MODULE 2: COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT

The basic components of the environment are atmosphere or the air, lithosphere
or the rocks and soil, hydrosphere or the water, and the living component of the
environment or the biosphere.
Atmosphere
• the thick gaseous layer surrounding the earth.
• It spreads up to 300 km. above the earth’s surface.

Apart from gases there are water vapor, industrial gases, dust and smoke particles in
suspended state, microorganism etc.
Lithosphere
• The word lithosphere originated from a Greek word mean "rocky" + "sphere” i.e.
the solid outmost shield of the rocky planet. The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is
composed of a number of different layers. These layers are:
o The Core which is around 7000 kilometers in diameter (3500 kilometers in
radius) and is situated at the Earth's center.
o The Mantle which environs the core and has a thickness of 2900 kilometers.
The Crust floats on top of the mantle and is composed of basalt rich oceanic
crust and granitic rich continental crust.
Hydrosphere
• The hydrosphere includes all water on or near earth surface and includes oceans,
lakes, rivers, wetlands, icecaps, clouds, soils, rock layers beneath surface etc.
Water exist in all three states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapor)
o 71%of planet surface is covered with water
o Freshwater- 2.53%
o Freshwater in glaciers-1.74%
o Water as water vapour in atmosphere- 12,900 km3
o living organism contain- 1100 km3

Since the environment includes both physical and biological concept, it embraces both
the abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) components of planet earth. Thus, on account
of basic structure the components of environment may be classified into two basic types:
 Fig. 1 Components of Environment.

Abiotic Components (Non-Living)

• these are the most important determining factor of where and how well an
organism exists in the environment. Although these factors interact with each
other, one single factor can limit the range of an organism thus acting as the
limiting factor. These factors can be categorised into following groups:
Physical Factors
• the major components are temperature, Water (Rainfall), Light (Energy), Soil,
Atmospheric pressure.
Temperature
• Temperature is the most ecologically germane environmental factor. It’s a very
well-known and an established fact that the average temperature on land varies
seasonally, decreasing progressively from the equator towards the poles and from
plains to the top of mountains ranging from sub-zero levels to >50˚C in polar
 areas/high altitudes and tropical deserts in summer respectively.
• There are, however, unique habitats like thermal springs and deep-sea
hydrothermal vents where average temperatures exceed 100˚C. It is commonly
known fact that mango trees do not and cannot grow in temperate countries like
Canada and Germany, snow leopards are not found in Kerala forests and tuna fish
are rarely caught beyond tropical latitudes in the ocean.
• A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures without
having effect on their internal environment (they are called eurythermal), but, a
vast majority of them operate within a narrow range of temperatures (such
organisms are called stenothermal).
Water (Rainfall)
• Subsequent to temperature, water is another most important factor influencing
the life of organisms. In fact, genesis of life on earth is attributed to water without
which life is unsustainable. Its availability is too scarce in deserts. Due to this
scarcity only special adaptations by plants and animals of this region make it
possible to survive there in such an unusual living condition. The productivity and
distribution of plants is also profoundly dependent on water.
• One might believe that organisms living in oceans, lakes, rivers and other water
bodies should not face any water-related problems, but it doesn’t hold true. For
aquatic organisms the quality (chemical composition, pH) of water becomes
crucial and one of the most determining factor for their survival. The saline
concentration (measured as salinity in parts per thousand), is less than 5 % in inland
waters, 30-35 % in the sea and >100 % in some hypersaline lagoons. Some organisms
are tolerant to a wide range of salinity (referred as euryhaline) while others are
restricted to a much narrow range of salinity (referred as stenohaline). Many
freshwater animals cannot survive for long in sea water and vice versa because of
the osmotic problems which would subsequently lead to their death.
Light (Energy)
• One can quickly and easily understand the importance of light/energy for living
organisms, particularly autotrophs since they produce/manufacture food through
photosynthesis, a specialised process which is only possible with the availability of
sunlight as a source of energy. Many plants are also dependent on sunlight to meet
their photoperiodic requirement for flowering.
• For many animals too, light is essential as they use the diurnal and seasonal
variations in light intensity and duration (photoperiod) as cues for timing their
searching food, reproductive and migratory activities. The availability of light on
 land is in close association with that of temperature since the sun is the source for
both. But, deep (>500m) in the oceans, the environment is perpetually dark and
its inhabitants are unaware of the existence of a celestial source of energy called
Sun.
Soil
• The nature and properties of soil in various places vary to a great extent depending
upon the climate which includes temperature and humidity, the weathering
process, whether soil is transported or sedimentary and how soil development
occurred. Various physical characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain
size and aggregation determine the percolation and water holding capacity of the
soil. These features along with chemical parameters such as pH, mineral
composition and also topography determine to a large extent the vegetation in any
area. This in turn indicates or rather determines the type of animals that can be
supported on a particular soil area. Similarly, in an aquatic environment, the
sediment-characteristics often determine the type of benthic animals that can
thrive there optimally.
Responses To Change In Abiotic Factors
• Abiotic conditions of many habitats may vary drastically in time, which raises an
essential question –how do the organisms living in such changing habitats adapt
themselves with stressful conditions? But, prior to delving into answering this
inevitable question, one should perhaps ask first why a highly variable and ever
changing external environment should create an inconvenience to an organism
after all. One would expect that during the course of millions of years of their
existence, many species would have evolved a relatively constant internal (within
the body) environment that enables all biochemical reactions and physiological
functions to progress with maximal efficiency and thus, enhance the overall
‘fitness’ of the species.
Regulate
• Some organisms are able to achieve and stabilize homeostasis by physiological
(sometimes behavioural also) means which ensures constant body temperature,
constant osmotic concentration, etc. All birds and mammals, and a very few lower
vertebrate and invertebrate species are indeed capable of such regulation
(thermoregulation and osmoregulation).
• Evolutionary biologists are of the opinion that the mammalian success is largely
owing to their ability to adhere to a constant body temperature and thrive
successfully whether they live in frigid Antarctica or in the blazing Sahara Desert.
 The mechanisms used by most mammals to regulate or stabilise their body
temperature are similar to those of human beings.
• We, the humans, maintain a constant body temperature of 37˚C. In summer, when
external temperature is more than our body temperature, we sweat profusely
resulting in evaporation which leads to external body cooling thus lowering the
overall body temperature. Likewise, in winter when the temperature is much lower
than 37˚C, we start to shiver, leading to heat generation and thus raising the body
temperature and thereby maintaining homeostasis around 37˚C. Plants, on the
other hand, do not possess such mechanisms to maintain internal temperatures and
are thus unable to regulate homeostasis.
Conform
• In literal English term it means to obey or agree to something. An overwhelming
majority (99%) of animals and nearly all plants are unable to maintain a constant
internal environment, thus inefficient in maintaining homeostasis. Their body
temperature varies with the ambient temperature, rise with increasing
temperature and fall with decreasing temperature most of the times. In aquatic
animals, the osmotic concentrations of the body fluids change with that of the
ambient water osmolality which itself depends upon the salinity of the surrounding
water. Such animals and plants are simply conformers, meaning thereby that they
just agree to the surrounding conditions rather than adopting any mechanism to
stabilize their internal environment.
Migrate
• The organisms can shift away temporarily from the stressful habitat to a more
hospitable area and return when stressful period is over. In human analogy, this
strategy is like a person moving from Delhi to Shimla for the duration of summer
to avoid the stressful conditions of severe heat and return back to Delhi when
temperature is more comfortable. Likewise, many animals, particularly birds,
during winter undertake long-distance migrations to more hospitable areas and
avoid the frigid conditions of their true environment. Every winter the famed
Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan host thousands of migratory birds
coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions which become
temporarily inhospitable for them. Thus migration is a form of temporary shift of
organism from its true habitat to an ecologically friendlier habitat due to more
stressful conditions of true habitat.
Suspend
• In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various types of thick walled spores are formed
 which help them to survive unfavourable/extreme conditions – which subsequently
germinate on availability of suitable environment. In higher plants, seeds and some
other vegetative reproductive structures serve as means to resist the periods of
stress besides helping in its dispersal – they germinate to form new plants under
favorable moisture and temperature conditions. They do so by reducing their
metabolic activity and going into a stage of ‘dormancy’.
• In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the stress by escaping
in time through the two phenomenon. The familiar case of bears going into
hibernation during winter is an example of escape in time to avoid extreme of cold.
• Some snails and fish go into aestivation (a state of animal dormancy characterized
by inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate) to avoid extreme summer heat and
desiccation. Similarly, under unfavorable conditions many zooplankton species in
lakes and ponds are known to enter diapause, (a stage of suspended/deferred
development). Diapause, when referencing animal dormancy, is the delay in
development in response to regularly and recurring periods of adverse
environmental conditions
Inorganic And Organic Substances: Water, Oxygen, Carbon,
• Nitrogen, Sulphur, Nitrates, Phosphates and ions of various metals etc. are
inorganic substances essential for organisms to survive while proteins,
Carbohydrates, Lipids etc. are essential Organic substances:
Biotic Components (Living)
• It consists of the living parts of the environment, including the association of a lot
of interrelated populations that belong to different species inhabiting a common
environment. The populations are those of the animal community, the plant
community and the microbial community.

Fig. 2 Components of biotic community.

The biotic community is divided into:
• Autotrophs,
• Saprotrophs, and
• Heterotrophs

Autotrophs
• (derive from Greek word: auto - self, trophos - feeder) are called producers,
transducers or convertors, as well. Those are photosynthetic plants, normally
chlorophyll bearing, which synthesize a high-energy complex organic compound
(food) from the inorganic raw materials utilizing the aid of the sun, and this process
is called photosynthesis.
• Autotrophs form the core of all biotic systems. In terrestrial ecosystems,
autotrophs are usually rooted plants. In the aquatic ecosystems, the floating plants
referred to as phytoplankton and the shallow water rooted plants – macrophytes -
are the main producers.
Heterotrophs
• (from Greek: heteros - other; trophs - feeder) are the consumers, normally animals
that feed on the other organisms. Consumers are also referred to as phagotrophs
(phago - to swallow or ingest) while macroconsumers are normally herbivores and
carnivores. Herbivores are called First order or primary consumers, for they feed
directly on green plants. For example, Terrestrial ecosystem consumers are cattle,
deer, grass hopper, rabbit, etc. Aquatic ecosystem consumers are protozoans,
crustaceans, etc.
• Carnivores are animals that prey or feed on other animals. Second order consumers
or Primary carnivores include those animals that feed on herbivorous animals. For
example, fox, frog, smaller fishes, predatory birds, snakes, etc.
• Third order consumers or Secondary carnivores are the animals that feed on
primary carnivores. For example, wolf, owl, peacock, etc. Some larger carnivores
prey on Secondary carnivores. Quaternary consumers or Tertiary carnivores include
those animals which feed upon secondary carnivores. For example, the lion, the
tiger, etc. Those are not eated by any other animal. The larger carnivores which
cannot be preyed on further are also called the top carnivores.
Saprotrophs
• (from Greek again: sapros - rotten; trophos - feeder) are called the reducers or
decomposers or osmotrophs. They break the complex organic compounds in dead
matter down (dead plants and animals). Decomposers don’t ingest the food.
 Instead they secrete a digestive enzyme into the dead, decaying plant or animal
remains and digest this organic material. The enzymes act on the complex organic
compounds in the dead matter. Decomposers absorb a bit of the decomposition
products to provide themselves with nourishment. The remaining substance is
added as minerals in the process of mineralisation to the substratum. Released
minerals are utilised or reused as nutrients by plants - the producers.

Reference

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY. (n.d.). UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, DR. SHYMA

PRASAD MUKHERJEE UNIVERSITY, RANCHI.
https://dspmuranchi.ac.in/pdf/Blog/satyapriya52dspmucomS12.pdf