FACULTY OF SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

LECTURE 1
1. Meaning and characteristics of culture
2. Ethno-historical survey of Nigeria: major ethnic groups in Nigeria

Meaning and characteristics of culture

culture is complex, dynamic and well embracing phenomenon. This complex and
varied nature of culture makes it difficult to have a single, unified and generally
acceptable definition. As a result the concept of culture has attracted many
definition from scholars. According to E. B. Taylor, culture is the complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom, and other capabilities
acquired by man a member of society. This is the oldest definition of culture but
anthropologists have criticized it. Adams Hobel defined culture as integrated
system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the member of a
society which are not result of biological inheritance. For Clyed M. Woods, culture
is passed from generation to generation through the process of socialization. It is
shared by members of a group and its characteristic features varies from society to
society. In the words of Allen R. Beals, culture means a social heredity or the
things that men learn when they are trained within a particular group of people.
Culture can also be defined as the total aggregate of a peoples ways of life,
including their learnt behavior that has enjoyed wide spread acceptance across
generations. The technology and mode of production of a people also reflect their
culture. General Olusegun Obasanjo, during Festac 77 stated that people and
culture are inseparable. It means that people without a way of life are in themselves
nonexistent. Culture, is a total way of life of a people in their attempt to harness
and conquer their environment. It is what gives meaning to their politics,
economics, language, dietary, religion, philosophy, aesthetics, etc.
Culture is dynamic in the sense that it undergoes changes. When two or
more cultures meet or interact, they undergo changes, shed part of their old

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features and acquire a new form(Akinjide, et al, 1997). Louis and George Splindler
defined culture change as “any modification in the way of life of a people whether
consequent to internal development or contact between two people with unlike
ways of life.” Changes consequent to internal development are usually traced to
diffusion of culture or borrowing. Culture borrowing or diffusion is described by
Colin Legum “two selves warring in a society”. For Colin, there is something new
in the old and something old in the new.
Culture can be dichotomized into two main broad categories which are
material and nonmaterial culture. The material culture embraces all aspect of man
culture that is a product of their technology and science. The nonmaterial or
intangible culture are basically the aspect of man’s culture that cannot be touch or
handled in concrete terms. They include linguistics, morals, beliefs, value systems,
literary and artistic output, religion, etc.

Characteristics Of Culture
Culture is described as dynamic. That is, it changes with time and modifies
itself and assumes new form. Some of the characteristics of culture include
1. Cultures are shared and transmitted in a society.
2. Culture is not a biological inheritance but they are shared in a given society
or community
3. Cultures are learnt
4. Cultures enjoys continuity and change
5. Cultures differ from one another as a result of geographical differences
6. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the other and outlast the life
span of an individual
7. Culture is conservative
According to Ejiofor, there are six principles and characteristics of
culture. They are
1. The principle of universality
2. The principle of cultural peculiarity
3. The principle of cultural imperfection.
4. The principle of cultural disequilibrium
5. The principle of cultural synthesis
6. The principle of cultural assimilation
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 For Ejiofor, these principles apply to all cultures regardless of geographical
location or historic origin. Nigeria for instance has been rubbed off by
European and Arab cultures, yet the basic elements and features of
indigenous and traditional cultures of the people of Nigeria remains and
coexist side by side by foreign cultures. For example, marriage ceremonies,
dressing styles, food and even our music.

Ethno-historical survey of Nigeria: major ethnic groups in

Nigeria
Nigeria is situated on the West coast of the African continent, about six times the
size of Georgia and more than two times the size of California( World Factbook,
2015). Nigeria is the highest singular concentration of the Black race in the world.
It lies on latitude 4 and 14 degree N of the equator and latitude 3 and 15 degree E
of the Greenwich Meridian. Nigeria is located within the tropics and it is bounded
by the Republic of Benin in the west, in the north by the Republic of Niger and
Lake Chad, on the east by the Republic of Cameroun and in the south by the
Atlantic Ocean. It has a total area of 923, 768.4 square kilometers. It has a total of
910, 768 landed mass and 13,000 square kilometre water ways. It is mostly located
in the tropical region. Nigeria has a population of over 181 million (world
factbook, 2015) people roughly equally divided between males and females and
Christians and Muslims. There are still a sizeable worshippers of African
traditional religion within the confines of Nigeria. The distance of Nigeria from
south to the north is about1700km and the distance from west to east at its
widest point is about 2350km. As one moves from the south to the north, the
vegetation progressively changes from tropical rain forest to savannah grassland.
Typically, there are two main seasons: rainy season and dry season interspersed by
the harmattan season. The rains are heaviest in the south and thinnest in the north.
Since the 1970s desert encroachment and desertification have become a serious
environmental problem to the northernmost states.
From the environment we now move to the different people of Nigeria. The
peoples of Nigeria are varied as would be discussed in detail below. There are over
300 different ethnic and linguistic groups within Nigeria.
The major ethnic groups are Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Kanuri, Fulani, Bini, Tiv, Ijaw,
and Nupe. There are some states that have more than ten different ethnic groups
speaking different languages. The ethnic, cultural and economic variations and
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long years of intermingling among the various groups have combined to produce
very rich cultures and art forms which form the heritage of modern Nigeria.

The Hausa
The Hausa are predominantly located in the north-western part of Nigeria. They
were substantially Islamized even before the Sokoto Jihad of 1804. As clearly
demonstrated by Smith (1965), by the time of the Jihad a distinction could be made
between the pagan Hausa and the Muslim Hausa.
Immigration and conquest mark Hausa history. The Hausa people themselves are
groupings of a number of different people who have been incorporated into the
“original” stock through conquest and assimilation. Homogeneity of the Hausa
stems from a common language and religion (Islam).
The Hausa claim to have descended from a certain hero named Bayajida (or Abu
Yazid) a refugee prince from Baghdad. The legend states that after leaving the
Middle East, he stayed for a while in Kanem, where he married a daughter of the
Mai (or king) called Magira. Later on he fled westward in order to escape the
wrath of his father-in law, the Mai, and abandoned his wife who had already bore
him a male child. Before reaching Daura, where he was credited to have killed an
evil snake that was preventing people of the town from drawing water from a well,
he briefly stayed in Gaya. Perhaps because of his bravery and as a reward, he is
believed to have later married the Queen of Daura (Magajiya), which enabled him
to become the ruler of the state. His descendants are claimed to have founded what
was known as the seven Hausa states of Biram, Bagauda (Kano), Gunguma
(Zazzau), Duma (Gobir), Kumayo (Katsina), Zamma (Rano) and Gazora (Daura).
These were collectively referred to as the Hausa Bakwai. Distinctively, the pagan
Hausa lived in small villages of exogamous patrilineal kin and they worshiped
natural spirits which were referred to as Iskoki. The Muslim Hausa had a large
centralized system. They had highly developed technologies and economy. The
Hausa were famous for leatherwork, cloth-making, dyeing, iron-making, trading,
etc.
You may recall that the success of the Jihad campaigns of Shehu Usman
Danfodiyo in Hausaland at the beginning of the 19th century, gave birth to the
Sokoto Caliphate and this gave the Fulani an important position in the political
affairs of the Hausa states. It is important to know that the head of a typical Hausa
state was the Sarki, who was supported by a retinue of officials in an elaborate
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court. In political terms, the development of the office of the Sarki of a birni (city)
like Kano was very significant. His full title was Sarkin Kasa, meaning: ‘ruler of
the land’ and not just the city. Thus, he was both a political and religious leader of
the people. He was also the chief executive and judge of the state. He was aided by
a council of state. However, with the introduction
of Islam in the 14th and 15th centuries, new socio-
political institutions – combination of social and
political factors – were introduced into the Hausa
political structure. For example, the offices of the
Galadima (senior counselor), Madawaki (palace
administrator), Magaji (overseer), Dogari (guard),
and Zagi (orderly) have roots in the Islamization
of Hausaland during the two centuries. The judicial and fiscal systems were
similarly influenced by Islam. Such titles, concepts and institutions as the Alkali or
the Qadi (judge), Zakat (tax on income), Jangali (tax on livestock) became
commonplace in the administration of the state.
The three most important Hausa rulers at the wake of the 15th century were those
of Kano, Zaria and Katsina which adopted Islam in their political as well as social
and economic systems.

The Fulani Culture

The Fulani ethnic group is largely nomadic. They are believed to have originated
from the Futa Jalon highland region of West Africa from where they migrated in
stages to various places in the West African sub-region. Fulani is a notable ethnic
group in Northern Nigeria. They are described differently as follows: “Peul” by the
Wolof, “Fula” by the Bambara, “Fellata” by the Kanuri and are generally called
Fulani by other Nigerians. The Fulani call themselves “Fulbe”. They profess Islam
while others maintain syncretic practice and their main occupational activity is
cattle-rearing by the males and cow-milking by the females. The Fulanis are of two
categories, namely: fulanin daji (nomadic) fulani and fulanin gida (sedentary)
fulani. The former, who have maintained their nomadic way of life, move from one
place to another in search of pasture or grazing land for their livestock. The latter
have settled in towns and villages teaching, farming, trading etc. The Fulani are
widely distributed in West Africa most especially in the Sahel, wandering from one
spot to another with their herds of cattle. In fact, they are found in almost every

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country of the Sudan zone of West Africa extending from the Senegal area in the
West to the Upper Nile in the east. The pastoral Fulani’s life is principally basic
and simple. They strive to maintain their tradition and culture wherever they go.
They generally adhere to a code of behaviour referred to as pulaaku which
suggests they must exhibit the following qualities: shiness, bravery, ownership of
cows etc. In the pre-colonial period, the Fulani, under Shehu Usman Danfodiyo’s
leadership, were able to revive Islam in most parts of the Hausaland. Following the
Jihad, (an aggressive campaign for an idea) they functioned basically as
administrators and sometimes as cultivators. As devout Muslims, they were very
instrumental in assisting Shehu Usman Danfodiyo in the execution of the popular
Sokoto Jihad which helped in the socio-political as well as the religious changes of
Northern Nigeria in the course of the nineteenth century.

The Kanuri Culture

Another notable ethnic group in Nigeria is the Kanuri. There are many versions of
Kanuri origin. The “So” version reveals that Kanuri were the original settlers in
Kanem-Borno. They developed a sophisticated socio-political culture based on
agriculture and the knowledge of the use of iron technology.
In addition to the “So” version there is the Saif bin Dhi Yazan myth. This version
attributes the foundation of the Kanem-Borno polity to the great Arab hero Saif bin
Dhi Yazan of Himyar, which supposedly happened between the 9th and the 10th
centuries CE. Saif was also credited to have established the renowned Saifawa
Dynasty. The socio-political organization of the Kanem-Borno people was based
on kingship. For instance, the Mai (king) was the highest authority in the political
structure of the empire. The mother of the Mai, known as magira was a very
important and respected personality in the Kanem-Borno political structure. The
sister of the Mai (mogaram) was also important because she assisted the Mai in the
administration of the empire.
Another political institution that is kingship oriented in the Kanuri Culture was an
imperial state council known as the council of the twelve or the “Nokena”, which
acted in advisory capacity to the Mai.
The khadi was the chief judge of the state. He plays a major role in the Kanuri
political structure as the chief judge and the legal advisor to the Mai. The army
played a significant role in the Kanem-Borno political system. It was a professional
army divided strategically into two divisions: Home and Bush Garrisons. Another
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institution of the Kanem-Borno political structure was the titled nobility. They
were known to have exercised great influence in state affairs and the Mai assigned
them to the fiefdoms to administer. The most important of these titles were the
Galadima (governor of the western province), the Kaigama (commander in chief
of the army), the Yerima (governor of Yeri province) and the Mustrema (queen
mother’s representative fief). Slaves and eunuchs made up the servile. They also
played important roles in the administration of the dynasty and held offices such as
the Mushemu, Yuroma and Kachalla.

The Nupe Culture

This ethnic group can be found in central part of Nigeria. Like many Nigerian
ethnic groups, the Nupe people have different versions of origin. Many scholars
believe that the early Nupe people originated from where they are presently (part
of Kogi, Kwara and Niger States). Other scholars argued that the first people of
Nupe originated from Egypt. Hence Egypt seems to be the origin of Nupe people
in this regard. Edegi is considered by some Nupe people as the founder of their
state; and according to Nupe tradition Edegi might have arrived in the early
Sixteenth Century from Idah. He (Edegi) was also believed to have had an Igala
father and a Nupe mother. Historical traditions reveal that the Nupe people had at a
time paid allegiance and tribute to the Atta of the Igala state. To them (the Nupe) in
the Sixteenth Century, a hero, an Idah prince, known as Tsoede re-established
Nupe independence with himself as the Etsu Nupe (King of Nupeland).
Regarding their religion, the Nupe people are highly Islamized group found in the
Niger valley above its confluence with the Benue. A strong Nupe kingdom had
existed since the 15th Century up to the Jihad. The Fulbe jihad leaders who took
over Nupe land were completely absorbed into Nupe culture and became Nupe.
The Nupe are a highly united group. A unity sustained by a belief in common
origin, a common language and culture, the symbol of the Etsu Nupe and a feeling
of Nupe consciousness. Due to early contact with the Europeans on the river Niger,
they are highly westernized.
Etsu Nupe was known as the head of the Nupe kingdom. He operated a two-level
administration: central and provincial. Etsu Nupe enjoyed a divine status and
people worshipped him and respected him. His words were laws. His power and
actions were regulated by a body of traditions and taboos.

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Besides the Etsu Nupe there was a class of powerful gentlemen called nobility. Its
main task is to help the king carry out his duties as leader. Such nobility include:
shaba, kpotuh and maku.
At the village level, there was a head called Zitzu. He was an appointee of the Etsu
and he was assisted by a council of elders. He was expected to pay tribute to Etsu.

The Yoruba Culture

The ethnic group now commonly referred to as the ‘Yoruba’ have been identified
by different names spanning millenniums and centuries. Pacheco Pereira identified
them in 1500 as the Lucumi while early missionary accounts of the 19th Century
referred to them as the Aku. Yoruba, which originally referred to the Oyo, began to
be used for the generality of the group by the Europeans and it has caught on. The
earliest known account of their existence in the region according to archaeological
evidence dates to around 9000 BCE as revealed by human remains at Iwo Eleru.
However, their inability to develop arts of writing early in their history gave rise to
fables and conflicting accounts of their origin. R.C.C. Law traced the first written
account of Yoruba origin to the second Sultan of the Sokoto Caliphate, Sultan
Mohammed Bello. In his writing, Infaq al Maisuri, Bello in his version in 1812
stated that the Yoruba derived from Nimrod, a descendant of the cursed Ham who
fled Mecca while resisting Islam. This account was later appropriated by new Oyo
palace historians who expanded it to identify Nimrod as Lamurudu whom they
now referred to as the father of Oduduwa, the acclaimed progenitor of the Yoruba.
Samuel Johnson on his part adapted this account but replaced the Meccan origin
with Egyptian Coptic Christians. Another myth of the Yoruba origin alleged that
Oduduwa descended from heaven sent by God to create the earth. That Oduduwa’s
first point of arrival on earth was Ile-Ife, hence the notion that Ile-Ife is the centre
of the earth.
What is however certain is the fact that the Yoruba are indigenous to Southwest
Nigeria. The Itsekiri are their kins. They constitute a sizeable population of Middle
Belt states of Kwara and Kogi. There are indigenous Yoruba in Edo state. Until the
colonial conquest of Africa, the Yoruba region extended from Benin Republic to
parts of Togo. A sizeable number also settled in Sudan en route to or from Mecca.
The Trans-Atlantic slave trade also led to their forced migration to the Americas
where Yoruba cultural traditions have endured to the present in Brazil (as Lucumi),
in Trinidad and Tobago and in Cuba, amongst many other places.
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In Nigeria, the Yoruba constitute a homogenous socio-linguistic and cultural
group. Their language belongs to the Niger-Congo language family and shares
basic characteristics with the Igbo, Edo, Fulani, Bariba, Efik, Jukun, among other
groups. Ile-Ife developed a centralized state system, complex artistic and
craftsmanship abilities, socio-cultural and religious practices, as well as economic
versatility. It became a cultural and political model for other Yoruba communities
which began to replicate the Ife model in their domains. Ile-Ife became the
spiritual motherland of the Yoruba. However, Oyo soon developed a more
complex political and military system.
The Yoruba political system is very complex. The Oba (king) is an absolute ruler
with divine authority, yet his powers are checked by various institutions such as
the council of chiefs (the Oyomesi – hereditary advisers in Oyo in particular and
Ilu in other Yorubalands), the Ogboni society, Ifa divination, and sometimes by
mass rebellion or rejection of his authority or person. Any member of the council
of chiefs could in turn be deposed by the king. Kingship rotates among several
royal houses, hence, the son of a reigning king cannot succeed his father. A
paramount ruler (the king) seldom appeared in public and was not commonly
accessible to his subjects. His subordinate chiefs administered the quarters,
villages, the towns and other domains on his behalf. Yet, each of the chiefs has
specific traditional duties limited to each of them alone. Yoruba settlement had the
Oba’s palace in the centre. Village heads (Baale) are subject to the king through
his chiefs, while lineage heads (baale and mogaji in Ibadan) administer the
quarters and the wards but are subjected to the immediate higher head. Youths and
quarter children have their roles and rights. The rights of women are assured as
their leader is an official member of the council of chiefs.
Marriage among the Yoruba was exogenous, hence, it was not a mere event
between two individuals but an event involving two previously unrelated families.
After betrothal, a man must not only give presents to his future wife, but also
should help her father on his farm or when building a house. The would-be in-law
also plays important role in funeral rites.
The Yoruba operate patrilineal societies. Polygamy is a common feature among the
Yoruba.
Apart from farming, the Yoruba were also traders and craftsmen. Cooperative
efforts used in farming include ‘aaro’ and ‘owe’. The ‘aaro’ form of labour
mobilisation was reciprocal in that farmer who was assisted to weed his farm or
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build his house today would be called upon tomorrow to render similar service.
While the ‘owe’ was not reciprocal. Drumming and feasting would normally
follow after the execution of an ‘owe’ or an ‘aaro’ task.

The Igbo Culture

Another notable ethnic group in Nigeria is the Igbo. The Igbo have a unique
culture. There are three versions on the origin of the Igbo. The first version says
the Igbo migrated from the Middle East to their present location.
The second version says they have been in their present location in eastern Nigeria
from the beginning. The third version says they descended from the sky.
The language of the Igbo belongs to the Niger-Congo family. The Igbo people
thrived in the Igbo-Ukwu art culture while they cherished Arochukwu in the
spiritual realm. You need to know that birth, marriage and burial are considered the
three most important family events. Igbo traditional marriage, known as igbankwu
is not just an affair between the future husband and wife, it involves parents, the
extended family and the whole village. The would-be groom parent will bring
palmwine and kolanuts to the bride’s family and other items such as goats,
chickens etc as requested by the family. We wish to state that the wedding
ceremony varies from village to village. Birth is also celebrated among the Igbo
but the naming ceremony is usually performed on the 28th day. Many customs
surround the burial rites such as paying last respect to the dead, singing traditional
songs and traditional dances, acrobatic diplays by masquerades, etc. The village of
Igbo-Ukwu is the harbinger of the oldest known sculpture from Igboland. In that
village (Igbo-Ukwu), there was an excavation of the grave of a man of some
importance and wealth dating back to the 9th Century which produced some of the
earliest bronze castings, glass beads, bowls and ornaments. The objects found at
Igbo-Ukwu are also for ritual as well as secular purposes. The objects found at this
site were a large collection of objects and regalia mostly made through the “lost
wax” technique and others made through smithing and casting method.
In terms of style, the artifacts found at Igbo-Ukwu are not similar to the Bini, Ife or
any other Nigerian arts; they are originally local in shape and content. The findings
at this site indicate a very well developed economy with surplus to engage in
artistic production. The Igbo political system is a segmentary system of
governance where you have hierarchy of power from the family to the age group
and to special titles. This power is often distributed among the following title
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holders: Ozo, Ichie, Mazi, Ozioko, Nze, Diokpa, Isi, Okpara, Ezeji and a few
others.
Similarly, others that hold powers include priests, elders, diviners, medicine men,
the Okparas, members of secret society and age grades. They all have recognized
roles to play within the Igbo political set up.

The Bini Culture

This is another notable culture in Nigeria. There are three versions of the origin of
the Benin kingdom. The first version is from Edo mythology. According to this
mythology, the Benin Kingdom was founded by the youngest of the children of
Osanubua (the high god). This child came with his elder brothers who
subsequently founded Ife and Yoruba Kingdoms.
The Second Version talks about the elders of Benin requested King of Ife
(Oduduwa) to send his son as the King of Benin. Oduduwa complied by sending
Oranmiyan. But Oranmiyan did not stay for long. He impregnated the daughter of
the Onogie of Edo. This woman later delivered a son who was installed as the first
Oba of Benin. This Oba was later called Eweka. He and the people of Benin lived
at Usama.
The Third Version according to Igharevba (1968), the Bini migrated from Egypt
and in the course of their journey southward, they settled at Ile-Ife and finally
moved to their present location.
The leadership of the Bini people was based on segmentary system where authority
is exercised right from the family. There are three types of families:
1. The Nuclear Family
2. The Joint Family
3. The Extended Family
Each is headed by an elder who sanctions each member of the family. Similarly,
there are societal elders constituting authority based on the village system and
there are representative title holders who constitute a councilor court for
discharging laws and justice in the whole kingdom.

The Itsekiri Culture

You may wish to know this important culture in Nigeria. The people of Itsekiri
claimed to have descended from Umale-Okun (the sea god) some of the Itsekiris
claim to have descended from Ode, a Yoruba town in Ijebu Water-side.
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In a different dimension, one part of the Itsekiri tradition claimed a relationship
with Iginuwa, a son of one of the chiefs of the Yoruba; it was said that Iginuwa
was sent to the Itsekiri land in company of chiefs and their servants whereby, the
chief, together with the Itsekiri established the present land On his arrival Iginuwa
met with some Ijaw who took him along with his followers and consolidated his
power as a leader of the new land.
The socio-political organisation of the Itsekiri was closely related to the Bini
people. The palace and titles for instance were modelled after that of the Benin
kingdom. But in the Itsekiri’s case, instead of the Oba, the kingdom was ruled
rather by the Olu. He alone presided over a council known as Ojoye which was
made up of seven nobles or title holders. The Olu combined in himself spiritual
and temporal powers.

The Ijaw Culture

We now move to the Ijaw culture. The Ijaw ethnic group accounts for a sizeable
percentage of Nigeria’s population. You also need to know that they are located
along the coastal belts of Southern Nigeria from the Forcados to Bonny River, long
and extensive years of interaction with various neighbours have greatly influenced
their traditions thereby leading to differences in the cultural assumptions of
component Ijaw groups. They are mostly identified as Western Delta Ijaw
(Gbaramatu, Mein, Iduwini, Arogbo, Egbema (Bassan), Apoi Ijaw); the Central
Delta Ijaw (Apoi, Furupagha, Olodiama Ijaw); and the Eastern Delta Ijaw (Bonny,
Elem Kalabari, Nembe (Brass), Okrika).
Some scholars have come up with different Ijaw traditions of origin. These
scholars include Kenneth Dike (1956), G.I. Jones (1964) and E.J. Alagoa (1972).
Dike ascribed the establishment of Ijaw politico-religious institutions to the
commencement of trans-atlantic trade around the 15th Century, while G.I. Jones
modified this submission by propounding claims of migration from Eastern Delta
pinning it to the period of or before Portuguese contact with the region (1450-
1550). On the contrary, Alagoa, an Ijaw, brought up ‘Mein tradition’ to assert
migration from Central Delta to Eastern Delta. Archaeological studies sponsored
by Alagoa to settle this controversy provided a more concrete information. The
results showed that Eastern Delta Ijaw communities were settled far ahead of the
Central Delta region.

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They belong to the Niger-Congo linguistic subgroup and they speak Izon. The
eastern Ijaw group, however, speak Kalabari. The western Delta Ijaw also speak
Edoid languages while the Ogbia clan, the Andoni as well as the Obulom speak
Cross-River languages.
Horton (1969) noted that the politico-religious organisations of the Ijaw is similar
to those of other Southeastern Nigerian groups especially the Igbo. The entire adult
male population seats in three age grades assembly to perform legislative and
judicial functions presided over by the Amanyanabo (village head). The village
head is chosen from a single descent group.
In Ijaw cosmology, a High God (Tamuno) is acknowledged. An ancestor cult
similar to that of the Igbo also exists. Being riverine people, there is a strong belief
in the water goddess (Owu) that plays certain roles in human affairs. The Ijaw,
over the course of their history are reputed fishermen, canoe builders, salt
manufacturers and above all elaborate and extensive merchants and traders, well
known for the establishment of merchant houses.

Origin of the Tiv

Needless to say again that the origin of the Tiv people is not certain. What we
know about their origin came from oral traditions of myths and legends and
theories of migration. Tiv Version
According to the Tiv oral tradition, it was Tiv, as a person, that founded the Tiv
ethnic group of today. So, the word Tiv refers both to the language and founding
father of the group.
Swem Versio: Other traditions argue that earlier settlements of the ethnic group
came from Swem down to their present location through Nwange and Ibinda, and
this occurred between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Socio-Political
Organisation of the Tiv
Again, P. Bohannan (1953) argues that the socio-political system of the traditional
Tiv was very unique. It was a classic example of segmentary or largely
decentralized system of government in pre-colonial and post-colonial Nigeria ever
studied “Tsombor”. “Tsombor” was the name of the family group and was the
largest recognized entity as well “Mbavessen” (Elder) Mbavessen or elder was the
head of a unit. You should remember that in Tiv traditional system, each family
group was in turn divided into smaller units. You should also remember that the
Tiv attached much importance to the spirit of brotherhood and mutual relations
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because of the belief that all of them were from one father and therefore from one
lineage. For Bohannan (1953) the Tiv socio-political structure “was so simple that
it was difficult to understand.” According to him, Tiv society was very much
segmented. It was a hierarchical society. It started with the individual at the lowest
level, the family, the extended family, the kindred, and through clan to Tiv, i.e. the
whole tribe. In Tiv society, more than in any other Nigerian ethnic group,
genealogical affiliation was very strong. Even today, in traditional Tiv society, it is
upon this kind of genealogical framework of hierarchy that kinship relationship is
organized.

The Igala: Origin of the Igala

Like any other ethnic group in Nigeria, the origin of the Igala people is not clear.
However, Idah has always been known as the capital state of Igala people.
Abutu Eje Version
History tells us that Abutu Eje was the first personality to seriously contribute to
the development or evolution of the Igala state. Abutu Eje sometimes identified as
child reared by a leopard (Eje) or as a prince from Ado (Benin) or Apa (Wukari
Jukun), was a foreigner. According to the legend, the sovereignty was transferred
to him from an aboriginal population (the Okpoto).

Achadu Version
Some Igala elites attribute the emergence of their state to one Achadu. He is
believed to have come from the Igbo country. He married the Attah and later
became a patron (ritual husband) and the leader of the kingmakers (Igalla-mela).

The Yoruba Version

Some scholars also argue that the Igala are of a Yoruba extraction. Historical
evidence exists to show that the territories of the Igala and some Yoruba speaking
peoples had been contiguous.
The Socio-Political Organisation of the Igala
Ayagba or Idoko is best known as the ancestor to all the Attahs. He is also credited
to have founded the present Igala dynasty. History tells us that he was the one who
helped the Igala people to break away from the Jukun rule.
Politically speaking, each Igalla Mela was the head of any effective Igala territory.
His administrative power was like that of the Uzama Nihiron of Benin or the
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Oyemisi of the Yoruba. The traditional Igala political structure was operated on
two levels. There was the central and the provincial level of administration. The
Attah was head of the centre. A council of chiefs and other officials assisted him in
the local or provincial administration of the kingdom.

The Jukun (Kwararafa): Origin of the Jukun

Again, like other ethnic groups in Nigeria, the origin of the Jukun people is not
fixed. The Jukun are also known as the Kwararafa. They are believed to have
occupied the area between the River Benue and the River Ibi in Gongola state.
Wukari was also known as the principal town of the Jukun people, and it is in that
town that their King resided. The Jukun State was large.
The Kano Chronicle Version
The Kano chronicle version was the most authentic source that could say
something convincing about the Jukun history of origin. According to records from
the Kano Chronicle, the Jukun people raided the Hausaland and Bornu in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This shows that although the origin of the
Jukun people was almost unknown, they were at least in existence before the
sixteenth century or thereabout

The Socio-Political Organisation of the Jukun

As said earlier, the Jukun state was certainly not a small state. This is one of the
reasons why Jukun was seen as a confederation of peoples who recognized the
religious supremacy of the AKU UKA. History tells us that by the end of the
seventeenth century, the Jukun had been well established in the middle Benue
region. The Jukun people operated a theocratic system of government. AKU UKA
was the head of any effective Jukun state. He was believed to be spiritually
appointed and was regarded as the representative of the gods on earth. Although
AKU UKA was very powerful, his system of government was not despotic.
He had no absolute power over his people. There were many ways of regulating his
power. According to Jukun tradition, AKU UKA was judged, for instance, by his
performance (result). Since he was the symbol of the Jukun existence, a good
harvest could bring in more prestige while a bad harvest could result in serious
calamity, and thereafter, his unpopularity and downfall. Also, there were many
taboos which acted as checks on his royal power as well. Even as the head of the
executive, legislative and judiciary, AKU UKA also ruled with the advice of his
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nobles and subjects. Public opinion was respected in Jukun pre-colonial
administration.
Achuwo
He was the head of Aku Uka’s Council of nobles. He functioned as the Prime
Minister. He was seconded by the Abo Zike, Kinda Achuwo and the Aku Nako.
You should also remember that these nobles were representatives of their lineages
as well.

Tutorial Questions
Write on the myth and legends of the following ethnic groups
a. Igbo
b. Yoruba
c. Ijaw
d. Hausa
e. Fulani
f. Hausa Fulani
g. Bini
h. Itsekiri

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