COTTON:- Intro -Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds

of cotton plants of
the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. Under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will
tend to increase the dispersion of the seeds. The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including
the Americas, Africa, and India. The greatest diversity of wild cotton species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia and Africa.
[1]
Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds. The English name derives from the Arabic (al) quṭn ‫ُقْطن‬,
which began to be used circa 1400 AD.[2] The Spanish word, "algodón", is likewise derived from the Arabic. The fiber is most often
spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. The use of cotton for fabric is known to date to prehistoric times;
fragments of cotton fabric dated from 5000 BC have been excavated in Mexico and the Indus Valley Civilization (modern day
Pakistan and some parts of India). Although cultivated since antiquity, it was the invention of the cotton gin that so lowered the cost of
production that led to its widespread use, and it is the most widely used natural fiber cloth in clothing today.
Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, accounting for 2.5% of the world's
arable land. China is the world's largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the
largest exporter for many years.[3] In the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic
metres (17 cubic feet) and weigh 226.8 kilograms (500 pounds).[4]
Sources :-
There are four commercially grown species of cotton, all domesticated in antiquity:
 Gossypium hirsutum – upland cotton, native to Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean and southern Florida, (90% of world
production)
 Gossypium barbadense – known as extra-long staple cotton, native to tropical South America (8% of world production)
 Gossypium arboreum – tree cotton, native to India and Pakistan (less than 2%)
 Gossypium herbaceum – Levant cotton, native to southern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (less than 2%)
Application :-Cotton is used to make a number of textile products. These include terrycloth for highly absorbent
bath towels and robes; denim for blue jeans; cambric, popularly used in the manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the
term "blue-collar"); and corduroy, seersucker, and cotton twill. Socks, underwear, and most T-shirts are made from cotton. Bed sheets
often are made from cotton. Cotton also is used to make yarn used in crochet and knitting. Fabric also can be made from recycled or
recovered cotton that otherwise would be thrown away during the spinning, weaving, or cutting process. While many fabrics are made
completely of cotton, some materials blend cotton with other fibers, including rayon and synthetic fibers such as polyester. It can
either be used in knitted or woven fabrics, as it can be blended with elastine to make a stretchier thread for knitted fabrics, and apparel
such as stretch jeans.In addition to the textile industry, cotton is used in fishing nets, coffee filters, tents, explosives manufacture
(see nitrocellulose), cotton paper, and in bookbinding. The first Chinese paper was made of cotton fiber. Fire hoses were once made of
cotton.
Trade Cotton is bought and sold by investors and price speculators as a tradable commodity on 2 different stock exchanges in the
United States of America.
 Cotton futures contracts are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) under the ticker symbol TT. They are delivered
every year in March, May, July, October, and December.[56]
 Cotton #2 futures contracts are traded on the New York Board of Trade (NYBOT) under the ticker symbol CT. They are delivered
every year in March, May, July, October, and December.[57]
Critical temperatures
 Favorable travel temperature range: below 25 °C (77 °F)
 Optimum travel temperature: 21 °C (70 °F)
 Glow temperature: 205 °C (401 °F)
 Fire point: 210 °C (410 °F)
 Autoignition temperature: 407 °C (765 °F)
 Autoignition temperature (for oily cotton): 120 °C (248 °F)
A temperature range of 25 to 35 °C (77 to 95 °F) is the optimal range for mold development. At temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F),
rotting of wet cotton stops. Damaged cotton is sometimes stored at these temperatures to prevent further deterioration. [58]
British standard yarn measures
1 thread = 55 in or 140 cm ,1 skein or rap = 80 threads (120 yd or 110 m),1 hank = 7 skeins (840 yd or 770 m),1 spindle = 18 hanks
(15,120 yd or 13.83 km)
The chemical composition of cotton is as follows:
cellulose 91.00%water 7.85%protoplasm, pectins 0.55%waxes, fatty substances 0.40%mineral salts 0.20%
Property Evaluation

Fairly uniform in width, 12–20 micrometers; length varies from 1 cm to 6 cm (½ to 2½

Shape
inches); typical length is 2.2 cm to 3.3 cm (⅞ to 1¼ inches).

Luster high

Tenacity (strength)
Dry 3.0–5.0 g/d
Wet 3.3–6.0 g/d

Resiliency low

Density 1.54–1.56 g/cm³

Moisture absorption
raw: conditioned 8.5%
saturation 15–25%
mercerized: conditioned 8.5–10.3%
saturation 15–27%+

Dimensional stability good

Resistance to
acids damage, weaken fibers
alkali resistant; no harmful effects
organic solvents high resistance to most
sunlight Prolonged exposure weakens fibers.
microorganisms Mildew and rot-producing bacteria damage fibers.
insects Silverfish damage fibers.

Thermal reactions
to heat Decomposes after prolonged exposure to temperatures of 150 °C or over.
to flame Burns readily.

Wool:-Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals, including cashmere from goats, mohair from
goats,qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids.[1]
Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped, it is elastic, and it grows in staples (clusters).[2]While in the
United States the term wool is usually restricted to describing the fibrous protein derived from the specialized skincells
called follicles in sheep, in the UK the term may be used of any long curling fiber such as wood wool, wire wool, etc.
Wool's scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, so they stay together.
Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat.
Insulation works both ways: Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes to keep heat out and protect the body.
Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook
together.
The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch,
while the coarser wools like karakul may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, and little
ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to
 breed and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products,
including the famous tweed cloth of Scotland.
Wool fibers are hydrophilic, meaning they readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow. Wool can absorb moisture almost one-third of
its own weight.[4] Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep
produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes.
Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate of flame spread, a lower rate of heat
release, a lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip;[5] it forms a char which is insulating and self-extinguishing, and it
contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets. [6] Wool carpets are specified for high
safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in
occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.[6]
Wool is considered by the medical profession to be hypoallergenic.In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse
rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, felt, wool insulation (also see links) and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to
absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires
used breastplates made of wool felt.Wool has also been traditionally used to cover cloth diapers. Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic
(repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber is hygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment able to cover a wet diaper
while inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and
slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are
several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers.Initial studies of woolen underwear have found it prevented heat
and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs the moisture than other fibers. [35]Global wool production is approximately 1.3 million
tonnes per year, of which 60% goes into apparel. Australia is the leading producer of wool which is mostly fromMerino sheep. New
Zealand is the second-largest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. China is the third-largest producer of
wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Tukidale, Drysdale and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is
usually used for making carpets.In the United States, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their
mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). There is also a thriving home-flock contingent of small-scale farmers who raise small
hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand spinning market. These small-scale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece. Global
woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2004/2005[29]
1. Australia: 25% of global woolclip (475 million kg greasy, 2004/2005)
2. China: 18%
3. United States: 17%
4. New Zealand: 11%
5. Argentina: 3%
6. Turkey: 2%
7. Iran: 2%
8. United Kingdom: 2%
9. India: 2%
10. Sudan: 2%
11. South Africa: 1%
Organic wool is becoming more and more popular. This wool is very limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and
Australia.[30] It is becoming easierto find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price. Wool is
environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleumbased nylon orpolypropylene) as a material for carpets, as well, in particular
when combined with a natural binding and the use of formaldehyde-free glues.Animal rights groups have noted issues with the
production of wool, such as mulesing.Wool Fiber
Wool fiber is the natural hair grown on sheep and is composed of protein substance called as keratin. Wool is composed of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen and this is the only animal fiber, which contains sulfur in addition. The wool fibers have crimps or curls, which
create pockets and give the wool a spongy feel and create insulation for the wearer. The outside surface of the fiber consists of a series
 of serrated scales, which overlap each other much like the scales of a fish. Wool is the only fiber with such serration’s which make it
possible for the fibers to cling together and produce felt.
Wool fiber
Properties of Wool Fiber
The characteristics of Wool fiber or protein fibers are as follows:
 They are composed of amino acids.
 They have excellent absorbency.
 Moisture regain is high.
 They tend to be warmer than others.
 They have poor resistance to alkalis but good resistance to acids.
 They have good elasticity and resiliency.
Classification of Wool
The quality of wool fibers produced is based on the breeding conditions, the weather, food, general care etc. For example, excessive
moisture dries out natural grease. Similarly the cold weather produces harder and heavier fibers. The wool could be classified in two
different ways:
1. By sheep from which it is obtained
2. By fleece
3.
4. Classification by Sheep
The wool is classified according to the sheep from which it is sheared as given below:

Merino Wool: Merino sheep originated in Spain yields the best quality wool.
 These fibers are strong, fine and elastic fiber which is relatively short, ranging from 1 to 5 inches (25 – 125 mm).
 Among the different wool fibers, merino wool has the greatest amount of crimp and has maximum number of scales. These two
factors contribute to its superior warmth and spinning qualities.
 Merino is used for the best types of wool clothing.
Class – Two Wool: This class of sheep originates from England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.
 The fibers are comparatively strong, fine, and elastic and range from 2 to 8 inches (50 – 200mm) in length.
 They have a large number of scales per inch and have good crimp.
Class – Three Wool: This class of sheep originates from United Kingdom.
 The fibers are coarser and have fewer scales and less crimp when compared to earlier varieties of wool fibers and are about 4 to 18
inches long.
 They are smoother, and are more lustrous.
 These wool are less elastic and resilient.
 They are of good quality, used for clothing.
Class – Four Wool: This class is a group of mongrel sheep sometimes referred to as half-breeds.
 The fibers are abour 1 to 16 inches (25 – 400 mm) long, are coarse and hair like, and have relatively few scales and little crimp.
 The fibers are smoother and more lustrous.
 This wool is less desirable, with the least elasticity and strength. It is used mainly for carpets, rugs, and inexpensive low-grade
clothing.

Wool Properties
Warm – you only have to look at a Highland sheep breed in its dense, long fleece standing in the show to
understand the special thermal capacity of wool. It seems warm to the touch, while cotton feel cool, for example.
Hygroscopic – wool absorbs, retains and releases moisture without affecting its thermal properties. This makes is
perfect for use in breathable buildings, listed and ancient structures, and anywhere where moisture is a concern.
This is also why it is great to wear - it keeps feet warm but dry, even inside welly boots.
Acoustic absorption – wool is very good at soaking up reverberated sound, particularly in the range of the human
voice. This is why it makes a fabulous acoustic cloud material and why it is so good inside quality speakers.
Biodegradable – as a completely natural material made from keratin, like human hair, wool will eventually break
down completely, leaving no residue and damaging nothing. It is therefore good for gardening and use in places
where safe, chemical-free environment are important.
Nitrogen slow release – as it biodegrades, wool releases nitrogen slowly into its surroundings, feeding nearby
plants and organisms that need nitrogen-rich conditions.
Fire Resistance - another intriguing and useful property of wool is its ability to NOT catch fire! In in its natural
untreated state wool does not burn, but instead forms a self-insulating char that prevents further flame spread and
extinguishes itself (wool has a very high inflammation point of 570 - 600°C due to its high Nitrogen content of
~16%). Wool is self extinguishing because of its high Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI=25.2), which means to
completely burn wool an oxygen content of 25.2% is necessary whereas normal air only has a 21% content.
Linen :-
Linen /ˈlɪnɨn/ is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant, Linum usitatissimum. Linen is laborious to manufacture, but the fiber
is very absorbent and garments made of linen are valued for their exceptional coolness and freshness in hot weather.Many products
are made of linen: aprons, bags, towels (swimming, bath, beach, body and wash towels), napkins, bed linens, tablecloths, runners,
chair covers, and men's & women's wear.The word "linen" is of West Germanic origin and cognate to the Latin name for the flax
plant linum, and the earlier Greekλινόν (linon). This word history has given rise to a number of other terms in English, most
notably line, from the use of a linen (flax) thread to determine a straight line.Textiles in a linen weave texture, even when made
of cotton, hemp and other non-flax fibers, are also loosely referred to as "linen". Such fabrics generally also have their own specific
names, for example fine cotton yarn in a linen-style weave is called Madapolam.The collective term "linens" is still often used
generically to describe a class of woven and even knitted bed, bath, table and kitchen textiles traditionally made of linen. In the past,
"linens" also referred to lightweight undergarments such asshirts, chemises, waistshirts, lingerie (a word also cognate with linen), and
detachable shirt collars and cuffs, all of which were historically made almost exclusively out of linen. The inner layer of fine
composite cloth garments (as for example jackets) was traditionally made of linen, hence the word lining.[citation needed]Linen textiles
appear to be some of the oldest in the world: their history goes back many thousands of years. Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns,
and various types of fabrics dating to about 8000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings. Dyed flax fibers found in a prehistoric
cave in Georgia suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back even earlier to 36,000 BP.[1][2]Linen was
sometimes used as currency in ancient Egypt. Egyptian mummies were wrapped in linen as a symbol of light and purity, and as a
display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were very fine for their day, but are coarse compared to
modern linen.[3] Today, linen is usually an expensive textile produced in relatively small quantities. It has a long "staple" (individual
fiber length) relative to cotton and other natural fibers.[4]
Properties[edit]
Linen fabric feels cool to the touch. It is smooth, making the finished fabric lint-free, and gets softer the more it is washed. However,
constant creasing in the same place in sharp folds will tend to break the linen threads. This wear can show up in collars, hems, and any
area that is iron creased during laundering. Linen has poor elasticity and does not spring back readily, explaining why it wrinkles so
easily.Linen fabrics have a high natural luster; their natural color ranges between shades of ivory, ecru, tan, or grey. Pure white linen
is created by heavy bleaching. Linen fabric typically varies somewhat in thickness and is crisp and textured, but it can in some cases
feel stiff and rough, and in other cases feel soft and smooth. When properly prepared, linen fabric has the ability to absorb and lose
water rapidly. Linen can absorb a fair amount of moisture without feeling unpleasantly damp to the skin, unlike cotton and wool [citation
needed]
.Linen is a very durable, strong fabric, and one of the few that are stronger wet than dry. The fibers do not stretch, and are
resistant to damage from abrasion. However, because linen fibers have a very low elasticity, the fabric eventually breaks if it is folded
and ironed at the same place repeatedly over time.Mildew, perspiration, and bleach can also damage the fabric, but it is resistant
to moths and carpet beetles. Linen is relatively easy to take care of, since it resists dirt and stains, has no lint or pilling tendency, and
can be dry-cleaned, machine-washed or steamed. It can withstand high temperatures, and has only moderate initialshrinkage.[11]Linen
should not be dried too much by tumble drying, and it is much easier to iron when damp. Linen wrinkles very easily, and thus some
more formal garments require ironing often, in order to maintain perfect smoothness. Nevertheless, the tendency to wrinkle is often
considered part of linen's particular "charm", and many modern linen garments are designed to be air-dried on a good clothes hanger
and worn without the necessity of ironing.A characteristic often associated with contemporary linen yarn is the presence of "slubs", or
small knots which occur randomly along its length. In the past, slubs were traditionally considered to be defects, and were associated
with low quality linen. However in the case of many contemporary linen fabrics, particularly in the decorative furnishing industry,
slubs are considered as part of the aesthetic appeal of an expensive natural product. In addition, slubs do not compromise the integrity
of the fabric, and therefore they are not viewed as a defect. However, the very finest linen has very consistent diameter threads, with
no slubs at all.
Measure[edit]The standard measure of bulk linen yarn is the lea, which is the number of yards in a pound of linen divided by 300. For
example a yarn having a size of 1 lea will give 300 yards per pound. The fine yarns used in handkerchiefs, etc. might be 40 lea, and
give 40x300 = 12,000 yards per pound. This is a specific length therefore an indirect measurement of the fineness of the linen, i.e. the
number of length units per unit mass. The symbol is NeL.(3) The metric unit, Nm, is more commonly used in continental Europe. This
is the number of 1,000 m lengths per kilogram. In China, the English Cotton system unit, NeC, is common. This is the number of
840 yard lengths in a pound.
Producers[edit] Flax is grown in many parts of the world, but top quality flax is primarily grown in Western European countries and
Ukraine. In very recent years bulk linen production has moved to Eastern Europe and China, but high quality fabrics are still confined
to niche producers in Ireland, Italy and Belgium, and also in countries including Poland, Austria, France, Germany, Sweden,
Denmark, Lithuania, Latvia, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Britain and Kochi in India. High quality linen fabrics are now
produced in the United States for the upholstery market.
Uses[edit]Over the past 30 years the end use for linen has changed dramatically. Approximately 70% of linen production in the 1990s
was for apparel textiles, whereas in the 1970s only about 5% was used for fashion fabrics.Linen uses range from bed and bath fabrics
(tablecloths, dish towels, bed sheets, etc.), home and commercial furnishing items (wallpaper/wall coverings, upholstery, window
treatments, etc.), apparel items (suits, dresses, skirts, shirts, etc.), to industrial products (luggage, canvases, sewing thread, etc.). [4] It
was once the preferred yarn for handsewing the uppers of moccasin-style shoes (loafers), but its use has been replaced by synthetics.
A linen handkerchief, pressed and folded to display the corners, was a standard decoration of a well-dressed man's suit during most of
the first part of the 20th century.Currently researchers are working on a cotton/flax blend to create new yarns which will improve the
feel of denim during hot and humid weather.[12]Linen fabric is one of the preferred traditional supports for oil painting. In the United
States cotton is popularly used instead as linen is many times more expensive there, restricting its use to professional painters. In
Europe however, linen is usually the only fabric support available in art shops; in the UK both are freely available with cotton being
cheaper. Linen is preferred to cotton for its strength, durability and archival integrity.Linen is also used extensively by artisan bakers.
Known as a couche, the flax cloth is used to hold the dough into shape while in the final rise, just before baking. The couche is heavily
dusted with flour which is rubbed into the pores of the fabric. Then the shaped dough is placed on the couche. The floured couche
makes a "non stick" surface to hold the dough. Then ridges are formed in the couche to keep the dough from spreading.In the past,
linen was also used for books (the only surviving example of which is the Liber Linteus). Due to its strength, in the Middle Ages linen
was used for shieldsand gambeson (among other roles such as use for a bowstring), much as in classical antiquity it was used to make
a type of body armour, referred to as a linothorax. Also because of its strength when wet, Irish linen is a very popular wrap of
pool/billiard cues, due to its absorption of sweat from hands. Paper made of linen can be very strong and crisp, which is why the
United States and many other countries print their currency on paper that is made from 25% linen and 75% cotton.Polyester is a
category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many polyesters, the term
"polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally occurring
chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate.
Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not.
Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset, there are also polyester resins cured by hardeners;
however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics.[1]Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used
extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered furniture and
computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in tyre reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety
belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating
material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal
displays,holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes. Polyesters are widely used as a
finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable
polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per
coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish.While synthetic clothing in general is perceived by
many as having a less natural feel compared to fabrics woven from natural fibers (such as cotton and wool)[citation needed], polyester fabrics
can provide specific advantages over natural fabrics, such as improved wrinkle resistance, durability and high color retention. As a
result, polyester fibers are sometimes spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Synthetic fibers also
can create materials with superior water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers, and are sometimes
renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers (for example, China silk, which is a term in the textiles
industry for a 100% polyester fiber woven to resemble the sheet and durability of insect-derived silk).Liquid crystalline polyesters are
among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers. They are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These
traits are also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engineTypes[edit]
Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend
to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water
absorption and minimal shrinkage in comparison with other industrial fibers.Unsaturated polyesters (UPR) are thermosetting resins.
They are used as casting materials, fiberglass laminating resins and non-metallic auto-body fillers. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated
polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as body parts of cars.
According to the composition of their main chain, polyesters can be:
Composition of Number of
Examples of polyesters Examples of manufacturing methods
the main chain repeating units

Polyglycolide or Polyglycolic
Aliphatic Homopolymer Polycondensation of glycolic acid
acid (PGA)

Polylactic acid (PLA) Ring-opening polymerization of lactide

Polycaprolactone (PCL) Ring-opening polymerization of caprolactone

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)

Copolymer Polyethylene adipate (PEA)

Polybutylene succinate (PBS) Polycondensation of succinic acid with 1,4-butanediol

Copolymerization of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3-

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3- hydroxypentanoic acid,
hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) butyrolactone and valerolactone (oligomeric aluminoxane as a
catalyst)

Semi-aromatic Copolymer Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Polycondensation of terephthalic acid with ethylene glycol

Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) Polycondensation of terephthalic acid with 1,4-butanediol

Polytrimethylene
Polycondensation of terephthalic acid with 1,3-propanediol
terephthalate (PTT)

Polycondensation of at least one naphthalene dicarboxylic

Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN)
acid with ethylene glycol

Polycondensation of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and 6-

Aromatic Copolymer Vectran
hydroxynaphthalene-2-carboxylic acid
Increasing the aromatic parts of polyesters increases their glass transition temperature, melting temperature, thermal stability, chemical
stability...Polyesters can also be telechelic oligomers like the polycaprolactone diol (PCL) and the polyethylene adipate diol (PEA).
They are then used as prepolymers.
Basics[edit]Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials produced, it ranges third
after polyethylene (33.5%)[citation needed] and polypropylene (19.5%).
The main raw materials are described as follows:Purified terephthalic acid – PTA – CAS-No.: 100-21-0
Synonym: 1,4 benzenedicarboxylic acid,
Sum formula; C6H4(COOH)2 , mol weight: 166.13
Dimethylterephthalate – DMT – CAS-No: 120-61-6
Synonym: 1,4 benzenedicarboxylic acid dimethyl ester
Sum formula C6H4(COOCH3)2 , mol weight: 194.19
Mono Ethylene Glycol – MEG – CAS No.: 107-21-1
Synonym: 1,2 ethanediol
Sum formula: C2H6O2 , mol weight: 62,07
To make a polymer of high molecular weight a catalyst is needed. The most common catalyst is antimony trioxide (or antimony tri
acetate):
Antimony trioxide – ATO – CAS-No.: 1309-64-4 Molecular weight: 291.51 Sum formula: Sb2O3
In 2008, about 10,000 tonnes Sb2O3 were used to produce around 49 million tonnes polyethylene terephthalate.[citation needed]
Polyester is described as follows:
Polyethylene Terephthalate CAS-No.: 25038-59-9 Synonym/abbreviations: polyester, PET, PES Sum Formula: H-[C10H8O4]-n=60–
120 OH, molelcular unit weight: 192.17
There are several reasons for the importance of Polyester:
The relatively easy accessible raw materials PTA or DMT and MEG
The very well understood and described simple chemical process of polyester synthesis
The low toxicity level of all raw materials and side products during polyester production and processing
The possibility to produce PET in a closed loop at low emissions to the environment
The outstanding mechanical and chemical properties of polyester
The recyclability
The wide variety of intermediate and final products made of polyester.
In table 1 the estimated world polyester production is shown. Main applications are textile polyester, bottle polyester resin, film
polyester mainly for packaging and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics. According to this table, the world's total polyester
production might exceed 50 million tons per annum before the year 2010.
Market size per year

Product type 2002 [Million tonnes/year] 2008 [Million tonnes/year]

Textile-PET 20 39

Resin, bottle/A-PET 9 16

Film-PET 1.2 1.5

Special polyester 1 2.5

Total 31.2 49

Rayon:-Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. It is made from purified cellulose, primarily from wood pulp, which is
chemically converted into a soluble compound. It is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments which are
chemically solidified, resulting in synthetic fibers of nearly pure cellulose.[1] Because rayon is manufactured from naturally
occurring polymers, it is considered a semi-synthetic fiber.[2] Specific types of rayon include viscose,modal and lyocell, each of which
differs in manufacturing process and properties of the finished product.
Viscose method[edit]
A device for spinning Viscose Rayon dating from 1901
Finally, in 1894, English chemist Charles Frederick Cross, and his collaborators Edward John Bevan, and Clayton Beadlepatented
their artificial silk, which they named "viscose", because the reaction product of carbon disulfide and cellulose in basic conditions
gave a highly viscous solution of xanthate. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds Fibers in
1905. Courtaulds formed an American division, American Viscose, (later known as Avtex Fibers) to produce their formulation in the
United States in 1910. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924, with "viscose" being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make
both rayon and cellophane. In Europe, though, the fabric itself became known as "viscose," which has been ruled an acceptable
alternative term for rayon by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission.The method is able to use wood (cellulose and lignin) as a source of
cellulose while the other methods need lignin-free cellulose as starting material. This makes it cheaper and therefore it was used on a
larger scale than the other methods. Contamination of the waste water by carbon disulfide, lignin and the xanthates made this process
detrimental to theenvironment. Rayon was only produced as a filament fiber until the 1930s when it was discovered that broken waste
rayon could be used in staple fiber.The physical properties of rayon were unchanged until the development of high-tenacity rayon in
the 1940s. Further research and development led to the creation of high-wet-modulus rayon (HWM rayon) in the 1950s. [7] Research in
the UK was centred on the government-funded British Rayon Research Association.Rayon is a versatile fiber and is widely claimed to
have the same comfort properties as natural fibers, although the drape and slipperiness of rayon textiles are often more like nylon. It
can imitate the feel and texture of silk, wool, cotton and linen. The fibers are easily dyed in a wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are
soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid
climates, although also making their handfeel cool and sometimes almost slimy to the touch. [8]The durability and appearance retention
of regular viscose rayon are low, especially when wet; also, rayon has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber. However,HWM
rayon (high-wet-modulus rayon) is much stronger and exhibits higher durability and appearance retention. Recommended care for
regular viscose rayon is dry-cleaning only. HWM rayon can be machine washed.[7]
Industrial applications of rayon emerged around 1935. Substituting cotton fiber in tires and belts, industrial types of rayon developed a
totally different set of properties, amongst which tensile strength (elasticity) was paramount. Outperforming polyester, industrial yarns
are still produced for high performance tires (e.g. Cordenka, Germany).
Physical structure[edit]
Regular rayon has lengthwise lines called striations and its cross-section is an indented circular shape. The cross-sections of HWM
and cupra rayon are rounder.Filament rayon yarns vary from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in size from 40 to
5000 denier. Staple fibers range from 1.5 to 15 denier and are mechanically or chemically crimped. Rayon fibers are naturally very
bright, but the addition of delustering pigments cuts down on this natural brightness.[7]
Trade names are used within the rayon industry to label the type of rayon in the product. Viscose Rayon was first produced in
Coventry England in 1905 by Courtaulds.
Bemberg, is a trade name for cupramonium rayon developed by J. P. Bemberg. It performs much like viscose but has a smaller
diameter and comes closest to silk in feel. Bemberg is now only produced in Italy due to United States Environmental Protection
Agency regulations in the US. The fibers are finer than viscose rayon and[6]
Modal and Tencel are widely used forms of rayon produced by Lenzing AG. Tencel, generic name lyocell, is made by a slightly
different solvent recovery process, and is considered a different fiber by the US FTC. Tencel lyocell was first produced commercially
by Courtaulds at Grimsby in England. The process which dissolves cellulose directly in amine oxide was developed by Courtaulds
Research in Coventry.
Galaxy, Danufil, and Viloft are rayon brands produced by Kelheim Fibres.
Acordis was a major manufacturer of cellulose based fibers and yarns. Production facilities can be found throughout Europe, the U.S.
and Brazil.[13]
Visil rayon is a flame retardant form of viscose which has silica embedded in the fiber during manufacturing.
North American Rayon Corporation of Tennessee produced viscose rayon until its closure in the year 2000.[14][15]
Grasim of India is the largest producer of rayon in the world (claiming 24% market share). It has plants
in Nagda, Kharach and Harihar – all in India, as well as joint ventures in Canada, Laos and China.[16]
Rayon Fiber
Rayon is a manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, as well as manufactured fibers composed of regenerated cellulose
in which substituents have replaced not more than 15% of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups.

Rayon fiber
Physical Properties of Viscose Rayon
Moisture Absorption
It absorbs more moisture than cotton. Moisture Content of Coton is 6% at 70 deg F and 65% RH, and for Viscose Rayon it is 13%
under the same conditions.
Tensile Strength
The Tensile Strength of the fibre is less when the fibre is wet than when dry. It is 1.5-2.4 gpd in the dry state and 0.7-1.2 gpd in the
wet state. For high tenacity variety the values are 3-4.6 gpd and 1.9 to 3.0 gpd.
Elasticity
The elasticity of Viscose Rayon is less than 2-3%. This is very important in handling viscose yarns during weaving, stentering etc
when sudden tensions are applied.
Elongation at Break
Ordinary Viscose rayon has 15-30% elongation at break, whule high tenacity rayon has only 9-17% elongation at break.
Density
The density of Viscose rayon is 1.53 g/cc. Rayon filaments are available in three densities: 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5
Action of Heat and Light
At 300 deg F or more, VR loses its strength and begins to decompose at 350-400 deg F. Prolonged exposure to sunlight also weakens
the fibre due to moisture and ultraviolet light of the sunlight.
Chemical Properties of Viscose Rayon
Viscose rayon consists of cellulose of lower DP than cotton cellulose. Also amorphous region of Viscose rayon is present to a greater
extent, therefore, Viscose rayon reacts faster than cotton with chemicals. Acids like H2SO4 HCL breaks the cellulose to
hydrocellulose. Oxidising agents like Na(OCl)2, Bleaching powder, K2Cr2O7, KMnO4- form oxycellulose. Cold acid solutions for a
short time do not attack viscose rayon.
Action of Acids:
The resistance of regenerated cellulose rayon’s to acids is generally less than that of cotton to the same concentrations of the same
acids. Therefore , acid treatments must not be too drastic with respect to concentration ,temperature and time .Organic acids can be
safely used in 1 to 2 percent concentration without injury to the fiber. Inorganic acids such as hydrochloric & nitric can be used in
surprisingly strong concentrations provided the temperatures are not too high and the treatment is brief. Oxalic acid for removal of
iron stains is not recommended except at temperatures lower than 150°F.At high temperatures and concentrations all acid will destroy
or carbonize regenerated rayon’s. No harmful action will result if applied at .5 to 3 percent solution at room temperature.
Action of Soaps:
Ordinary soaps in usual textile concentration have no direct effect on regenerated cellulose materials. Improper use of soap or use of
poorly made soap results in rancidity and odor in rayon fabrics or yarns. When soaps alone is used ,there is a tendency for the ionized
fatty acid from the soap to adhere tenaciously to the individual rayon filaments. During the drying filament of such materials and
subsequent storage .The free fatty acid radical is very likely to turn rancid & to give the goods & objectionable odor. This
phenomenon is specially Prevalent on oil-delustered rayons, because the fatty acid radical of the soap adheres Tenaciously to the
minute oil globules in the structure of the yarn.If given time enough the fatty acid radical
Action of Dry Heat:
Most regenerated celluloses, under the influence of heat as well as light ,show rapid loss in strength, this change being accompanied
by a increase in copper number and alkali solubility. In a study of effect of drying conditions of textile yearns, Wiegerink in 1940
showed that the quality index of cellulose fibers decreases either as the temperature is increased or as the moisture content of the
surrounding atmosphere is increased .Both the breaking strength & fluidity of viscose rayon appear to be functions of the relative
humidity to which the samples are exposed. Degradation of cellulose is lower in the absence of oxygen. Continued heating , however ,
in the absence of oxygen leads to deterioration of the cellulose but little is known about the course of the reactions. Short heating at
high temperatures ,such as 140°c is less harmful than long heating at lower temperatures. A decrease of tenacity & eventually a yellow
to brown discoloration occurs on aging.
Action of Solvents
Textile solvents can be used on Viscose rayon without any deteriorating effect. Viscose rayon dissolves in cuprammonium hydroxide
solution.
Effect of Iron
Contact with iron in the form of ferrous hydroxide weakens viscose rayon yarns. Therefore staining, marking or touching of rayon to
iron or iron surface should be avoided.
Action of Microorganisms
Microorganisms ( moulds, mildew, fungus, bacteria) affect the colour, strength, dyeing properties and lustre of rayon. Clean and dry
viscose rayon is rarely attacked by moulds and mildew.