Different Configurations of HEV

1.Series Hybrid System

-In case of series hybrid system the mechanical output is first converted into
electricity using a generator.
-The converted electricity either charges the battery or can bypass the
battery to propel the wheels via the motor and mechanical transmission.
-Conceptually, it is an ICE assisted Electric Vehicle (EV).
advantages of series hybrid drivetrains are:
-Mechanical decoupling between the ICE and driven wheels allows the IC
engine operating at its very narrow optimal region as shown in Figure 5.
-nearly ideal torque-speed characteristics of electric motor make multi-gear
transmission unnecessary.
disadvantages:
-The energy is converted twice and this reduces the overall efficiency.
-Two electric machines are needed and a big traction motor is required
because it is the only torque source of the driven wheels.
2.Parallel Hybrid System
-The parallel HEV allows both ICE and electric motor (EM) to deliver power
to drive the wheels.
-The propulsion power may be supplied by ICE alone, by EM only or by
both ICE and EM.
-The EM can be used as a generator to charge the battery by regenerative
braking or absorbing power from the ICE when its output is greater than
that required to drive the wheels.
advantages of the parallel hybrid drivetrain are:
-Both engine and electric motor directly supply torques to the driven wheels
and no energy form conversion occurs, hence energy loss is less
-Compactness due to no need of the generator and also a smaller traction
motor is required.
The drawbacks of parallel hybrid drivetrains are:
-Mechanical coupling between the engines and the driven wheels, thus the
engine operating points cannot be fixed in a narrow speed region.
-The mechanical configuration and the control strategy are complex
compared to series hybrid drivetrain.
3.Series-Parallel System
-In the series-parallel hybrid, the configuration incorporates the features of
both the series and parallel HEVs.
-However, this configuration needs an additional electric machine and a
planetary gear unit making the control complex.
-Among various possibilities in series-parallel hybrids, the general
classification includes electric-intensive and engine-intensive.
Power Split Device (planetary gear set)
-The power split device is a clever gearbox that hooks the gasoline engine,
generator and electric motor together.
-The power split device is a planetary gear set.
-The electric motor is connected to the ring gear of the gear set. It is also
directly connected to the differential, which drives the wheels.
-The generator is connected to the sun gear of the gear set, and the engine
is connected to the planet carrier.
4.Complex Hybrid System
-key difference is due to the bi-directional power flow of the electric motor in
complex hybrid and the unidirectional power flow of the generator in the
series-parallel hybrid.
-All the configurations discussed previously are implemented for single-axle
propulsion.This is designed for dual-axle propulsion.
-The capability of complex hybrid system, to drive the wheels by either
electric propulsion or hybrid propulsion or combination of both, offers
additional flexibility and reliability.
-The major disadvantage of complex hybrid is higher complexity.
Fuel Efficiency Analysis
1.Regenerative Braking: HEVs recapture energy typically lost during
braking and use it to recharge the battery. This reduces the amount of
energy required from the ICE, improving overall efficiency.
2.Electric Motor Assistance: The electric motor assists the ICE, particularly
during acceleration and low-speed driving. This reduces the load on the
engine, allowing it to operate more efficiently.
3.Engine Downsizing: HEVs often use smaller, more efficient engines
because the electric motor can provide the necessary power boost when
needed.
4.Start-Stop Technology: The ICE can shut down during idling (e.g., at
traffic lights) and quickly restart when needed, saving fuel that would
otherwise be consumed while idling.

Factors Affecting Fuel Efficiency

1.Driving Conditions: HEVs are most efficient in city driving due to frequent
stops and starts, where regenerative braking and electric motor use are
maximized. On highways, the advantage diminishes as the ICE runs more
consistently.
2.Battery State of Charge: The level of charge in the battery affects how
much the electric motor can assist the ICE. A fully charged battery allows
for more electric driving, while a depleted battery relies more on the ICE.
3.Vehicle Design: Aerodynamics, weight, and tire design all influence fuel
efficiency. HEVs are often designed with fuel efficiency in mind,
incorporating lightweight materials and low-resistance tires.
Battery Performance Parameters and Analysis
1.Energy Density and Specific Energy: Energy density (measured in Wh/L)
and specific energy (measured in Wh/kg) indicate the amount of energy a
battery can store relative to its volume and weight, respectively. High
energy density is crucial for applications like EVs, where space and weight
are constraints.
2.Power Density and Specific Power: Power density (measured in W/L) and
specific power (measured in W/kg) refer to how quickly a battery can deliver
power. Higher power density is essential for applications that require quick
bursts of energy, like acceleration in EVs.
3.Cycle Life: The cycle life measures how many complete charge-discharge
cycles a battery can undergo before its capacity significantly degrades. It’s
a critical factor for batteries in EVs and renewable energy storage, where
long life expectancy reduces costs and environmental impact.
3.State of Charge (SOC) and Depth of Discharge (DOD): SOC indicates the
remaining capacity in the battery, usually expressed as a percentage, while
DOD reflects the amount of energy used relative to total capacity. Effective
SOC management helps extend battery life.
4.Efficiency: Charge and discharge efficiency, often measured as round-trip
efficiency, indicates how much energy is retained after a full charge and
discharge cycle. High efficiency is crucial for minimizing energy losses.
5.Thermal Stability: Battery performance can vary significantly with
temperature. For example, lithium-ion batteries can overheat, risking
thermal runaway, while others might underperform in extreme cold. Thermal
analysis is vital for identifying and addressing issues that could affect
battery safety and longevity.
Hybridization of Energy Storage Devices
-Hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) combine two or more energy
storage technologies to leverage the strengths of each, mitigating their
individual weaknesses. This hybrid approach is often used in EVs,
renewable energy integration, and microgrids where both high energy
density and rapid power delivery are needed.
Examples of Hybrid Energy Storage Combinations
1.Battery + Supercapacitor:
-Applications: Electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, and grid
services.
-Advantages: Batteries provide high energy density, while supercapacitors
deliver high power density and can handle rapid charge/discharge cycles.
This combination allows batteries to handle energy storage and
supercapacitors to manage power peaks, improving battery life and system
efficiency.
-Challenges: Requires a sophisticated control system to manage the
charging/discharging of both devices efficiently.
2.Battery + Flywheel:
-Applications: Frequency regulation in power grids, EVs, and backup power
systems.
-Advantages: Batteries store large amounts of energy, while flywheels
handle fast power fluctuations and provide high power for short durations.
Flywheels help to reduce the stress on batteries during peak load events,
extending battery life.
-Challenges: Flywheels are limited in energy storage capacity and may
require maintenance due to mechanical components.
3.Battery + Hydrogen Fuel Cell:
-Applications: Long-range electric vehicles, off-grid energy storage, and
microgrids.
-Advantages: Batteries provide quick response and short-term storage,
while hydrogen fuel cells offer high energy density and long-term storage.
Fuel cells can generate power over extended durations, while batteries
handle peak loads and immediate energy needs.
-Challenges: Fuel cells are relatively costly, and hydrogen storage and
infrastructure are still under development in many areas.
4.Battery + Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES):
-Applications: Renewable energy systems, especially wind and solar farms.
-Advantages: Batteries provide immediate energy storage and dispatch,
while CAES offers high-capacity storage for longer durations. This
combination balances renewable energy intermittency with grid demands.
-Challenges: CAES requires significant infrastructure and geographical
conditions, making it challenging for small-scale or distributed applications.

main electric components involved

1.Battery Pack:Stores electrical energy to power the vehicle’s electric motor
2. Electric Motor: Converts electrical energy from the battery into
mechanical energy to drive the wheels
3.Power Electronics Converter (PEC): Manages power flow between the
battery, motor, and auxiliary systems
4. Onboard Charger (OBC): Converts AC power from an external source
(like a wall outlet) to DC to charge the vehicle’s battery.
5.Battery Management System (BMS): Monitors and manages the battery
pack to optimize performance, extend life, and ensure safety.
6.Thermal Management System: Regulates temperature for the battery,
electric motor, and power electronics to maintain efficiency and longevity.
7. Auxiliary Electric Systems: Powers non-driving components, such as
lighting, infotainment, and HVAC systems.
i) Flywheel Energy Storage
-Flywheels store energy in the form of rotational kinetic energy. They
provide high power density, fast response times, and long cycle life, making
them suitable for short-term energy storage needs and grid frequency
regulation. Flywheels also offer excellent durability with minimal
degradation over time.
-Principle:An electric motor spins the rotor to a high velocity to charge the
flywheel.
-During discharge, the motor acts as a generator, converting the rotational
energy into electricity.
-Power electronics are used to ensure that output voltage has appropriate
voltage and frequency characteristics
Pros:
-High power density -High cycle life -Quick recharge Independent
-power and Energy sizing(Bulk Storage)
Cons: -Low energy density
-Large standby losses -Potentially dangerous failure modes
ii) Super Capacitors
-Known for high power density and rapid charge/discharge cycles,
supercapacitors are ideal for applications needing quick energy bursts.
While their energy density is lower than that of batteries, they excel in
applications such as regenerative braking in EVs and load leveling in power
grids.
-As with flywheels, capacitors can provide large energy storage, although
they are more normally used in small sizes as components in electronic
circuits. The large energy storing capacitors with large plate areas have
come to be called super capacitors.
The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the equation: E=1/2CV^2
where E is the energy stored in Joules. The capacitance C of a capacitor in
Farads will be given by the equation: C=eA/d
where ε is the is the permittivity of the material between the plates, A is the
plate area and d is the separation of the plates.
iv) Hydrogen Fuel Cell
-Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging.
They produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.
Pros:
Batteries for electronics such as laptops and smart phones
Sources for uninterruptable power supplies.
Cons:
High cost and difficult to store
Highly flammable

At the anode of an acid electrolyte fuel cell the hydrogen gas ionizes,
releasing electrons and creating H+ ions (or protons).
2H2→4H+ + 4e-
This reaction releases energy. At the cathode, oxygen reacts with electrons
taken from the electrode, and H+ ions from the electrolyte, to form water.
O2 + 4e- +4h- →2H2O
Clearly, for both these reactions to proceed continuously, electrons
produced at the anode must pass through an electrical circuit to the
cathode.
Also, H+ ions must pass through the electrolyte.
An acid is a fluid with free H+ ions, and so serves this purpose very well.
Certain polymers can also be made to contain mobile H+ ions.
description of vehicle movement
-The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analyzing the forces
acting on it in the direction of motion. The forces acting on a vehicle,
moving up a grade, are shown in Figure.
-The tractive force (Ft) in the contact area between the tires of the driven
wheels and the road surface propels the vehicle forward.
-The tractive force (Ft) is produced by the power plant and transferred to
the driving wheels via the transmission and the final drive.
-When the vehicle moves, it encounters a resistive force that tries to retard
its motion. The resistive forces are
-Rolling resistance
-Aerodynamic drag
-Grading resistance
-Acceleration resistance
Rolling resistance
-The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis in the
tire material.
-a tire at a standstill. On this tire, a force (P) acts at its center. The pressure
in the contact area between the tire and the ground is distributed
symmetrically to the center line, and the resulting reaction force (Pz) is
aligned along P.
-When the tire rolls, the leading half of the contact area is loading and the
trailing half is unloading.
-Thus, the pressure on the leading half is greater than the pressure on the
trailing half.
-This phenomenon results in the ground reaction force shifting forward.
-The shift in the ground reaction force creates a moment that opposes
rolling of the wheels.
-The moment produced by forward shift of the resultant ground reaction
force is called rolling resistance moment and can expressed as
Tr=Pa=Mga
Tr=rolling resis,P=normal load acting on centre of rolling wheel
M=mass of vehicle g ,a=deformation of tyre
-To keeps the wheel rolling, a force Fr, acting on the centre of the wheel is
required to balance this rolling resistant moment. This force is expressed as
Fr=Tr/rdyn=Pa/rdyn=pfr
When a vehicle is moving up a gradient, the normal force (P), in equation is
replaced by the component that is perpendicular to the road surface.
Hence, equation is rewritten as Fr=pfrcosa=Mgfrcosa

Grading resistance
Fg=Mgsina

Acceleration resistance
Fa=(lam)Mdv/dt
lam=rotational inertia constant
Aerodynamic drag
-A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting
its motion. This force is known as aerodynamic drag. The main causes of
aerodynamic drag are:
Shape drag
-The shape drag is due to the shape of the vehicle.
- The forward motion of the vehicle pushes the air in front of it.
- However, the air cannot instantaneously move out of the way and its
pressure is thus increased. This results in high air pressure in the front of
the vehicle.
-The air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the
forward motion of the vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure.
-Hence, the motion of the vehicle creates two zones of pressure.
-The high pressure zone in the front of the vehicle opposes its movement
by pushing. On the other hand, the low pressure zone developed at the rear
of the vehicle opposes its motion by pulling it backwards.
Skin effect
-The air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the
vehicle while the air away from the vehicle remains still.
-Between these two layers (the air layer moving at the vehicle speed and
the static layer) the molecules move at a wide range of speeds.
-The difference in speed between two air molecules produces friction.
-This friction results in the second component of aerodynamic drag and it is
known as skin effect.
Fw=1/2pAfCdv^2
p=density of air
Af=vehicle frontal area
v=vehicle speed
Cd=drag coff
Total driving resistance
The traction force (Ft) required at the drive wheels is made up of the driving
resistance forces and is defined as Fresistance=Fr+Fw+Fg+Fa
Substituting the values of all the forces in above equation, gives
mathematical model
Fresistance=Mgf(r)cosa + ½(p)A(f)C(d)v^2+Mgsina+(lam)Mdv/dt
The above equation may be used to calculate the power required (Preq):
Preq=Fresistance*v

Limiting factors for maximum tractive effort

There are two limiting factors to the maximum tractive effort of the vehicle:
-Maximum tractive effort that the tire-ground contact can support
-Tractive effort that the maximum torque of the power plant can produce
with the given driveline gear ratios.
The smaller of these factors will determine the performance potential of the
vehicle. Usually it is the second factor that limits the vehicles performance.

Drive train Configuration

-The torque and rotating speed from the output shaft of the power plant are
transmitted to the driven wheels through the clutch or torque converter,
gearbox, final drive, differential and drive shaft.
-The clutch is used in manual transmission to couple or decouple the
gearbox to the power plant.
-The torque converter in an automatic transmission is hydrodynamic device,
functioning as the clutch in manual transmission with a continuously
variable gear ratio.
-The gearbox supplies a few gear ratios from its input shaft to its output
shaft for the power plant torque-speed profile to match the requirements of
the load.
-The final drive is usually a pair of gears that supply a further speed
reduction and distribute the torque to each wheel through the differential.
Mathematical model to describe Vehicle performance
Maximum Cruising Speed
-The maximum speed of a vehicle is defined as the constant cruising speed
that the vehicle can achieve with full power plant load on a flat road.
-The maximum speed of a vehicle is determined by the equilibrium between
the tractive effort of the vehicle and the resistance (or) maximum speed of
the power plant and gear ratios of the transmission.
This equilibrium is:T(p)i(g)i(o)n(t)=Mgf(r)cosa + 1/2pAfCdv^2
ig=gear ratio of transmission
io=gear ratio of final drive
nt=efficiency of driveline from the power plant to wheels
Tp=torque o/p of power plant
Gradeability
-Gradeability is defined as the grade angle that the vehicle can negotiate at
a certain constant speed.
-For heavy commercial vehicles the gradeability is usually defined as the
maximum grade angle that the vehicle can overcome in the whole speed
range.
-When the vehicle is driving on a road with relatively small grade and
constant speed, the tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can be
expressed as T(p)i(g)i(o)n(t)/rdyn=Mgf(r)cosa + 1/2pAfCdv^2 +Mgi
i=(T(p)i(g)i(o)n(t)/rdyn - Mgf(r) - 1/2pAfCdv^2)/Mg = d-fr
Where , d=(T(p)i(g)i(o)n(t)/rdyn - 1/2pAfCdv^2)/Mg
Acceleration Performance
-The acceleration of a vehicle is defined by its acceleration time and
distance covered from zero speed to a certain high speed on a level
ground.
a=dv/dt=(T(p)i(g)i(o)n(t)/rdyn - Mgf(r) - 1/2pAfCdv^2)/M(del)=g(d-fr)/(Del)
where del is the rotational inertia factor taking into account the equivalent
mass increase due to the angular moments of the rotating components.
This mass factor can be written as del= 1+Iw/Mrdyn^2+io2ig2Ip/Mr2
Iw=total angular inertial moment of the wheels Ip=rotating components
IMPACT OF MODERN DRIVE TRAINS ON ENERGY SUPPLIES
Advantages
-Regenerative Braking:
A hybrid vehicle captures energy typically lost as heat during braking by
using its electric motor in generator mode, converting it into electricity to
recharge the battery.
-More Efficient ICE Operation:
The ICE runs only at its most efficient speed and load. When the vehicle is
stopped, the engine shuts off, and the storage device powers auxiliary
systems (e.g., lights, heating). Alternatively, the ICE can operate at a
higher-than-idle efficient power to recharge the battery. The drivetrain
allows rapid engine restarts using the motor's high starting torque.
-Smaller ICE:
The ICE is downsized, designed to handle continuous loads rather than
short-term high loads. This improves overall efficiency by enabling the ICE
to operate closer to its optimal power range during most driving conditions.

challenges:
1.Higher Weight: Hybrids often weigh more than conventional vehicles due
to components like batteries, electric motors, and supporting systems.
While their fuel-driven energy sources are smaller and lighter, the added
weight from these components can diminish efficiency, depending on the
storage mechanism and performance needs.
2.Electrical Losses: Energy losses occur due to bidirectional energy flows
within hybrid drivetrains. Electric motors, like internal combustion engines
(ICEs), are less efficient at low speeds and light loads, common in city
driving. Without careful component design and control strategies, these
losses can erode the theoretical efficiency gains.