Chapter 3.

How do organisms
Reproduce?

What is Reproduction?
Reproduction is a biological process by which an organism
reproduces an offspring that is biologically similar to the organism.
Reproduction enables and ensures the continuity of species,
generation after generation.

Types of Reproduction:
There are basically two types of reproduction:

1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction:
“Asexual reproduction refers to the type of reproduction in
which only a single organism gives rise to a new individual
without the formation of gametes.”

Asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of gametes, and

therefore, the off springs produced are genetically identical to the
parent

This type of reproduction is practiced widely by unicellular organisms.

The process involves rapid population growth

However, a lack of genetic diversity makes organisms more

susceptible to diseases and nutrition deficiencies.
Asexual reproduction is further divided into:

1. Fission
2. Budding
3. Fragmentation
4. Sporogenesis

1. Fission
Fission is a type of asexual reproduction in which a unicellular
organism splits into two or more daughter cells:
It is the simplest method of asexual reproduction in unicellular
organisms.
Where a fully grown parent organism divides into two or more new
individuals

When the fission results in two daughter cells, it is binary fission (e.g.
paramecium).

When fission results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple fission (e.g.
Plasmodium).

Planes of fission may be different for different organisms.

2. Budding
  Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small bud-
like structure is formed on the parent’s body, which gives rise to a
new individual.
 Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and
become a new individual (hydra).

3. Regeneration and Fragmentation

 Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part
by the organism (e.g. lizard).
Difference Between Fragmentation and Regeneration

Fragmentation Regeneration

Organisms that are fragmented result in Regeneration occurs when an organism

each fragment growing into an individual only regrows a lost limb or any other part of
organism the body.

A new individual emerges from each No new organisms are formed

fragment
Only a few organisms can fragment and All organisms exhibit the ability to
form new individuals regenerate (Only to some degree)

Fragmentation is observed in organisms Lizards can regenerate their amputated tails

such as flatworms and sponges

 Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented

into smaller pieces, and each piece grows into a whole new organism.
 E.g. Planaria, Hydra

4. Spore Formation
Spore formation is a type of asexual reproduction where
single-celled reproductive cells called spores are produced.
Spores are produced in sacs called sporangia. They are covered by a
thick outer layer that protects them in adverse conditions.
When spores get suitable environmental conditions, they germinate
and begin to grow, the spores are released into the air, water, or on
insects.

Organisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into completely
new individuals when dispersed from their fruiting bodies.

Spore formation in fungi

 5. Vegetative Propagation:
Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in
plants where new plants grow from parts of the parent plant,

 The vegetative parts of the plant, like leaves, stems, and roots,
give rise to a new plant.
 Vegetative propagation can be artificial or natural.
 Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g.
bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.
grass runners, strawberry), bulbs (e.g. onion, lily), etc.
 Artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue
culture.

Natural vegetative propagation:

• By roots: Example: dahlias, sweet potato.

• By stem: Example: potato, ginger.

• By leaves: Example: bryophyllum (leaf notches bear buds

which develop into plants).

Artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant

tissue culture.
 (i) Grafting: Example: Mango

(ii) Cutting: Example: Rose

(iii) Layering: Example: Jasmine

(iv) Tissue culture: New plants are grown by using growing tip
of a plant.

Example: ornamental plants, orchid.

Benefits of tissue culture

→ We can grow plants like banana, rose, jasmine etc. that have
lost the capacity to produce seeds.
→ New plants are genetically similar to parents.
→ Helps in growing seedless fruits.

Sexual Reproduction:

Sexual reproduction is a natural process that involves two

individuals of different sexes to produce offspring:
Some characteristics of sexual reproduction include:
 Involves two parents: Sexual reproduction requires two parents, one
male and one female.
 Uses gametes: Gametes are formed by reductional division, which
means they contain half the number of chromosomes from the
parent.
 Fertilization: During fertilization, gametes fuse to form a zygote.
 Genetic recombination: When gametes from different parents’ fuse,
genetic recombination occurs due to the differences.
 Slower than asexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction is generally
slower than asexual reproduction.
 Variation: Sexual reproduction is responsible for variation in the next
generation.
 Important for evolution: Sexual reproduction plays an important role
in the process of evolution and adaptation.

More common in higher organisms: Higher organisms are more

likely to have sexual reproduction than prokaryotes

Reproduction in Plants
Plants reproduce by both asexual and sexual methods.

Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants:

In angiosperms or flowering plants, the flower is the reproductive
organ.
They bear flowers, fruit-covered seeds and reproduces via double
fertilization.
The sporophyte stage dominates their life cycle.

Their Reproductive Structure and Parts:

A typical flower bears four main parts or whorls: sepal,

petal, stamen, and corolla.
Among these, stamen and carpel are called the male and female
reproductive organs of the plant, whereas sepal and petal are the
accessory parts.
1) Sepal – It is usually green in color and protects the
flower bud. Sepals are collectively called calyx.
2) Petal – As it is usually brightly colored, it attracts the pollinators
for pollination. Collection of petals is called corolla.
3) Stamen – It consists of anthers and filaments. Anthers are
bilobed structures containing microsporangia, that produce
microspores, which develop into male gametophytes or pollen.
Filaments are supporting structures connecting the anthers to the
flower base. Several stamens are collectively called androecium.
4) Carpel – It consists of stigma, style, and ovary. The ovaries
comprise the megasporangia that produce the megaspores,
which develop into female gametophytes or embryo sac.
The stigma is the site of pollen deposition by wind or pollinators.
The style is the long tube connecting the stigma to the ovary. A
collection of carpels is termed as gynoecium.

Parts of a Flower Diagram

Process of Reproduction

In flowering plants, reproduction occurs in two

steps: Pollination and fertilization

1. Pollination
“Pollination is the deposition or transfer of pollen
from anther to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower.”

Depending on the pollen source, pollination can

be of two types:

i. Self-Pollination: It happens when the pollen gets

deposited from anther to the stigma of the same flower
(autogamy) or another (geitonogamy) of the same plant.
In this case both the stamen and carpel mature at the same time,
hence self-pollination occurs. Ex. wheat, rice, pea etc.

Advantages of self-pollination:

1. Less chance of failure of pollination

2. Purity of the race is maintained.
3. Less wastage of pollen grains

Disadvantages:

1.Continuation of self-pollination results in weaker progeny

2. This process produces plants with less genetic diversity

ii. Cross-pollination: It is the transfer of pollen from the

anther of one plant to the stigma of another plant (xenogamy)
with the help of pollinating agents like water, air, and insects.
Unlike self-pollination, it leads to greater genetic diversity as it
derives the microgametophyte ( female gamete producing
structure ) and megagametophyte ( male gamete producing
structure ) from different plants.

Advantages of cross pollination:

1. cross-pollination offers genetic diversity,
2. The developed progeny is stronger and healthier

3. Seeds store greater quantity of food substances.

4. Fruits produced are bigger in size and better in quality .

2. Fertilization
“Fertilization is the process by which male and
female gametes are fused together to form zygote,
initiating the development of a new organism.”

The male gamete or ’sperm’, and the female

gamete, ’egg’ or ’ovum’ are specialized sex cells, which
fuse together to begin the formation of a zygote during a
process called sexual reproduction.

Mechanism of fertilization:
After the pollen grain gets deposited on the stigma, it enters the
style and triggers a series of events, eventually leading to double
fertilization.

This is the most important stage of sexual reproduction, as it

leads to the formation of seeds, which give rise to new plants.
Reproduction in Plants:

The process is as follows:

i. After the pollen gets deposited on the stigma, they form tubes
called pollen tube.

ii. The pollen tube grows down the style and reaches the ovary
where it enters the ovule.

iii. The nucleus of the pollen grain travels down the pollen tube
and enters the ovule.

iv. Here it combines with the nucleus of the egg cell. Fertilization
takes place Each ovule in an ovary needs to be fertilised by a
separate pollen grain

Formation of fruits and seeds

 1.After the fertilization the zygote divides
many times and produces an embryo within
the ovule
2.The ovule develops a tough coat around it
which gradually convert into seeds.
3.The ovary of the flower grows rapidly and
ripens to form a fruit.
4.4. Meanwhile the other parts of the flower,
like petals, sepals, stamens, style and
stigma fall off and only the ovary is left
behind .
5. The ovary is now called fruit.

II. Reproduction in Human:

The Reproductive System:

In humans. Testes are the main reproductive structure in males where
sperms (male gametes) are produced, and ovum (female gamete) is
produced inside the ovary.

Male Reproductive System:

Male reproductive system consists of:
 1 pair of testes
 A system of ducts
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens or the sperm duct
 Urethra

 A system of glands
 Seminal vesicles
 Prostrate gland
 Cowper’s gland
 A copulatory organ called a penis.
 1. One pair of testes are present in a bag-like
structure called scrotum which lies outside the
abdominal cavity; hence they are extra abdominal
in position.

This is so because the testes have to be maintained at

1–3-degree lesser temperature than the body in order
to produce functional sperms.

Functions of testes:

 To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

 To produce a male reproductive hormone called
testosterone which is responsible for producing
sperms as well as secondary characteristics in
males.

2. Sexual: A system of ducts:

Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called
epididymis. The sperms are stored here and they
mature in the epididymis.

Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-

deferens.

Each vas-deferens rises up and enters into the

abdominal cavity.

It unites with the duct coming from the urinary bladder

to form a common duct called urethra which passes
through the penis and opens to the outside.
Along the way the ducts of the three glands also open
and pour their secretions into the vas deferens.

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the

passage of the sperms in the male body.

3. Functions of the glands: They produce different

secretions which provide nutrition as well as
medium for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the
sperms is known as semen.

Function of the urethra: It is the common passage

for both semen and urine from the body to. the outside.

4. Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce

semen into the female body. It is richly supplied
with blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System:

It consists of the following components:

Female Reproductive System consist of:

1. pair of ovaries
2. pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts

3. A uterus/womb

4. A vagina/birth canal.

1. Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the

abdominal cavity.

At the time of birth each girl child already contains

thousands of immature ova. These ova start maturing
only from the time of puberty.

Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one month

and each ovary releases an ovum in alternate months.

The release of an ovum from the ovary into the

abdominal cavity is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary:

 To produce and release ova

 To produce female reproductive hormones:
oestrogen and progesterone.

5. There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close

to the ovary has finger-like structures called
fimbriae. The two fallopian tubes unite to form an
elastic bag like structure called uterus.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of

fertilization between the male and the female gametes
and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with
blood vessels and is known as endometrium. The
narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.
3.Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the
fallopian tube comes down and gets attached to the
endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next
nine months till the baby is delivered.

4. Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through

the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube through
which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months.
It also serves as the canal for receiving the semen at
the time of copulation.

Fertilisation:
The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during
copulation.

The sperms travel upwards and reach the fallopian tube

where one sperm fuse with the ovum to form the
zygote.

The zygote divides and redivides as it descends into the

uterus and the embryo gets implanted in the
endometrium.

The endometrium thickens so as to receive the embryo.

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with

the help of a special tissue called placenta, which is a
disk-like structure embedded in the uterine wall.

It contains finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on

the mother’s side blood spaces surround the villi.

Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and

oxygen to pass from the mother to the developing
embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the
mother through the placenta.

When the embryo starts resembling a human is

formed, it is termed as a foetus.

The foetus continues to develop inside the uterus for

almost nine months after which the baby is delivered as
a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.

Menstruation:
 Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the
ovum from the ovary and its removal from the body
when fertilization does not happen.
 If the ovum does not get fertilized, then the
endometrium starts sloughing off and there is loss
of blood and mucous etc. through the vagina.
 In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the
endometrium becomes thick and spongy for
nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation
does not occur
 Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH, and two ovarian
hormones, oestrogen and progesterone, all have their
roles in menstruation.
 In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days. The flow of
blood continues for 2 to 8 days
 The beginning of menstruation at puberty is known
as menarche.
 The stoppage of menstruation when the woman is
45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.

Reproductive Health:
A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual
intercourse if one of the partners is infected. These are
known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s).

They can be caused by bacteria for example; syphilis,

gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for example; HIV-
AIDS, warts etc.

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical,

chemical and surgical.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the

passage of semen to the fallopian tube:
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes
worn over the penis before sexual intercourse. The
semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into
the vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible
metal ring which is fitted over the cervix in a woman’s
body by a doctor.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It
is inserted in the uterus and its insertion causes certain
secretion which prevents the implantation of the
embryo in the uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects.

Chemical methods:
 Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-
killing chemicals available in the form of
creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the
vagina just before copulation.
 Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal
pills which prevent ovulation but do not stop
menstruation.

Surgical methods:
Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the
vas deferens in males.
 Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating
Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes in
females.
 Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or
abortions is carried out to eliminate the
developing embryo.