Scientific  and  Engineering  Practices  

 
1.  Asking  Questions  and  Defining  Problems  
Science  begins  with  a  question  about  a  phenomenon,  such  as   Engineering  begins  with  a  problem,  need,  or  desire  that  suggests  
“Why  is  the  sky  blue?”  or  “What  causes  cancer?”  and  seeks  to   an  engineering  problem  that  needs  to  be  solved.  A  societal  
develop  theories  that  can  provide  explanatory  answers  to  such   problem  such  as  reducing  the  nation’s  dependence  on  fossil  
questions.  A  basic  practice  of  the  scientist  is  formulating   fuels  may  engender  a  variety  of  engineering  problems,  such  as  
empirically  answerable  questions  about  phenomena,   designing  more  efficient  transportation  systems,  or  alternative  
establishing  what  is  already  known,  and  determining  what   power  generation  devices  such  as  improved  solar  cells.  
questions  have  yet  to  be  satisfactorily  answered.   Engineers  ask  questions  to  define  the  engineering  problem,  
determine  criteria  for  a  successful  solution,  and  identify  
constraints.  
 
2.  Developing  and  Using  Models  
Science  often  involves  the  construction  and  use  of  a  wide  variety   Engineering  makes  use  of  models  and  simulations  to  analyze  
of  models  and  simulations  to  help  develop  explanations  about   existing  systems  so  as  to  see  where  flaws  might  occur  or  to  test  
natural  phenomena.  Models  make  it  possible  to  go  beyond   possible  solutions  to  a  new  problem.  Engineers  also  call  on  
observables  and  imagine  a  world  not  yet  seen.  Models  enable   models  of  various  sorts  to  test  proposed  systems  and  to  
predictions  of  the  form  “if  .  .  .  then  .  .  .  therefore”  to  be  made  in   recognize  the  strengths  and  limitations  of  their  designs.  
order  to  test  hypothetical  explanations.  

 
3.  Planning  and  Carrying  Out  Investigations  
Scientific  investigation  may  be  conducted  in  the  field  or  the   Engineers  use  investigation  both  to  gain  data  essential  for  
laboratory.  A  major  practice  of  scientists  is  planning  and  carrying   specifying  design  criteria  or  parameters  and  to  test  their  designs.  
out  a  systematic  investigation,  which  requires  the  identification   Like  scientists,  engineers  must  identify  relevant  variables,  decide  
of  what  is  to  be  recorded  and,  if  applicable,  what  are  to  be   how  they  will  be  measured,  and  collect  data  for  analysis.  Their  
treated  as  the  dependent  and  independent  variables  (control  of   investigations  help  them  to  identify  how  effective,  efficient,  and  
variables).  Observations  and  data  collected  from  such  work  are   durable  their  designs  may  be  under  a  range  of  conditions.  
used  to  test  existing  theories  and  explanations  or  to  revise  and  
develop  new  ones.  
 
4.  Analyzing  and  Interpreting  Data  
Scientific  investigations  produce  data  that  must  be  analyzed  in   Engineers  analyze  data  collected  in  the  tests  of  their  designs  and  
order  to  derive  meaning.  Because  data  usually  do  not  speak  for   investigations;  this  allows  them  to  compare  different  solutions  
themselves,  scientists  use  a  range  of  tools—including  tabulation,   and  determine  how  well  each  one  meets  specific  design  
graphical  interpretation,  visualization,  and  statistical  analysis— criteria—that  is,  which  design  best  solves  the  problem  within  
to  identify  the  significant  features  and  patterns  in  the  data.   the  given  constraints.  Like  scientists,  engineers  require  a  range  
Sources  of  error  are  identified  and  the  degree  of  certainty   of  tools  to  identify  the  major  patterns  and  interpret  the  results.  
calculated.  Modern  technology  makes  the  collection  of  large  
data  sets  much  easier,  thus  providing  many  secondary  sources  
for  analysis.  
 
 
 

 
  
Scientific  and  Engineering  Practices  
 
5.  Using  Mathematics  and  Conceptual  Thinking  
In  science,  mathematics  and  computation  are  fundamental  tools   In  engineering,  mathematical  and  computational  
for  representing  physical  variables  and  their  relationships.  They   representations  of  established  relationships  and  principles  are  
are  used  for  a  range  of  tasks,  such  as  constructing  simulations,   an  integral  part  of  design.  For  example,  structural  engineers  
statistically  analyzing  data,  and  recognizing,  expressing,  and   create  mathematically  based  analyses  of  designs  to  calculate  
applying  quantitative  relationships.  Mathematical  and   whether  they  can  stand  up  to  the  expected  stresses  of  use  and  if  
computational  approaches  enable  predictions  of  the  behavior  of   they  can  be  completed  within  acceptable  budgets.  Moreover,  
physical  systems,  along  with  the  testing  of  such  predictions.   simulations  of  designs  provide  an  effective  test  bed  for  the  
Moreover,  statistical  techniques  are  invaluable  for  assessing  the   development  of  designs  and  their  improvement.  
significance  of  patterns  or  correlations.  
 
6.  Constructing  Explanations  and  Designing  Solutions  
The  goal  of  science  is  the  construction  of  theories  that  can   Engineering  design,  a  systematic  process  for  solving  engineering  
provide  explanatory  accounts  of  features  of  the  world.  A  theory   problems,  is  based  on  scientific  knowledge  and  models  of  the  
becomes  accepted  when  it  has  been  shown  to  be  superior  to   material  world.  Each  proposed  solution  results  from  a  process  of  
other  explanations  in  the  breadth  of  phenomena  it  accounts  for   balancing  competing  criteria  of  desired  functions,  technological  
and  in  its  explanatory  coherence  and  parsimony.  Scientific   feasibility,  cost,  safety,  esthetics,  and  compliance  with  legal  
explanations  are  explicit  applications  of  theory  to  a  specific   requirements.  There  is  usually  no  single  best  solution  but  rather  
situation  or  phenomenon,  perhaps  with  the  intermediary  of  a   a  range  of  solutions.  Which  one  is  the  optimal  choice  depends  
theory-­‐based  model  for  the  system  under  study.  The  goal  for   on  the  criteria  used  for  making  evaluations.  
students  is  to  construct  logically  coherent  explanations  of  
phenomena  that  incorporate  their  current  understanding  of  
science,  or  a  model  that  represents  it,  and  are  consistent  with  
the  available  evidence.  
 
7.  Engaging  in  Argument  from  Evidence  
In  science,  reasoning  and  argument  are  essential  for  identifying   In  engineering,  reasoning  and  argument  are  essential  for  finding  
the  strengths  and  weaknesses  of  a  line  of  reasoning  and  for   the  best  possible  solution  to  a  problem.  Engineers  collaborate  
finding  the  best  explanation  for  a  natural  phenomenon.   with  their  peers  throughout  the  design  process,  with  a  critical  
Scientists  must  defend  their  explanations,  formulate  evidence   stage  being  the  selection  of  the  most  promising  solution  among  
based  on  a  solid  foundation  of  data,  examine  their  own   a  field  of  competing  ideas.  Engineers  use  systematic  methods  to  
understanding  in  light  of  the  evidence  and  comments  offered  by   compare  alternatives,  formulate  evidence  based  on  test  data,  
others,  and  collaborate  with  peers  in  searching  for  the  best   make  arguments  from  evidence  to  defend  their  conclusions,  
explanation  for  the  phenomenon  being  investigated.   evaluate  critically  the  ideas  of  others,  and  revise  their  designs  in  
order  to  achieve  the  best  solution  to  the  problem  at  hand.  
 
8.  Obtaining,  Evaluating,  and  Communicating  Information  
Science  cannot  advance  if  scientists  are  unable  to  communicate   Engineers  cannot  produce  new  or  improved  technologies  if  the  
their  findings  clearly  and  persuasively  or  to  learn  about  the   advantages  of  their  designs  are  not  communicated  clearly  and  
findings  of  others.  A  major  practice  of  science  is  thus  the   persuasively.  Engineers  need  to  be  able  to  express  their  ideas,  
communication  of  ideas  and  the  results  of  inquiry—orally,  in   orally  and  in  writing,  with  the  use  of  tables,  graphs,  drawings,  or  
writing,  with  the  use  of  tables,  diagrams,  graphs,  and  equations,   models  and  by  engaging  in  extended  discussions  with  peers.  
and  by  engaging  in  extended  discussions  with  scientific  peers.   Moreover,  as  with  scientists,  they  need  to  be  able  to  derive  
Science  requires  the  ability  to  derive  meaning  from  scientific   meaning  from  colleagues’  texts,  evaluate  the  information,  and  
texts  (such  as  papers,  the  Internet,  symposia,  and  lectures),  to   apply  it  usefully.  In  engineering  and  science  alike,  new  
evaluate  the  scientific  validity  of  the  information  thus  acquired,   technologies  are  now  routinely  available  that  extend  the  
and  to  integrate  that  information.   possibilities  for  collaboration  and  communication.