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Light and seeing Key facts

Luminous (glowing) objects, such as the Sun or ✓ Light travels as waves.

electric lights, emit light energy. Light travels as ✓ Luminous (glowing) objects, such as
a wave and passes through anything transparent, the Sun, emit light.
including air, water, glass, and the vacuum of space. ✓ Nonluminous objects can only be
Light traveling in a vacuum is the fastest thing in the seen by reflected light.
Universe. It takes just 8 minutes and 19 seconds for
light from the Sun to travel 150 million km to Earth.

When reflected light

enters a person’s
eye, it is detected by
light-sensitive cells.
Light always
travels in
straight lines.

How light travels

Light travels so fast that turning
on a lamp in a dark room illuminates Objects reflect light
everything in an instant. Most objects
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in all directions.
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are nonluminous, which means they

don’t emit light. However, we see them
because light reflects off surfaces,
scattering everywhere. Some of the
reflected light enters our eyes, which
contain light-sensitive cells that give
us the sense of vision. Because the apple is
opaque, light cannot
travel through it, and
it casts a shadow.

Transparent,
translucent,
and opaque

Most solid objects block Transparent materials, such Translucent materials, Opaque materials let
light, but some materials as glass, let light pass through. such as frosted glass, let no light through and so
let light waves pass through. However, they also reflect a some light through but cast a strong shadow.
small amount of light, which scatter it.
is why we can see them.

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Comparing sound and light

Sound and light both travel as waves, and they both transfer energy.
They have certain features in common, but there are also important
differences between them.

Sound Light

Sound waves travel as vibrations of particles of matter, Light waves travel as vibrations in electric and
so they cannot travel through empty space. Sound can magnetic fields and can cross empty space. They
travel through solids, liquids, and gases. can pass through air and water, but most solid
materials block their path.

Sound is a longitudinal wave. The particles move Light is a transverse wave caused by vibrations in the
forward and backward in the same direction electromagnetic field. The vibrations are at right angles
as the wave travels in. to the wave’s direction of travel.
Direction of travel

Vibration
Direction of wave
Vibration of particles

The amplitude of a sound wave determines its The amplitude of a light wave determines its
volume.www.cbse.page
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the sound. the light.

The frequency of a sound wave determines its The frequency of a visible light wave determines its color.
pitch. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch. Low-frequency visible light is red; high-frequency visible
light is violet.
Low-frequency wave

Low-frequency wave
High-frequency wave High-frequency wave

Sound travels at around 343 m/s through air. Light travels at around 300 million m/s through air
Some jet aircraft can fly faster than this. (almost 1 million times faster than sound). That’s why
you see lightning flash before you hear thunder.

Sound waves can be reflected, refracted, and absorbed. Light waves can be reflected, refracted, and absorbed.
A reflected sound is called an echo. The image we see in a mirror is a reflection.

Reflected
image

Object
Light appears to
Echo
come from behind
the mirror.

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Pinhole cameras Key facts

A pinhole camera is a box with a tiny hole in the front ✓ Pinhole cameras do not
and a screen at the back. When you point it toward a need a lens.
brightly lit scene, a faint image appears on the screen. ✓ If the pinhole is too large,
This simple setup was the ancestor of today’s cameras. the image will be blurred.
✓ Pinhole cameras show
that light travels in
straight lines.

Ray diagram
We can explain how a pinhole camera works by drawing a diagram that shows
light traveling in straight lines—a ray diagram. Ray diagrams include just a few
rays of light as straight lines with arrows showing the direction light travels. This
ray diagram shows that light rays cross as they pass through the small hole,
resulting in an upside-down image. Ray diagrams are also very useful to show
what happens when light is reflected, refracted, or focused by lenses.

The pinhole must be small Screen

or the image will be blurred.

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upside-down.

Light travels in
straight lines
through the pinhole.

Real and virtual images

Virtual image Real image

The image produced by a pinhole

camera is called a real image because
it can be captured on a screen, allowing
Projector
people to see it from anywhere. In contrast,
the enlarged image you see through a
magnifying glass is a virtual image that
can only be seen from a certain position.
Unlike a real image, a virtual image
cannot be captured on a screen. Real object

Magnified ladybug Projection on a screen

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Reflection Key facts

When light strikes a surface, some of it bounces off—it is ✓ Regular reflection is the
reflected. Luminous objects emit light, but we see everything even reflection of light
else by reflected light. Most objects have a rough surface that from a smooth surface
reflects light in many directions (diffuse reflection). However, such as a mirror.
very smooth objects, such as mirrors, reflect light regularly ✓ Diffuse reflection is the
(regular reflection). irregular reflection of light
from a rough surface.
✓ When light is reflected
The law of reflection by a mirror, the angle of
The picture below shows what happens when light is reflected by a incidence equals the angle
mirror. The angle of the incoming ray (angle of incidence) is always of reflection.
the same as the angle of the reflected ray (angle of reflection). This
is the law of reflection. Both angles are measured from a line called
the normal, which is at right angles to the object’s surface.

angle of incidence = angle of reflection

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Normal

Incident ray Reflected ray

Mirror
Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection

Mirror images
Incident ray
When you look in a flat mirror, you see a virtual image
(see page 129) that appears to be behind the mirror. The
ray diagram here shows how a mirror produces a virtual Object Virtual image
image. The dashed lines show where the light appears to
come from. Mirrors don’t reverse things left to right. Writing
looks reversed in a mirror because we have to flip a book
around to face the glass. Mirrors actually reverse images Mirror
from front to back, along a line through the mirror. Reflected ray

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Refraction
When light waves pass from one medium to
another—such as from air to water—they
change direction. This is known as refraction.
Lenses use refraction to bend and focus light.

Refraction of light
Place a straw in a glass of water and it
will appear bent or broken. This happens
because light from the straw is refracted
as it passes between the water, glass,
and air on the way to our eyes. Our brains
The straw looks crooked
assume the light has traveled in a straight because light from the
line, so the image of the straw in the water straw refracts as it
is distorted. passes from water
and glass to air.

Key facts
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✓ Refraction is a change in the direction
of waves as they pass from one
medium to another.
✓ Waves bend toward the normal when
they slow down and bend away from
the normal when they speed up.

Refraction ray diagram Angle of

incidence
Air Incident
A ray diagram helps explain what (incoming) ray
happens when light is refracted. The
diagram includes a line called the
normal, which is drawn at right angles Normal Refracted ray
to the boundary. When light crosses
the boundary from air to water or Glass
glass, it slows down and bends toward Angle of refraction
the normal. When the light returns to
the air, it speeds up and bends away
from the normal.
Normal
Air

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Investigating Investigating reflection

light 1. Draw a straight line across a large piece of paper.

2. Draw a second line at right angles to the first line. This will be
A ray box allows you to create ray the normal in your ray diagram.
diagrams using real rays of light. 3. Place a mirror along the first line and use the ray box to shine
Follow the instructions here to a ray of light at the point where the two lines meet. Darkening
the room may help make the rays easier to see.
investigate reflection and refraction.
4. Trace the incident ray and any reflected ray with a pencil.
5. Use a protractor to measure the angle of incidence and angle
of reflection.

6. Repeat with different angles of incidence. You’ll find that the

angle of incidence always equals the angle of reflection.

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Mirror

Incident ray
Reflected ray

Normal

Ray box
Paper

Angle of
reflection

Lines drawn
over light beam

Law of reflection
Wherever you position the ray box, the angle of Angle of Normal
incidence (the angle between the incident ray incidence
and the normal) will always be the same as
the angle of reflection (the angle between the
reflected ray and the normal). This is called
the law of reflection.
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Investigating refraction Investigating internal reflection

1. Place a glass block on a large sheet of paper and trace 1. Place a semicircular glass block on a large sheet of
around it. paper and draw around it.

2. Draw a line at right angles to the long side of the block. This 2. Remove the block. Using a ruler and pencil, find
will be the normal in your ray diagram. and mark the center of the straight side. Draw a normal
line through this point, perpendicular to the straight side,
3. Darken the room and use a ray box to shine a ray of light then replace the block.
diagonally into the block.
3. Shine a ray of light from a ray box through the
4. Use a pencil to mark the ray’s path up to and beyond the curved surface of the block to the point you marked.
block by drawing small crosses.
4. The ray will bend away from the normal as it leaves
5. Remove the block, then use a pencil and ruler to connect the the glass. Note that some light is also reflected by the
crosses and to draw the ray’s path through the block. straight surface of the glass block.

6. Measure the angles of incidence and refraction. 5. Move the ray to increase the angle of incidence.
Note that the angle of refraction also increases.
7. Repeat with different angles of incidence. Light bends toward Continue increasing the angle of incidence until the
the normal when it passes from air to glass, so you’ll find the refracted ray lines up with the flat surface of the block.
angle of refraction from air to glass is always less than the
angle of incidence. 6. Increase the angle of incidence again. The light is
now reflected completely, with no light escaping
8. Measure the angles of incidence and refraction at the point by refraction. This is known as total internal
where the light leaves the block. Light bends away from the reflection (TIR). The angle of incidence at which
normal as it passes from glass to air, so in this case the angle TIR begins is called the critical angle.
of refraction will be larger than the angle of incidence.

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Angle of refraction
Ray box
Normal
Refracted ray
Normal

Reflected ray

Angle of incidence

Incident
Angle of incidence
ray
Angle of refraction

Critical angle

Total internal
Refracted reflection
Glass block ray

Emerging ray

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Total internal Key facts

reflection ✓ Total internal reflection

takes place when the angle
of incidence exceeds the
Light is refracted when it passes from one medium to critical angle.
another, such as from glass to air or air to water. However,
✓ Optical fibers use total
if light going from glass or water to air hits the boundary at internal reflection to
a shallow angle, all of it is reflected instead. This is called transmit digital data.
total internal reflection.

Optical fibers
An optical fiber is a strand of solid glass about as thin as
a human hair. It uses total internal reflection to trap and
transmit pulses of light carrying digital information, such
Total internal Light ray
as internet data. Laser light is directed into one end at a
reflection
shallow angle so that the light cannot escape until it
reaches the other end.
Glass

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The critical angle Refracted ray Total internal

reflection

Total internal reflection occurs when the angle

of incidence (the angle between the light and Critical
the normal) is more than a certain angle: the angle
Air
“critical angle.” The critical angle varies with
different materials, such as glass, water, or Water
acrylic. The critical angle for light traveling from
water to air is 49°. If a beam of light hits the
water surface at less than 49° with the normal, it
will pass through, though a small amount is
reflected. If the angle is greater than 49°, it is all Some
reflected. light is
reflected.
Normal

Underwater reflection
When viewed from underwater, the water surface acts like
a mirror due to total internal reflection. Here, a dolphin is
reflected twice off the underside of two different waves.

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Lenses Key facts

A lens is a piece of transparent material with curved ✓ A lens is a piece of transparent

surfaces. Its special shape makes light refract in a material with curved surfaces that
way that can form images. Eyes and cameras contain refract light.
converging (convex) lenses—lenses that bulge outward ✓ Eyes and cameras contain converging
in the middle and make rays of light converge to a point. (convex) lenses, which focus light
rays to form an image.
✓ The human eye adjusts focus by
Inside an eye changing the shape of the lens.
The lens inside a human eye bends light rays so that
they come together and form an image. This is called ✓ A camera adjusts focus by changing
focusing. Diverging rays of light from the same point the position of the lens.
on a distant object are focused on the retina—a layer
of light-sensitive cells that lines the back of the eyeball.
The retina then sends nerve impulses to the brain,
which creates the sense of sight.

When focusing on nearby

objects, the lens gets
thicker, which increases
its focusing power.
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meet on
the retina, forming
an upside-down
image. The brain
flips this the right
way up again.

The outer part of the eye (the

cornea) also helps focus light.

Light is refracted as it
enters and leaves the lens.

Cameras
The converging lens
can move forward
Cameras work in a similar way to the human eye. and backward.
Incoming light is focused by a converging lens to Light
form an image on a light-sensitive sensor in the back sensor
of the camera. Images are then stored in a memory
chip. Unlike a human eye, a camera contains a Image
glass lens that cannot change shape to adjust its Object
focusing power. Instead, cameras with adjustable
focus move the lens forward or backward.

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Waves and refraction Key facts

Refraction is a change in the direction of waves when they ✓ Refraction is caused by a change in
slow down or speed up. Light waves refract when they pass the speed of waves.
from one medium to another, and water waves refract ✓ The frequency of waves is unchanged
when they move between deep and shallow water. after refraction, but the wavelength
and speed change.
✓ If a wave slows down, it bends toward
Refraction in water
the normal.
We can see refraction in action by using a ripple tank—a tank
of water through which light is shone to make the ripples visible. ✓ If a wave speeds up, it bends away
A glass block placed at an angle on the bottom of the tank from the normal.
creates a zone of shallow water, which slows down the waves.
When waves slow down, they bend toward the normal. When
they speed up, they bend away from the normal. The frequency
of the waves remains the same after refraction, but the slower
waves have a shorter wavelength.
!
The waves slow down Teacher supervision required
and change direction.

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Angle of
Waves bend toward the
incidence
normal when they slow down.

Direction of travel

Angle of
refraction

Normal

The refracted waves have A glass block creates

a shorter wavelength. a shallow zone.

Why refraction happens These

marchers
continue
To understand why a change in speed causes waves to at a faster
change direction, imagine a marching band trying to stay speed.
in regular rows as they march from firm ground to muddy Marchers at this
ground, where they slow down. If the band meets the end of the row
boundary at an angle, one side slows down earlier than the slow down first.
other side. The faster marchers catch up a little until they
reach the mud, so the whole band changes direction. The whole band
changes direction.

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Refractive index Key facts

Light travels incredibly fast through a vacuum: 3 × 108 m/s ✓ The refractive index of a material is
(300 million meters per second). It travels almost as fast a measure of how much that material
in air, but it slows significantly in water, glass, or other slows down light.
transparent materials. The refractive index of a material is ✓ Refractive index equals the speed of
a measure of how much the material slows down light. light in a vacuum divided by the speed
of light in the material.
✓ Snell’s law allows us to calculate
Calculating refractive index refractive index from the angles of
Light travels at different speeds in different materials, so each
incidence and refraction.
material has a different refractive index. The greater a material’s
refractive index, the more it slows down light and the more the
light is refracted (bent). This equation shows how refractive
index can be calculated from the change in the light’s speed.

speed of light in a vacuum

refractive index (n) =
speed of light in the material

Refractive index is a ratio of two

speeds and so has no units.

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Material Speed of light (m/s) Refractive index

Air 2.997 × 108 1.0003

Acrylic 2 × 108 1.5

Glass (1.8 –2.0) × 108 1.5 –1.7

Diamond 1.25 × 108 2.4

Refractive index of water

Question Answer
The speed of light in a vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s, 3 × 108 m/s
n=
and the speed of light in water is 2.3 × 108 m/s. 2.3 × 108 m/s
What is the refractive index of water? = 1.3

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Snell’s law Total internal reflection

When light passes from air to a material with a When light passes from a material with a high
higher refractive index, such as glass, it bends refractive index to a material with a lower one,
toward the normal. As a result, the angle of such as from glass to air, it bends away from the
refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence. normal. If the angle of incidence is more than a
The equation here, called Snell’s law, shows the certain amount—the critical angle—the light is
relationship between the refractive index and reflected internally. This equation shows how the
the angles of incidence and refraction. critical angle and refractive index are related.

Critical angle Refractive index

of second material
n1 × sin i = n2 × sin r n2
sin c =
Refractive index Refractive index
n1
of first material of second material Refractive index
of first material

Refracted light bends All light is reflected if the

away from the normal. angle of incidence exceeds
the critical angle.
Angle of incidence (i)
50°
Critical angle
Air Air

Angle of
refraction (r)
?°
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Normal

Glass Water

Calculating the angle of refraction Calculating the critical angle

Question Question
Light enters a block of glass at an angle of incidence of Diamonds get their sparkle
50°. If the refractive index of air is 1 and the refractive from their high refractive
index of glass is 1.6, what is the angle of refraction? index and small critical angle,
which cause a lot of internal
Answer reflection off a diamond’s faces
1. First, rearrange Snell’s law to make sin r the subject. before light escapes and reaches
our eyes. If the refractive index
n1 × sin i
sin r = of diamond is 2.4, what is the
n2
2. Put in the numbers and use a calculator to find the critical angle?
sine of 50°.
1 × sin 50°
sin r = Answer
1.6
= 0.479 1 Refractive
sin c =
3. Use the sin−1 function on a calculator to find 2.4 index of air
the answer. sin c = 0.42
r = 29° c = 25°

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Converging and Key facts

diverging lenses ✓ Converging lenses bulge

outward in the middle
and make parallel light
Lenses are shaped to change the direction of light by refraction. rays converge.
Converging lenses are lenses that bulge outward in the middle.
✓ Diverging lenses are thinner
They bend light rays so that they come together (converge). in the middle and make
Diverging lenses are thinner in the middle. They make light parallel light rays diverge.
rays spread out (diverge). Lenses have a focal point.
✓
For converging lenses, this
Converging lenses is where parallel rays come
Parallel
rays of light
Converging lenses are also called convex lenses. together. For diverging
When parallel rays of light pass through a converging lenses, this is where the
lens, they meet at a place called the focal point refracted rays appear to
(principal focus). The greater the curvature of
have come from.
the lens, the more powerfully it focuses light
and the closer the focal point is to the lens.

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Rays converge at
The distance between the focal the focal point.
point and the center of the lens
is called the focal length.

Diverging lenses
Diverging lenses are also called concave lenses. When parallel rays of light
pass through a diverging lens, they spread out (diverge). The focal point of
a diverging lens is the point which the diverging rays appear to come from.
The greater the curvature of the lens, the more powerfully it focuses light
Parallel
and the closer the focal point is to the lens.
rays of light

The focal point is

where rays appear
to come from.

The distance between the focal

point and the center of the lens
is the focal length.

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Correcting vision Key facts

Converging and diverging lenses are used in glasses and ✓ Converging and diverging lenses are
contact lenses to correct two of the most common causes used in glasses and contact lenses to
of blurred vision: nearsightedness and farsightedness. correct vision.
✓ Diverging (concave) lenses are used
to correct nearsightedness.
Farsightedness
In a farsighted eye, light rays from nearby objects are focused ✓ Converging (convex) lenses are used
toward a point behind the retina, making nearby objects look to correct farsightedness.
blurred. This happens because the eye’s focusing power is not
strong enough or the eyeball is too short. A converging (convex)
lens corrects vision by making light rays converge before they
enter the eye. A convex lens (a lens that curves
outward) corrects farsightedness.

If an eye is
farsighted, light
rays are brought
to a focal point
behind the retina.

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Light from
nearby object

Farsighted eye Corrected vision

Nearsightedness
In a nearsighted eye, light rays from distant objects are brought
into focus before they reach the retina, making distant objects look
blurred. This happens either because the eye’s focusing power is too
strong or the eyeball is too long. A diverging (concave) lens corrects A concave lens (a lens that curves inward
vision by making light rays diverge before they enter the eye. in the middle) corrects nearsightedness.

If an eye is nearsighted,
light rays are brought
into focus before they
reach the retina.

Light from
distant object Retina

Nearsighted eye Corrected vision

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Converging lens Key facts

ray diagram ✓ A ray diagram can be used to work out where the
image produced by a lens appears.
✓ Incident rays that travel parallel to the axis are
We can use ray diagrams to find out where
refracted through the focal point.
the image produced by a converging lens
✓ Incident rays that travel through the focal point
appears. This diagram shows what happens
before reaching the lens are refracted to become
when an object is farther from the lens than
parallel with the axis.
the lens’s focal point. The lens produces a
✓ An incident ray traveling through the center of the
real image (see page 129) that is inverted
lens does not change direction.
(upside down) and diminished (smaller).

Incident ray Although light is refracted as it

Object
enters and leaves the lens, ray
diagrams show the change in
direction in the center of the lens.

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Axis
Focal point

2F F F 2F

Lens The image is real

and inverted
(upside down).

How to draw a ray diagram for a converging lens

1. Draw a horizontal axis with a lens in the middle. 5. For the second ray, draw a straight line from the top of the
object through the center of the lens. This ray doesn’t bend.
2. Mark the focal point (F) on both sides of the lens.
6. Where the lines cross is the bottom of the inverted image.
3. Draw the object as an arrow pointing upward. (The image does not necessarily form at the focal point.)

4. Draw an incident ray from the top of the object to the lens, 7. To check, draw a third ray from the top of the object and
traveling parallel with the axis. Draw the refracted ray from through the left focal point to the lens. This ray refracts
the lens through the focal point. and continues in parallel with the axis.

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Magnifying glass Key facts

ray diagram ✓ A magnifying glass is a converging

(convex) lens.

A converging lens works as a magnifying glass if the object ✓ The magnifying glass produces an
enlarged, upright, virtual image.
is closer to the lens than the focal point. The image is
✓ The object must be within one
enlarged, upright, and virtual (see page 129), so only
focal length to produce the
someone looking through the magnifying glass can see it.
magnified image.

The virtual image

appears to be larger
and farther away than Focal point
Axis
the real object.

2F F F 2F
The object must be
less than one focal
length from the lens.
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How to draw a ray diagram for a Calculating magnification

magnifying glass
Use this formula to work out the magnification
of an image.
1. Draw a horizontal axis with a lens in the middle.
2. Mark the focal point (F) on both sides of the lens.
image height
magnification =
3. Draw the object as an upward arrow closer to the lens object height
than the focal point.

4. Draw an incident ray from the top of the object to the lens,
traveling parallel with the axis. Then draw the refracted
ray from the lens through the focal point. Question
A beetle measuring 9 mm long is viewed through a
5. Draw a second ray from the top of the object through
the center of the lens. This ray doesn’t bend.
magnifying glass, producing a 28 mm virtual image.
What is the magnification?
6. Using a ruler, extend both rays backward as dotted
lines. The point where they cross is the top of the virtual
image. The bottom of the virtual image is on the axis.
Answer
28 mm Magnification is a
magnification =
9 mm ratio, so the answer
magnification = 3.1 has no units.

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Diverging lens Key facts

ray diagram ✓ A ray diagram shows where the image produced

by a lens appears.
✓ Incident rays that travel parallel to the axis are
If you look through a diverging lens, it
refracted outward by a diverging lens as though
makes things look smaller. A diverging
they came from the focal point.
lens produces a virtual image that is
✓ An incident ray traveling through the center of
upright but diminished (smaller). Drawing
the lens does not bend.
a ray diagram allows you to work out where
the image will appear and how small it is.

Diverging lenses are

Incident ray narrow in the middle.
Axis
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F
The virtual
image is upright
Focal
and diminished
point
(smaller).

How to draw a ray diagram for a diverging lens

1. Draw a horizontal axis with a lens in the middle. 5. The refracted ray will travel as though it came from
the focal point on the left of the lens. Use your ruler
2. Mark the focal point (F) on the left of the lens. to draw a dotted line from the focal point to the lens,
and continue this as a solid line traveling away.
3. Draw the object as an arrow pointing upward.
6. Draw a second ray traveling straight through the
4. Draw an incident ray from the top of the object center of the lens. This ray doesn’t refract.
to the lens, traveling parallel with the axis.
7. Where the dotted line and the second ray meet
is the top of the virtual image.

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Light and color Key facts

Light from the Sun is made up of a wide range, or spectrum, ✓ Different frequencies of
of different frequencies. The range of frequencies we visible light appear to our
can see—the visible spectrum—is just a tiny part of eyes as colors.
this. Different frequencies of visible light appear to our ✓ White light is a mixture of
eyes as different colors. When all the visible frequencies are different frequencies.
mixed together, they make white light. ✓ A glass prism can refract
white light and split it into
its component colors.
Visible light spectrum
We can split white light into its component colors by shining it through
a triangular block of glass called a prism. The glass refracts each
frequency differently. Colors with higher frequencies, such as violet,
refract more than colors with lower frequencies, such as red. As a
result, a beam of white light spreads out to produce a colorful
spectrum. Although the visible spectrum is traditionally shown with
seven colors, most people can’t distinguish indigo and blue, so they
can only see six.

Glass prism
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Light refracts
as it enters and Different frequencies
leaves the prism. appear to us as The wavelength
different colors. of red light in air or a
vacuum is 665 nanometers
Red light is (665 billionths of a meter).
refracted
the least.

Red
Oran 665 nm
Yell ge 60
0 nm
Gre ow 570 n
B e n 520
m
In lue nm
Vio digo 475 nm
let 44
5n
4
00 m
nm

Violet light is
refracted the most.

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A secondary rainbow, with

Rainbows colors in reverse order, can
sometimes be seen outside the
main rainbow. It is caused by
The beauty of a rainbow results from a combination of light reflecting twice inside each
refraction and reflection. If sunlight strikes a raindrop at raindrop instead of just once.
just the right angle, the light is refracted as it enters the
raindrop, reflected inside it, and refracted again as it
exits the raindrop. If you’re standing in the right place,
you see the refracted light as a rainbow.

Light from
the Sun
Refraction

Internal
Raindrop reflection

Refraction

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Reflecting and Key facts

absorbing ✓ White light is a mixture of all the

colors of the visible spectrum.
✓ Objects appear colored because
White light is a mixture of all the colors of the visible
they absorb some wavelengths and
spectrum. When light strikes an object, some wavelengths
reflect others.
are absorbed and others are reflected. The color of an
✓ Colored filters absorb most
object depends on which wavelengths are reflected.
colors but allow some colors
to pass through.
Absorption and reflection
These billiard balls are different colors because
they each absorb a different range of wavelengths.
Wavelengths that aren’t absorbed are reflected,
giving the objects their colors.

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A red billiard ball looks red because A black ball looks black A white ball looks white because
its surface absorbs all wavelengths because it absorbs every it reflects all the different
of visible light except red, which color and reflects little light. wavelengths of visible light.
is reflected.

Color filters

The color of transparent A red filter absorbs all colors

materials depends on which apart from red light.
wavelengths are absorbed
and which are transmitted
(let through). Colored filters,
such as stained glass, don’t A green filter absorbs all colors
add colors to light—they apart from green light.
subtract them. A red filter
absorbs all wavelengths
except red, for example.

A blue filter absorbs all colors

apart from blue light.

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Electromagnetic Key facts

radiation ✓ Visible light is a small part

of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
The light we can see is just a small part of a much larger
✓ Electromagnetic waves
electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic waves transfer
are generated by changes
energy from atoms that emit them to atoms that absorb them. in atoms.
They don’t require a medium to travel through and can cross
✓ Electromagnetic waves travel
the vacuum of space. All types of electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light and do
at the speed of light: about 300 million m/s in air or space. not require a medium.

The electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic waves range from radio waves (with wavelengths
from millimeters to thousands of kilometers long) to gamma rays
(which have wavelengths smaller than atoms). The shorter the
wavelength of electromagnetic radiation, the higher its frequency
and the greater the amount of energy it transfers.

lower frequency
106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012

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longer wavelength
Electromagnetic waves
are transverse waves.

Radio waves

Microwaves

Radio waves are used for communication, Microwaves are short-wavelength radio Infrared is the heat you can feel when
such as transmitting phone calls, TV waves and are used for communication. you warm your hands by a fire or stand in
programs, and internet data. Long-wave Certain frequencies of microwave radiation the Sun. TV remote controls use infrared
radio waves can bend around hills and are absorbed by water molecules in beams to send signals to the TV, and
around Earth’s curved surface. food and are used for heating in night-vision goggles that detect infrared
microwave ovens. radiation allow people to see in the dark.

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Electromagnetic waves
An electron emits a packet of
Electromagnetic waves can be electromagnetic energy when
generated by changes in atoms. it drops to a lower level.
For instance, light is emitted when
electrons move from high-energy
levels to lower levels. The
frequency and wavelength of
the light depend on how far the
electron moves. Near Earth’s poles,
oxygen atoms in the atmosphere
emit a greenish light when they
release energy after being struck by
high-speed particles from the Sun.
The light causes the aurora borealis Oxygen atom
(northern lights).

Frequency (waves per second)

higher frequency
13 14 15 16 17 18
10 10 10 10 10 10 1019 1020

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shorter wavelength

Infrared Ultraviolet

Visible light X-rays

Gamma rays

Visible light is the small Ultraviolet (UV) rays cause X-rays are high-energy Gamma rays emitted by
part of the electromagnetic tanning and sunburn. UV electromagnetic waves that radioactive materials
spectrum we can see. We use it lamps are used to kill bacteria pass through soft body tissues (see pages 240—241)
to illuminate our surroundings and viruses, to detect forged but not bones or teeth. They are used to sterilize medical
and to generate images on TVs paper currency, and to make are used for medical imaging instruments, create medical
and phone screens. fluorescent objects glow and to check the contents of images, and kill cancer cells.
in clubs. luggage in airport security.

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Radio waves Key facts

Electromagnetic waves can be generated by the ✓ Radio waves are

acceleration of electrons—the negatively charged particles produced by alternating
that form the outside of atoms. When electrons oscillate electrical currents.
back and forth at certain frequencies, they emit radio ✓ Radio waves induce
waves. These waves are used for communication. alternating currents
in antennae (aerials).
✓ The frequency of a radio
How radio communication works wave is the same as the
Radio waves are produced by alternating currents, which cause
frequency of the alternating
electrons to oscillate back and forth in an antenna (aerial). The radio
current that generated it.
waves have the same frequency as the alternating current and trigger
a current with a matching frequency in the receiving antenna. Data is
transmitted as variations in the frequency (or amplitude) of the waves.

2. Radio waves spread out in all

directions at the speed of light. The
waves have the same frequency as
the alternating current.

3. When the waves meet a

receiving antenna, they transfer
energy to its electrons, making
them oscillate, too.
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4. The receiving antenna

produces an alternating current
matching the frequency of
the original current.

1. Electrons in the transmitting antenna

oscillate back and forth in an alternating
current. This makes them emit radio waves.

How radio waves travel High-frequency radio waves

pass through the atmosphere
and are relayed by satellite.
Radio frequencies used for communication vary
from low frequencies (with wavelengths kilometers
in length) to high frequencies (with wavelengths Lower-frequency
just centimeters long). High-frequency waves can waves are reflected
only travel in straight lines but can be relayed by the ionosphere.
by satellites. Lower-frequency radio waves are
Very low-frequency waves
reflected by the ionosphere (an electrically
travel along the ground.
charged layer in Earth’s upper atmosphere),
allowing them to travel beyond the horizon.

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Hazardous Key facts

radiation ✓ Electromagnetic radiation is

divided into nonionizing and
ionizing radiation.
Exposure to high-energy electromagnetic radiation can
✓ Nonionizing radiation does not
be harmful to living things. The higher the frequency of
have enough energy to remove
the waves, the more energy they transfer and the more electrons from atoms.
likely they are to do harm.
✓ Ionizing radiation is energetic
enough to remove electrons from
Effects on the body atoms and break chemical bonds.
Low-frequency waves, such as radio waves, pass through ✓ Exposure to ionizing radiation may
living tissue without being absorbed and are not dangerous. result in tissue damage and cancer.
However, gamma rays, X-rays, and high-frequency ultraviolet
rays are all types of ionizing radiation—they have enough
energy to remove electrons from atoms and break chemical
bonds, which can damage the molecules in living cells.

Ultraviolet radiation cannot penetrate the body,

but it can harm skin cells, leading to sunburn and an
increased risk of cancer. It can also damage parts of the
human eye,www.cbse.page
leading to visual defects or blindness. www.cbse.pag

X-rays penetrate the body and can damage the DNA in

cells, leading to mutations that cause cancer. The risk
depends on the dose, which is measured in units called
sieverts. The X-ray machines in hospitals expose the
body to very small doses of X-ray radiation.

Gamma rays penetrate the body and are the most

dangerous form of electromagnetic radiation. They
damage DNA and increase the risk of cancer. Large
doses cause radiation sickness, which can be fatal.

Benefits and risks

Although ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays can all be

harmful, there are benefits, too. Exposure to the ultraviolet rays
in sunlight helps the body make vitamin D. X-ray machines help
dentists check teeth for decay and help doctors examine fractured
bones or other conditions. Gamma radiation can be used to detect
and to destroy cancer cells. In each case, the potential benefits
need to be weighed against the risks.
Finger bones are clear
on this X-ray of a
person’s hand.

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