 7 divides 42, it divides N as well.
Since (9 + 7) − (2 + 2 + 4) = 8 is not divisible by 11, neither is N
So far we have N = 22 · 3 · 7 · 563.
We still have to check divisibility of 13,17,19 and 23, and the result is negative.

Exercise

1. Find the number of digits in N where N is the product of all the positive divisors of 100, 000, 000:

10 Congruence and Modular Arithmetic

RECALL 10.1

Recall the following:

1. If n = mq + r, then it is easy to say that:

n ≡ r( mod m)

2. If a ≡ b( mod m) and b ≡ c( mod m), then a ≡ c( mod m).

3. If a ≡ b( mod m) andc ≡ d( mod m), then (a + c) ≡ (b + d)( mod m); (a − c) ≡ (b − d)( mod m):
4. If a ≡ b( mod m) and c ≡ d( mod m), then a · c ≡ b · d( mod m).
5. If a ≡ b( mod m) then an ≡ bn( mod m) for all natural numbers n.
6. If ac ≡ bc( mod m) and (c, m) = 1, then a ≡ b( mod m).

7. If p is a prime number and n is relatively prime to p, then:

np−1 ≡ 1( mod p), and also, np ≡ n( mod p).

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 Example 1: When a three digit number is divided by 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7, the remainders are all 1.
Find the minimum and maximum values of such three digit numbers.
Solution
Let x be a three digit with the remainder 1 when divided by 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7.
Then x − 1is divisible by each of 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, so

x − 1 = k · [2, 3, 4, 5, 7] = 420k

: Thus, the minimum value of x is 420 + 1 = 421, the maximum value of x is 2 × 420 + 1 = 841.

Example 2: Find the remainder of 32000 when it is divided by 13.

Solution
33 = 27 ≡ 1( mod 13) provides the method for reducing the power of 3, it follows that:

32000 ≡ (33 )666 · 32 ≡ 32 ≡ 9( mod 13)

The remainder is 9/

Example 3: Write down the last four digits of the number 7128.
Solution
Here the recursive method is effective. Start from 74 = 2401, then

74 =2401 ≡ 2401( mod 104 ),

78 =(74 )2 = (2400 + 1)2 = (2400)2 + 4800 + 1 ≡ 4801( mod 104 ),
716 ≡(4800 + 1)2 ≡ 9601( mod 104 )
732 ≡(9600 + 1)2 ≡ 9201( mod 104 )
764 ≡(9200 + 1)2 ≡ 8401( mod 104 )
7128 ≡(8400 + 1)2 ≡ 6801( mod 104 )

Therefore the last four digits of 7128 is 6801

Exercise

1. Find the smallest positive integer k such that 269 + k is divisible by 127.
2. What is the remainder when 6273 + 8273 is divided by 49?

3. What is the units digit of 31999 × 72000 × 172001 ?

11 Unique factorization theorem

9
RECALL 11.1

Consider any natural number N :

1. N can be written in precisely one way in the form

N = pz11 pz22 pz33 · · · pzkk

10
 where p1 , p2 , . . . , pk are prime, p1 < p2 < · · · < pk , and z1 , z2 , · · · , zk are positive integers.

2. To get the number of divisors(n) of N we use the below formula:

n = (z1 + 1)(z2 + 1) · · · (zk + 1)

3. To get the product of the above divisors, we raise the number to half the number of divisors., that is:
1
P = N 2n
4. To get the sum of all divisors of our number N , we use the below formulae:
Define the function S(pzi i ) to be the sum of all factors of the form pzi i Therefore:

S(pzkk ) = 1 + pk + p2k + p3k + · · · + pzkk

Then we get:
S(pz11 ) × S(pz22 ) × · · · S(pznn )

Example

Consider the number 20:

(a) Prime factorization is: 22 × 5

(b) The Number of divisors: 3 × 2 = 6
These are: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20
(c) The sum of the divisors is:
1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 + 20 = 42
Using our above formula, it gives:

P (22 ) =1 + 2 + 22 = 7
P (5) =1 + 5 = 6
Thus: 7 × 6 = 42

(d) The product of the divisors is:

1 × 2 × 4 × 5 × 10 × 20 = 8000

Using our formula:

1
20 2 ×6 = 203 = 8000

Example 1: Find the sum of all the divisors of the number 1800.
Solution
It is easy to see that 1800 = 23 · 32 · 52
Thus:  4   3   3 
2 −1 3 −1 5 −1
S= × × = 6045
2−1 3−1 5−1

Example 2: Find the product of all the divisors of the number 1800.
Solution

11
 It is easy to see that 1800 = 23 · 32 · 52
Thus:
n
P = 1800 2
where n is the number of divisors.
n = (3 + 1)(2 + 1)(2 + 1) = 36
∴ P = 180018

Example 3: How many digits has the number 828 580 ?

Solution
Observing all the twos and fives, we think of extracting all the tens:

828 580 =(23 )28 (5)8 0

=(24 )(280 )(580 )
=16 · 1080

which is 16 followed 80 zeros, giving 80 + 2 = 82 digits.

Exercise

1. How many factors (including 1 and itself) does the number 576 have?

2. If x, y are positive integers with 45x = y 2 , what is the smallest possible value of x + y?
3. Find all integers n and p, such that
n2 + p + 73 = np
, where p is a prime number.

12 Linear Diophantine Equation

RECALL 12.1

• A diophantine eqn with two unknowns is in the form:

ax + by = c

• It only has a solution ⇐⇒ gcd(a, b)|c

• The general solution of a Diophantine equation whose solution is x and y is given by:
b a
x0 + t, y0 − t where d = gcd(a, b), t ∈ Z
d d

Example 1: Find all positive integer solutions to the equation 12x + 5y = 125.
Solution
12x = 5(25 − y) indicates 5|x. Let x = 5, then 5y = 65 gives y = 13, so (5, 13) is a special solution. By the
formula for general solution, it is obtained that:

x = 5 + 5t and y = 13 − 12t, where t is an integer

12
 Since x ≥ 1, so t ≥ 0. But y ≥ 1 implies t ≤ 1, so t = 0or1.
When t = 0, the solution is x = 5, y = 13. When t = 1, then x = 10, y = 1. Thus, the equation has exactly
two solutions.

Example 2: Find all natural pairs of integers (x, y) such that x3 − y 3 = xy + 61

Solution

x3 − y 3 = (x − y) x2 + xy + y 2 = xy + 61

Notice that x > y. Therefore we have to consider x2 + xy + y 2 ≤ xy + 61 or x2 + y 2 ≤ 61.

Since x > y, we have: 61 ≥ x2 + y 2 ≥ 2y 2 =⇒ y ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

y =1 x3 − x − 62 = 0
y =2 x3 − 2x − 69
y =3 x3 − 3x − 89
y =4 x3 − 4x − 125
y =5 x3 − 5x − 186 = 0

Of these equations, we see the only working value for x is when x = 6, y = 5 so the only natural pair of solutions
is (x, y) = (6, 5).

Example 3: How many ordered pairs (x, y) are there which satisfy the equation
1 1 1
+ = , x, y ∈ N
x y 12
Solution
We use a similar trick to that of the previous example, transforming the given equation step by step into
an equivalent equation of the form (x + s)(y + t):
1 1 1
+ =
x y 12
12(x + y) =xy
xy − 12x − 12y =0
xy − 12x − 12y + 144 =144
(x − 12)(y − 12) =144.

Factorize 144: 144 = 144 × 1 = 72 × 2 = 36 × 4 = 24 × 6 = 18 × 8 = 16 × 9 = 12 × 12, so there are 13 such

ordered pairs.

Exercise

1. Solve 43x + 5y = 250 where x and y are positive integers.

2. Bedan’s grandmother has given her Ksh 10, and asked her to buy the maximum possible total number
of mangoes and oranges, using all the money, but getting more oranges than mangoes. Mangoes cost
7 cents each and oranges cost 13 cents each. What should she buy?

3. There are 30 multiple choice questions in a contest. 5 marks are awarded for each correct answer. 3
marks are deducted for each incorrect answer. No marks are awarded for questions left unanswered. If
Jared scored 78 marks in the contest, what is the greatest number of questions he answered correctly?

13
13 Chinese Remainder Theorem
RECALL 13.1

Suppose we wish to find a number x which leaves:

remainder of r1 when divided by d1 ,

remainder of r2 when divided by d2 ,
and a remainder of rn when divided by dn ,

where no two of the divisors d1 , d2 , . . . , dn have any factors in common.

D
Let D = d1 d2 · · · dn , and yi = . Now, if we can find numbers ai such that:
di

ai yi ≡ 1( mod di ) for each i : 1] ≤ i ≤ n,

then a solution to our problem is:

n
X
x = a1 y1 r1 + a2 y2 r2 + · · · + an yn rn = ai yi ri .
i=1

14