Module 1

Introduction to Digital Design

CO1: Apply the K–Map techniques to simplify

various Boolean expressions. (KL-3)

• Number conversion systems

 Binary to Decimal conversion

➢ Take each digit in the binary number and multiply it with its place
value.
➢ The sum of all the above products will give the equivalent decimal
number.

Ex :- (1011)2 to decimal number.

Sol :- (1011)2 = (1 x 23) + ( 0 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 20 )
= (1 x 8) + ( 0 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1)
= (11)10
 Fractional Binary number to Decimal number

For the fraction (after the decimal point) the place value starts
with negative power of 2. This negative power value increases from
left to right.
The place value of the first left digit in fraction is (2–1)
The place value of the next right digit in fraction is (2–2)
The place value of the next right digit in fraction is (2–3)
……. so on
Ex :- Convert the binary number (0.1101)2 into decimal number.
1 1 1 1
(0.1101)2 = (1 x ) + ( 1 x ) + (0 x ) + (1 x )
2 4 8 16
= 1 x 0.5 + 1 x 0.25 + 0 x 0.125 +1 x 0.0625
= 0.5 +0.25 + 0 + 0.0625
= (0.8125)10
Ex :- Convert the binary number (1010.0101)2 into decimal number.
Sol :- Integer part (1010)2 = (1 x 23) + ( 0 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (0 x 20 )
= (1 x 8) + ( 0 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (0 x 1 )
= (10)10
Fractional part (0.0101)2 = (0 x 2–1) + ( 1 x 2–2) + (0 x 2–3) + (1 x 2–4)
1 1 1 1
= (0 x ) + ( 1 x ) + (0 x ) + (1 x )
2 4 8 16
= 0 x 0.5 + 1 x 0.25 + 0 x 0.125 +1 x 0.0625
= 0 + 0.25 + 0 + 0.0625
= (0.3125)10
 Binary to Octal number system

Ex :- Convert the binary number (1110101)2 into octal number.

(1110101)2 = 001 110 101
= (165)8
 Binary to Hexadecimal number system

Ex :- Convert the binary number (1010101010)2 in to hexadecimal number.

(1010101010)2 = 0010 1010 1010
= (2AA)16
 Decimal to Binary conversion

The decimal number is converted in to binary number by using successive divisions

method.
1. The decimal number (i.e. dividend) is divided by 2 (i.e. divisor).
2. If ‘1’ or “0” occurs as remainder, transfer that ‘1’ or “0” to the binary record.
3. Now take quotient as dividend and divide it by 2 and transfer the remainder to the
binary record.
4. The same procedure is continued until the quotient becomes zero
5. The last remainder is taken as most significant bit (MSB).
6. The first remainder is taken as least significant bit (LSB).
7. The equivalent binary number comprises with all the remainders in successive
divisions method in the order from MSB (bottom) to LSB (top).
 Fractional Decimal number to binary

The fractional decimal number is converted in to binary number by using successive

fraction multiplications method.
1. The fractional decimal number is multiplied with 2 by successive fraction multiplications
method.
2. If ‘1’ or ‘0’ occurs in units place in the product, transfer that ‘1’ or ‘0’ to the binary record.
3. The multiplication is continued with the remaining fraction.
4. The same procedure is followed in each multiplication.
5. The first transferred number (1 or 0) to binary record is taken as most significant bit (MSB).
6. The last transferred number (1 or 0) to binary record is taken as least significant bit (LSB).
7. If the multiplication does not end, it can be stopped at any of our desired level.
 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

Ex :- Convert the decimal number (415)10 in to hexadecimal number.

 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

Ex: (5C7)16 to decimal

Sol:- (5C7)16 = (5x162) + (C x161) + (7 x160)
= 1280 + 192 + 7
= (1479)10
 BINARY LOGIC
• Binary logic deals with variables that take
on two discrete values (0 or 1) and with
logical operations. The two values the
variables assume may be called by different
names (true and false, yes and no, etc.),
• Developed by English Mathematician
George Boole in between 1815 - 1864.
• It is described as an algebra of logic or an
algebra of two values i.e True or False.
• The term logic means a statement having
binary decisions i.e True/Yes or False/No.
 Basic Operations
Logical operations are performed by logical operators. The
fundamental logical operators are:
AND, OR , NOT

AND operator
It performs logical multiplication and
denoted by (.) dot.
X Y X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 OR operator

It performs logical addition and

denoted by (+) plus.
X Y X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 NOT operator
It performs logical negation and denoted by (-) bar. It
operates on single variable.

X X (means complement of x)
0 1
1 0
 Logic Gates
• Logic gates are electronic circuits
that operate on one or more input
signals to produce an output
signal.
• Electrical signals such as voltages
or currents exist as analog signals
having values over a given
continuous range, say, 0 to 3 V.
 AND gate

• The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives

a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high.
• AND gate takes two or more input signals and
produce only one output signal.

Input Input Output

A B AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 OR gate

• The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if

one or more of its inputs are high.
• OR gate also takes two or more input signals and produce only
one output signal.
Input Input Output
A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 NOT gate
• The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if its input
is low .
• NOT gate takes only one input signal and produce only one output signal.
• The output of NOT gate is complement of its input.
• It is also called inverter.

Input A Output A
0 1
1 0
 NAND Gate

Known as a “universal” gate because ANY digital circuit can

be implemented with NAND gates alone.

NAND
X Y Z
X 0 0 1
Z 0 1 1
Y 1 0 1
1 1 0
 NAND Gate

F = (X•X)’ X F = X’
X
= X’+X’
= X’

X X F X•Y
F = ((X•Y)’)’
Y = (X’+Y’)’ Y
= X’’•Y’’
= X•Y
X X
F = (X’•Y’)’ F = X+Y
= X’’+Y’’
Y Y
= X+Y
NOR Gate
•Binary arithmetic. • Logical Operation
•1 + 1 = 10
•(read “one plus one •1 + 1 = 1
is equal to 2”) • (read “one OR one is
equal to one”)
 AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• In 1854, George Boole developed an algebraic system
now called Boolean algebra
• In1938, Claude E. Shannon introduced a two‐valued
Boolean algebra called switching algebra that
represented the properties of bistable electrical
switching circuits.
• The postulates formulated by E. V. Huntington in 1904
is considered for the formal definition.
 Huntington Postulates
1. (a) The structure is closed with respect to the operator + & .
2. (a) The element 0 is an identity element with respect to +;
x + 0 = 0 + x = x.
(b) The element 1 is an identity element with respect to . ; that is,
x .1 = 1 . x = x
3. (a) The structure is commutative with respect to +; that is, x + y = y + x.
(b) The structure is commutative with respect to . ; that is, x .y = y . x.
4. (a) The operator . is distributive over +; that is, x . (y + z) = (x . y) + (x . z).
(b) The operator + is distributive over . ; that is, x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z).
5. For every element x €B, there exists an element x € B (called the
complement of x) such that (a) x + x’ = 1 and (b) x . x' = 0.
6. There exist at least two elements x, y € B such that x ≠ y.
 BASIC THEOREMS AND PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA
Duality principle: States that every algebraic expression from the postulates of
Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are
interchanged (OR and AND operators and replace 1’s by 0’s and 0’s by 1’s.)
Basic Theorems
THEOREM 6(b): x(x + y) = x by duality.
Operator Precedence
•(1) parentheses,
•(2) NOT
•(3) AND
•(4) OR.
Simplify the expression
F = x’y’z+xyz+x’yz+xy’z
Develop the Truth Table for the Boolean Expression

•F = x’y’z
 BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
• Boolean algebra is an algebra that deals with binary
variables and logic operations.
• A Boolean function described by an algebraic
expression consists of binary variables, the constants 0
and 1, and the logic operation symbol
F1 = x + y’z
Algebraic Manipulation
Consensus Theorem
•x y + x ′ z + y z = x y + x ′ z
•Duality :
(x+y)(x′+z)(y+z)=(x+y)
(x′+z)
Simplify the following
•abc+ab’c+abc’
•a’bcd’+bcd’+bc’d’+bc’d
•ac+c(a+a’b)
•a’bcd+a’bcd+abd
•a+a’b+ab’
•ab+(ac)’+ab’c(ab+c)
Simplify the following
•xy + x ( wz + wz ′ )
•( yz ′ + x ′ w ) ( xy ′ + zw ′ )
•( x ′ + z ′ ) ( x + y ′ + z ′ )
•x ′ z ′ + xyz + xz ′
•( x ′ y ′ + z ) ′ + z + xy + wz
•w ′ x ( z ′ + y ′ z ) + x ( w + w ′ yz )
•( w ′ + y ) ( w ′ + y ′ ) ( w + x + y ′ z )
•wxy ′ z + w ′ xz + wxyz
 Complement of a Function
➢The complement of a function F is F' and is obtained from an interchange
of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value of F.
➢The complement of a function may be derived algebraically through De
Morgan's theorem.
➢De Morgan's theorems can be extended to three or more variables.

➢De Morgan's theorems for any number of variables can be generalized as:

(A +B +C+ D+ ... +F)' = A'B'C'D' ... F'

(ABCD... F)' =A' + B' + C' + D' +... + F'
➢The generalized form of De Morgan's theorem states that the
complement of a function is obtained by interchanging AND and OR
operators and complementing each literal.
What Boolean expression is implemented by the
following logic diagram?
Write the truth Table
 Find the complement of the Boolean function
F=A′BC′+A′B′C
•F ′ = A + B C + B ′ C ′
•F= xy ′ + x ′ y
•F= ( a + c ) ( a + b ′ ) ( a ′ + b + c ′ )
•F= z + z ′ ( v ′ w + xy )
•F =xy’z+x’yz’+xyz
•F=x’y’z’+x’yz’+xy’z’+xy’z+xyz’
•F= (xy’+w’z)(wx’+yz’)
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES
Extension to
Multiple Inputs
Positive and Negative Logic
• High-level H to represent logic 1 defines a positive logic
system
• Low-level L to represent logic 1 defines a negative logic
system
Logic System
• Hardware digital gates are defined in terms of signal
values such as H and L.
• Consider the physical behavior of the gate when H is 3
V and L is 0 V
Draw the logic
diagram for the
following
Boolean
expression
without
simplifying it:
F=D+BC
+ (D+C′)
(A′+C)
 Gate-level minimization
• Gate-level minimization is the design task of finding an
optimal gate-level implementation of the Boolean functions
describing a digital circuit.
THE MAP METHOD:
The map method provides a simple, straightforward
procedure for minimizing Boolean functions, as a
pictorial form of a truth table. The map method is
also known as the Karnaugh map or K-map .
 Minterm and Maxterm
• A minterm of n variables = product of n literals in which
each variable appears exactly once either in H or L form,
but not in both. (Also known as a standard product term)
• Each minterm has value 1 for exactly one combination
of values of variables. E.g. ABC (111) => m7
•Minterm Notation:
•f = A’BC + AB’C’ + AB’C + ABC’ +ABC;
•f (A,B,C) = m3 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7
•f (A,B,C) = Σm(3,4,5,6,7)
 Maxterm
• A maxterm of n variables = sum of n literals in which each
variable appears exactly once in H or L from, but not in both.
• Each maxterm has a value of 0 for exactly one combination
of values of variables. E. g. A + B + C’ (001) => M1 (the
value is 0). Therefore Mi = m’i .
• A function can be written as a product of maxterms, which is
referred to as a maxterm expansion or a standard product of
sums.
• f = (A+B+C)(A+B+C’)(A+B’+C)
• f (A,B,C) = M0M1M2
• f (A,B,C) = ΠM (0,1,2)
Two-Variable K-Map
• Four minterms for two variables, the map consists of four
squares, one for each minterm.

• Simplify the Boolean expression

•m1 + m2 + m3 = x’y + xy’ + xy using K-Map
Three-Variable K-Map
Simplify the Boolean function
F (x, y, z) =Σ (2, 3, 4, 5)
Simplify the Boolean function
F (x, y, z) = Σ (3, 4, 6, 7)
Simplify the Boolean function
F (x, y, z) = Σ(0, 2, 4, 5, 6)
Simplify the Boolean function
F = A‘C + A‘B + AB‘C + BC
 Simplify the Boolean function
F(x, y, z)=Σ(0, 1, 6, 7).
Answer: F(x, y, z)=xy+x′y′
Simplify the Boolean function
F(x, y, z)=Σ(0, 1, 2, 5).
•Answer: F(x, y, z)=x′z′+y′z
 Simplify the Boolean
function
F(x, y, z)=Σ(0, 2, 3, 4, 6).

Answer: F(x, y, z)=z′+x′y

For the Boolean function
F(x, y, z)=xy′z + x′y + x′z + yz,
(a) express this function as a sum of
minterms, and (b) find the minimal
sum-of products expression.
Answer: F(x, y, z)
=m1+m2+m3+m5+m7=z+x′y=z+x′y
 Simplify the following Boolean functions, using
three-variable K-maps
•1. F(x, y, z)=Σ(0, 2, 4, 5)
•2. F (x, y, z)=Σ(0, 2, 4, 5, 6)
•3. F(x, y, z)=Σ(0, 1, 2, 3, 5)
•4. F(x, y, z)=Σ(1, 2, 3, 7)
•5. F(x, y, z)=Σ(0, 1, 5, 7)
•6.F(x,y,z)=xy+x′y′z′+x′yz′
•7.F(x,y,z)=x′y′+yz+x′yz′
Simplify the following
Boolean functions, using three-
variable K-maps
• F(x, y, z)=Σ(1, 2, 3, 6, 7)
•F(x, y, z)=Σ(2, 3, 4, 5)
•F(x, y, z)=Σ(1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7)
•F(x, y, z)=Σ(0, 2, 4, 6)
•F(x, y, z)=Σ(3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
•F(x, y, z)=x′y+yz′+y′z′
FOUR-VARIABLE K-MAP
•The map for Boolean functions of four binary
variables (w, x, y, z) One square represents one minterm,
giving a term with four literals.
Two adjacent squares represent a
term with three literals.
Four adjacent squares represent a
term with two literals.
Eight adjacent squares represent a
term with one literal.
Sixteen adjacent squares produce a
function that is always equal to 1.
Simplify the
Boolean function
F(w, x, y, z)=Σ(0, 1,
2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12,
13, 14)
Simplify the Boolean function
F=A′B′C′+B′CD′+A′BCD′+AB′C′

F
=A′B′C′+B′CD′+A′
BCD′+AB′C′
=B′D′+B′C′+A′CD′
Simplify the Boolean function
F (w, x, y, z)=Σ(0, 1, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
•Answer: F(w, x, y, z)=x′y′+x′z+w
•Simplify the Boolean function
•F(w, x, y, z)=Σ (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11).
•Answer: F(w, x, y,z)=w′z′+x′z′+wx′y
Simplify the following Boolean functions
F (A, B, C, D)=Σ(4, 6, 7, 15)
F (A, B, C, D)=Σ(3, 7, 11, 13, 14, 15)
F (w, x, y, z)=Σ(2, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15)
F (w, x, y, z)=Σ(11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
F (w, x, y, z)=Σ(8, 10, 12, 13, 14)
F (w, x, y, z)=Σ(0,1,4,5,10,11,14,15)
F (w, x, y, z)=Σ(2,3,6,7,8,9,12,13)
 • Functions that have unspecified outputs
for some input combinations are called
incompletely specified functions or
don’t care conditions.
DON’T-CARE
CONDITIONS • A don’t-care minterm is a combination
of variables whose logical value is not
specified
Simplify the Boolean function
F(w, x, y, z)=Σ(1, 3, 7, 11, 15) which has the
don’t-care conditions d (w, x, y, z)=Σ(0, 2, 5)
Simplify the Boolean function
F(w, x, y, z)=Σ(4, 5, 6, 7, 12) with
don’t-care function d(w, x, y, z)=Σ(0, 8, 13)

•F(w, x, y, z)=xy′+xw′
 NAND AND NOR IMPLEMENTATION
• Digital circuits are frequently constructed with NAND
or NOR gates.
Two-Level Implementation
Implement the function F=AB+CD
Implement the
following
Boolean
function with
NAND gates:
F (x, y, z)=(1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 7)
Implement the Boolean function
F (x, y, z)=Σ(0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 7) with NAND gates, and
draw the logic diagram of the implementation.
Multilevel NAND Circuits

•F=A (CD+B)+BC′