Paper 1 –

Q1. Solve any five of the following:

a) Ionization Chambers: These are devices filled with a specific gas (usually
argon, helium, or nitrogen) that ionizes when exposed to radiation. This
ionization creates a measurable electrical current, allowing for the detection
and measurement of radiation.

b) Applications of Gamma Rays:

* Medical Imaging: Gamma rays are used in techniques like gamma ray
imaging and PET scans. They penetrate the body and interact with tissues,
producing images that help diagnose diseases.

* Sterilization: Gamma radiation is used to sterilize medical equipment and

food products by killing microorganisms.

c) Stopping Power: This refers to the ability of a material to slow down and
absorb radiation particles. It's measured in terms of energy loss per unit
distance traveled by the radiation in the material. Materials with higher
stopping power are more effective at shielding against radiation.

d) Radioactive Nuclides in Medical Diagnosis:

* Technetium-99m: A versatile radionuclide used in various imaging studies,

including bone scans, heart scans, and thyroid scans.

* Iodine-131: Used for thyroid function tests and treatment of thyroid cancer.

e) Becquerel (Bq): The SI unit of radioactivity, representing the number of

radioactive decays per second.

f) Geiger Threshold: The minimum energy required for a radiation particle to

trigger a response in a Geiger-Muller counter. Below this threshold, the
counter will not detect the radiation.

Q2. Answer the following questions:

a) Bethe-Bloch Formula: This formula describes the energy loss of charged

particles (like protons) as they pass through matter. It takes into account
factors like the particle's energy, the material's properties, and the particle's
charge and mass. The plot of the formula typically shows an initial rise in
energy loss as the particle slows down, followed by a plateau region, and
then a final rise before the particle stops.
b) Safety Codes and Handling of Radioactive Sources:

* Time Minimization: Limiting exposure time to radiation sources.

* Distance Maximization: Keeping a safe distance from radioactive sources

to reduce exposure.

* Shielding: Using appropriate shielding materials (like lead, concrete, or

water) to absorb radiation.

* Personal Protective Equipment: Wearing protective clothing, gloves, and

dosimeters.

* Regular Monitoring: Monitoring radiation levels and personnel exposure.

Q3. Answer the following questions:

a) Applications of Radiation:

* Medical Imaging: As mentioned earlier, gamma rays and X-rays are used
for various imaging techniques.

* Radiation Therapy: High-energy radiation is used to treat cancer by

destroying cancer cells.

* Food Preservation: Radiation is used to kill bacteria and other

microorganisms in food, extending its shelf life.

b) Ionizing vs. Non-ionizing Radiation:

* Ionizing Radiation: Has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms,

creating ions. Examples include X-rays, gamma rays, and alpha particles.

* Non-ionizing Radiation: Does not have enough energy to remove electrons.

Examples include visible light, microwaves, and radio waves.

Q4. Answer the following questions:

a) Alpha Particles: Among common types of radiation, alpha particles have

the maximum ionizing power due to their large mass and charge. They
interact strongly with matter, causing significant ionization.

b) Shielding Materials:

* Gamma Rays: Dense materials like lead, concrete, or steel are effective for
shielding gamma rays.
 * Neutrons: Materials with high hydrogen content, such as water or
polyethylene, are good for shielding neutrons. Hydrogen atoms effectively
slow down neutrons through collisions.

Q5. Write short notes on any four of the following:

a) Photomultiplier Tube (PMT): A device used to detect and amplify very weak
light signals. It consists of a photocathode that converts photons into
electrons, which are then multiplied by a series of dynodes, resulting in a
significant amplification of the original signal.

b) Semiconductor Detectors: These detectors offer high energy resolution,

fast response time, and the ability to detect a wide range of radiation types.
They are widely used in various applications, including nuclear physics and
medical imaging.

c) Stopping Power: As explained earlier, stopping power refers to the ability

of a material to slow down and absorb radiation particles. It depends on
factors like the type of radiation, the energy of the radiation, and the
properties of the material.

d) Personal Dosimeters: These devices are worn by individuals working with

radiation to measure their exposure. They are essential for monitoring
radiation exposure and ensuring safety.

e) Equivalent Dose: A measure of the biological effect of radiation on the

human body. It takes into account the type of radiation and its ability to
cause damage to tissue. The unit of equivalent dose is the Sievert (Sv).

Paper 2 –

Q1. Attempt any five:

a) Straggling: In radiation physics, straggling refers to the statistical

fluctuation in the energy loss of charged particles as they pass through
matter. This means that particles of the same initial energy will lose different
amounts of energy as they travel through a material, leading to a spread in
their final energies.

b) Excitation: Excitation occurs when a radiation particle interacts with an

atom or molecule, transferring energy to it. This energy can raise an electron
to a higher energy level, leaving the atom or molecule in an excited state.
When the electron returns to its ground state, it releases the excess energy
in the form of light (fluorescence or phosphorescence).
c) KERMA (Kinetic Energy Released in Matter): KERMA is a measure of the
initial kinetic energy imparted to charged particles by ionizing radiation in a
unit mass of matter. It is often used to estimate the absorbed dose in
materials, especially for high-energy radiation.

d) One Gray (Gy) absorbed dose: One Gray is defined as the absorption of
one joule of radiation energy per kilogram of matter. It is a unit of absorbed
dose, which measures the amount of energy deposited in a material by
ionizing radiation.

e) Materials used for shielding:

* Lead: Highly effective for shielding gamma rays and X-rays due to its high
density.

* Concrete: Commonly used for shielding neutrons and gamma rays. Its
effectiveness depends on its thickness and composition.

* Water: Can be used for shielding neutrons, especially in the form of water
pools or tanks.

f) Range-Energy Relation: The range-energy relation describes the

relationship between the range of a charged particle (the distance it travels
before stopping) and its initial kinetic energy. The range increases with
increasing energy, but the relationship is not linear.

Q2. Answer the following questions:

a) Gas-Filled Detectors:

* Construction: A gas-filled detector typically consists of a cylindrical

chamber filled with a gas (like argon or helium) and two electrodes (anode
and cathode). A high voltage is applied between the electrodes.

* Working: When ionizing radiation enters the chamber, it ionizes the gas
molecules, producing ion pairs (electrons and positive ions). The electrons
are accelerated towards the anode, creating an ionization avalanche. This
avalanche generates a measurable electrical pulse, which is then amplified
and recorded.

b) Characteristics of Inorganic Scintillation Detectors:

* High density: Allows for efficient interaction with radiation.

* Fast response time: Enables high-resolution measurements.

 * Good energy resolution: Can distinguish between different types of
radiation and measure their energy.

* Wide range of applications: Used in various fields, including nuclear

physics, medical imaging, and environmental monitoring.

Q3. Answer the following questions:

a) Definitions:

* Roentgen: A unit of exposure to X-rays or gamma rays, measuring the

ionization produced in air.

* Becquerel: The SI unit of radioactivity, representing the number of

radioactive decays per second.

* Gray: The SI unit of absorbed dose, measuring the energy deposited per
unit mass of matter.

* Sievert: The SI unit of equivalent dose, accounting for the biological

effectiveness of different types of radiation.

* RAD: A non-SI unit of absorbed dose, equivalent to 0.01 Gray.

* REM: A non-SI unit of equivalent dose, equivalent to 0.01 Sievert.

b) GM Counter Dead Time Correction:

* Dead time is the time period after a detector has registered a count during
which it is unable to detect another count.

* The true counting rate can be calculated using the following formula:

True counting rate = Observed counting rate / (1 - (Observed counting rate

* Dead time))

* In this case, the true counting rate is approximately 1042 counts per
minute.

Q4. Answer the following questions:

a) Natural and Artificial Radioactive Sources:

* Natural Sources:

* Cosmic radiation from space

 * Radioactive elements in the Earth's crust (e.g., uranium, thorium,
potassium-40)

* Radon gas, which is a decay product of uranium and thorium

* Artificial Sources:

* Nuclear power plants

* Medical procedures (e.g., X-rays, nuclear medicine)

* Industrial applications (e.g., radioactive tracers, radiation therapy)

b) Absorbed Dose Calculation:

* 1 Roentgen = 2.58 x 10^-4 C/kg

* Energy per ion pair = 33.7 eV = 33.7 x 1.6 x 10^-19 J

* Number of ion pairs per kg of air = (2.58 x 10^-4 C/kg) / (1.6 x 10^-19
C/ion pair) = 1.6125 x 10^15 ion pairs/kg

* Total energy absorbed per kg of air = (1.6125 x 10^15 ion pairs/kg) x

(33.7 x 1.6 x 10^-19 J/ion pair) = 8.7 x 10^-4 J/kg

* Absorbed dose = 8.7 x 10^-4 Gy

Q5. Attempt any four:

a) Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiations:

* Ionizing radiation: Has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms,

creating ions. Examples include X-rays, gamma rays, alpha particles, and
beta particles.

* Non-ionizing radiation: Does not have enough energy to remove electrons.

Examples include visible light, microwaves, and radio waves.

b) Principle of GM Counter:

* A gas-filled detector that operates in the Geiger-Muller region.

* When ionizing radiation enters the chamber, it ionizes the gas, creating an
avalanche of electrons.

* This avalanche generates a large electrical pulse, which is amplified and

recorded.

c) Advantages of Semiconductor Detectors:

* High energy resolution

* Fast response time

* Compact size

* Low operating voltage

* Wide range of applications

d) Radiation Shielding:

* Radiation shielding is the process of using materials to absorb or deflect

radiation, reducing exposure to harmful effects.

* It is necessary to protect people from the harmful effects of radiation,

including cancer and genetic damage.

e) Equivalent Dose and Effective Dose:

* Equivalent Dose: A measure of the biological effect of radiation, taking into

account the type of radiation and its ability to cause damage to tissue.

* Effective Dose: A measure of the overall risk of harm to the whole body
from exposure to ionizing radiation. It considers the sensitivity of different
organs and tissues.

f) Safety Codes for Handling Radioactive Sources:

* Minimize exposure time

* Maximize distance from sources

* Use appropriate shielding

* Wear personal protective equipment

* Regularly monitor radiation levels and personnel exposure