Hydrology

Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Lesson 5
Surface Water
TOPICS
1.Sources of Stream Flow
2.Stream Flow Hydrograph
3. Excess rainfall and Direct Runoff
4.Unit Hydrograph

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Determine the sources of stream flow and surface flow
 Understand the Stream flow hydrograph
 Understand the unit hydrograph
 Produce a unit hydrograph based on the given storm data

TOPIC 1: Sources of Stream flow

The watershed, or catchment, is the area of land draining into a stream at a given location. To
describe how the various surface water processes vary through time during a storm, suppose that
precipitation of a constant rate begins and continue indefinitely on a watershed. Precipitation contributes to
various storage and flow processes, as illustrated below. The vertical axis of this diagram represents,
relative to the rate of precipitation, the rate at which water is flowing or being added to storage in each of the
processes shown at any instant of time.
Initially, a large proportion of the precipitation contributes to surface storage, as water infiltrates into
the soil, there is also soil moisture storage. There are two types of storage: retention and detention',
retention is storage held for a long period of time and depleted by evaporation, and detention is short-term
storage depleted by flow away from the storage location
As the detention storages begin filling, flow away from them occurs: unsaturated flow through the
unsaturated soil near the land surface, groundwater flow through saturated aquifers deeper down, and
overland flow across the land surface.
Channel flow is the main form of surface water flow, and all the other surface flow processes
contribute to it. Determining flow rates in stream channels is a central task of surface water hydrology. The
precipitation which becomes stream flow may reach the stream by overland flow, subsurface flow, or both.

Schematic illustration of the disposal of precipitation during a storm on a watershed

Schematic illustration of the disposal of precipitation during a storm on a watershed.

Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Hortonian Overland Flow

Horton (1933) described overland flow as follows: "Neglecting interception by vegetation, surface
runoff is that part of the rainfall which is not absorbed by the soil by infiltration. If the soil has an infiltration
capacity/, expressed in inches depth absorbed per hour, then when the rain intensity 𝑖 is less than 𝑓 the rain
is all absorbed and there is no surface runoff. It may be said as a first approximation that if 𝑖 is greater
than𝑓, surface runoff will occur at the rate(𝑖 — 𝑓). Horton termed this difference(𝑖 — 𝑓) "rainfall
excess." Horton considered surface runoff to take the form of a sheet flow whose depth might be measured
in fractions of an inch. As flow accumulates going down a slope, its depth increases until discharge into a
stream channel occurs. Along with overland flow there is depression storage in surface hollows and surface
detention storage proportional to the depth of the overland flow itself. The soil stores infiltrated water and
Along with overland flow there is depression storage in surface hollows and surface detention
storage proportional to the depth of the overland flow itself. The soil stores infiltrated water and then slowly
releases it as sub-surface flow to enter the stream as baseflow during rainless periods.
Hortonian overland flow is applicable for impervious surfaces in urban areas, and for natural surfaces
with thin soil layers and low infiltration capacity as in semiarid and arid lands.

Subsurface Flow
Hortonian overland flow occurs rarely on vegetated surfaces in humid regions (Freeze, 1972, 1974;
Dunne, Moore, and Taylor, 1975). Under these conditions, the infiltration capacity of the soil exceeds
observed rainfall intensities for all except the most extreme rainfalls. Subsurface flow then becomes a
primary mechanism for transporting storm water to streams. The process of subsurface flow is illustrated in
Fig. 5.1.3, using the results of numerical simulations carried out by Freeze (1974). Part (a) shows an
idealized cross section of a hillside draining into a stream. Prior to rainfall, the stream surface is in
equilibrium with the water table and no saturated subsurface flow occurs. Parts (𝑏) − (𝑑) show how a
seepage pattern develops from rainfall on surface 𝐷𝐸, which serves to raise the water table (𝑒) until inflow
ceases(𝑡 = 277 𝑚𝑖𝑛), after which the water table declines (𝑓). All of the rainfall is infiltrated along
surface DE until t = 84 min, when the soil first becomes saturated at D; as time continues, decreasing
infiltration occurs along DE as progressively more of the surface becomes saturated (g). The total outflow
(h) partly comprises saturated groundwater flow contributed directly to the stream and partly unsaturated
subsurface flow seeping from the hillside above the water table.

Saturated-unsaturated subsurface flow in a

small idealized two-dimensional flow system (a)
Boundary and initial conditions. (b)-(d) Transient
hydraulic head contours (broken line) and
stream lines (solid). (e) Water table rise, if)
Water table decline, (g) Inflow as a function of
time and position, (k) Outflow hydrograph.
Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Saturation Overland Flow

Saturation overland flow is produced when subsurface flow saturates the soil near the bottom of a slope and
overland flow then occurs as rain falls onto saturated soil. Saturation overland flow differs from Hortonian overland flow
in that in Hortonian overland flow the soil is saturated from above by infiltration, while in saturation overland flow it is
saturated from below by subsurface flow. Saturation overland flow occurs most often at the bottom of hill slopes and
near stream banks. The velocity of subsurface flow is so low that not all of a watershed can contribute subsurface flow
or saturation overland flow to a stream during a storm.

Forest hydrologists (Hewlett, 1982) have coined the terms variable source areas, or partial areas, to denote the
area of the watershed actually contributing flow to the stream at any time (Betson, 1964; Ragan, 1968; Harr, 1977;
Pearceand McKerchar, 1979; Hewlett, 1982). As shown, the variable source area expands during rainfall and contracts
thereafter. The source area for stream flow may constitute only 10 percent of the watershed during a storm in a humid,
well vegetated region.

The small arrows in the hydrographs show how stream flow increases as the variable source extends into swamps,
shallow soils and ephemeral channels.

TOPIC 2: Stream Flow Hydrograph

A stream flow or discharge hydrograph is a graph or table showing the flow rate as a function of time at a
given location on the stream. In effect, the hydrograph is "an integral expression of the physiographic and climatic
characteristics that govern the relations between rainfall and runoff of a particular drainage basin" (Chow, 1959). Two
types of hydrographs are particularly important: the annual hydrograph and the storm hydrograph.

1. The annual hydrograph, a plot of streamflow vs. time over a year, shows the long-term balance of
precipitation, evaporation, and streamflow in a watershed. Examples typical of three main types of annual
hydrographs are shown below.

 Perennial or continuous flow regime typical of a humid

climate. The spikes, caused by rain storms, are called direct
runoff or quickflow, while the slowly varying flow in rainless
periods is called baseftow. The total volume of flow under the
annual hydrograph is the basin yield. For a river with perennial
flow most of the basin yield usually comes from baseflow,
indicating that a large proportion of the rainfall is infiltrated into
the basin and reaches the stream as subsurface flow.
Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

 Ephemeral river in an arid climate; There are long

periods when the river is dry. Most storm rainfall becomes
direct runoff and little infiltration occurs. Basin yield from
this watershed is the result of direct runoff from large
storms.

 The third hydrograph, is produced by a snow-fed

river. The bulk of the basin yield occurs in the spring and
early summer from snowmelt. The large volume of water
stored in the snowpack, and its steady release, create an
annual hydrograph which varies more smoothly over the
year than for the perennial or ephemeral streams
illustrated.

2. Storm Hydrograph
Study of annual hydrographs shows that peak stream flows are produced infrequently, and are the
result of storm rainfall alone or storm rainfall and snowmelt combined. The figure below shows four
components of a stream flow hydrograph during a storm. Prior to the time of intense rainfall, base flow is
gradually diminishing (segment AB). Direct runoff begins at B, peaks at C and ends at D. Segment DE follows
as normal base flow recession begins again.

Base flow Separation

A variety of techniques have been suggested for separating base flow and direct runoff. One of the oldest is the
normal depletion curve described by Horton (1933). The normal depletion curve, or master base flow recession
curve, is a characteristic graph of flow recessions compiled by superimposing many of the recession curves observed
on a given stream. Recession curves often take the form of exponential decay:
𝑄 (𝑡) = 𝑄𝑜 𝑒 −(𝑡−𝑡𝑜 )/𝑘
Where:
𝑄𝑜 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜
𝑘 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The equation is linearized by plotting the logarithm of 𝑄(𝑡) against time on a linear scale. In Northland, New
Zealand, a typical value for 𝑘 is 6 𝑥 10−3 days, which corresponds to a "half-life" of 116 days (Martin, 1973). The half-
life is the time for base flow to recede to the point where 𝑄(𝑡)/𝑄𝑜 = 0.5. The concept underlying the equation is
that of a linear reservoir, whose outflow rate is proportional to the current storage.
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑘 𝑄(𝑡)

Some alternative methods of baseflow separation are: (a) the straight line method, (b) the fixed base length method,
and (c) the variable slope method.

 The straight line method, involves drawing a horizontal line from the point at which surface runoff begins to
the intersection with the recession limb. This is applicable to ephemeral streams. An improvement over this
approach is to use an inclined line to connect the beginning point of the surface runoff with the point on the
recession limb of the hydrograph where normal base flow resumes. For small forested watersheds in humid
regions, Hewlett and Hibbert (1967) suggested that baseflow during a storm can be assumed to be
𝑙
increasing at a rate of 0.0055 ∗ ℎ𝑎 − ℎ (0.05 𝑐𝑓𝑠/𝑚𝑖 2 ℎ)
𝑠
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

 In the fixed base method, the surface runoff is assumed to end a fixed time N after the hydrograph peak.
The baseflow before the surface runoff began is projected ahead to the time of the peak. A straight line is
used to connect this projection at the peak to the point on the recession limb at time N after the peak.

 In the variable slope method, the baseflow curve before the surface runoff began is extrapolated forward to
the time of peak discharge, and the baseflow curve after surface runoff ceases is extrapolated backward to
the time of the point of inflection on the recession limb. A straight line is used to connect the endpoints of the
extrapolated curves.

TOPIC 3: Excess Rainfall and Direct Runoff

Excess rainfall, or effective rainfall, is that rainfall which is neither retained on the land surface nor infiltrated
into the soil. After flowing across the watershed surface, excess rainfall becomes direct runoff at the watershed outlet
under the assumption of Hortonian overland flow. The graph of excess rainfall vs. time, or excess rainfall hyetograph
(ERH), is a key component of the study of rainfallrunoff relationships. The difference between the observed total rainfall
hyetograph and the excess rainfall hyetograph is termed abstractions, or losses. Losses are primarily water absorbed
by infiltration with some allowance for interception and surface storage.

The excess rainfall hyetograph may be determined from the rainfall hyetograph in one of two ways,
depending on whether stream flow data are available for the storm or not. In this section, it is assumed that stream flow
data are available. Suppose that a rainfall hyetograph and stream flow hyetograph are available, base flow has been
separated from stream flow to produce the direct runoff hydrograph, and the excess rainfall hyetograph is to be
determined. The parameters of infiltration equations can be determined by optimization techniques such as nonlinear
programming (Unver and Mays, 1984), but these techniques are complicated. There is a simpler alternative, called a
𝜙 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥. The 𝝓 − 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 is that constant rate of abstractions (in/h or cm/h) that will yield an excess rainfall
hyetograph (ERH) with a total depth equal to the depth of direct runoff 𝑟𝑑 over the watershed. The value of 𝜙 is
determined by picking a time interval length∆𝑡. At, judging the number of intervals M of rainfall that actually contribute
to direct runoff, subtracting 𝜙∆𝑡from the observed rainfall in each interval, and adjusting the values of 𝜙 and M as
necessary so that the depths of direct runoff and excess rainfall are equal:
𝑀

𝑟𝑑 = ∑ (𝑅𝑚 − 𝜙∆𝑡)
𝑚=1

Where:
𝑅𝑚 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑚 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Runoff Coefficients
Abstractions may also be accounted for by means of runoff coefficients. The most common definition of a
runoff coefficient is that it is the ratio of the peak rate of direct runoff to the average intensity of rainfall in a storm.
Because of highly variable rainfall intensity, this value is difficult to determine from observed data. A runoff coefficient
can also be defined to be the ratio of runoff to rainfall over a given time period. These coefficients are most commonly
applied to storm rainfall and runoff, but can also be used for monthly or annual rainfall and stream flow data. If
∑𝑀𝑚=1 𝑅𝑚 is the total rainfall and 𝑟𝑑 the corresponding depth of runoff, then a runoff coefficient can be defined as:

𝑟𝑑
𝐶=
∑𝑀
𝑚=1 𝑅𝑚

Example:
Determine the direct runoff hydrograph. The 𝜙 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 , and the excess rainfall hyetograph from the
observed rainfall and stream flow data given in Table. The watershed area is 7.03 𝑚𝑖 2

Observed
Time rainfall (in) stream flow (cfs)
24-May 8:30 PM 203
9:00 0.15 246
9:30 0.26 283
10:00 1.33 828
10:30 2.2 2323
11:00 2.08 5697
11:30 0.20 9531
25-May 12:00AM 0.09 11025
12:30 8234
1:00 4321
1:30 2245
2:00 1802
2:30 1230
3:00 713
3:30 394
4:00 354
4:30 303

Solution:
 The pulse data representation is used for rainfall with a time interval of∆𝑡 = 1/2 ℎ, so each value shown is
the incremental precipitation that occurred during the half-hour up to the time shown.
 The stream flow data shown were recorded as sample data; the value shown in column 3 is the stream flow
recorded at that instant of time.

The computation of the effective rainfall hyetograph and the direct runoff hydrograph uses the following procedure:

Step 1. Estimate the base flow.

A constant base flow rate of 400 cfs is selected.

Step 2. Calculate the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH). The DRH, in column 6 of Table 5.3.1, is found by the straight line
method, by subtracting the 400 cfs base flow from the observed stream flow (column 3). Eleven half-hour time
intervals in column 4 are labelled from the first period of non-zero direct runoff, beginning at 9:30 P.M.
Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

2.5
2
rainfall (in)
1.5
1
0.5
0
8:30 PM 9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00AM 12:30 1:00 1:30 2:00 2:30 3:00 3:30 4:00 4:30

Time

12000

10000

8000
Streamflow

6000
Series2

4000 Series1

2000

4:30, 303
0
8:30 PM 9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00AM 12:30 1:00 1:30 2:00 2:30 3:00 3:30 4:00 4:30

Observed excess rainfall

stream flow Time hyetograph Direct runoff
Time rainfall (in) (cfs) (1/2 h) (ERH), in (DRF), cfs
24-May 8:30 PM 203
9:00 0.15 246
9:30 0.26 283
10:00 1.33 828 1 1.06 428
10:30 2.2 2323 2 1.93 1923
11:00 2.08 5697 3 1.81 5297
11:30 0.20 9531 4 9131
25-May 12:00AM 0.09 11025 5 10625
12:30 8234 6 7834
1:00 4321 7 3921
1:30 2245 8 1846
2:00 1802 9 1402
2:30 1230 10 830
3:00 713 11 313
3:30 394
4:00 354
4:30 303
4.80 43550

𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 – 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (0.27 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟)

𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (400𝑐𝑓𝑠)

Step 3. Compute the volume 𝑉𝑑 and depth 𝑟𝑑 of direct runoff.

Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

11

𝑉𝑑 = ∑ 𝑄𝑛 ∆𝑡
𝑛=1
𝑓𝑡 3 1
= 43,550 ( ℎ)
𝑠 2
3
𝑓𝑡 1 3600𝑠
= 43,550 ( ℎ) ( )
𝑠 2 1ℎ
𝟕 𝟑
𝑽𝒅 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟑𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝒕

𝑉𝑑
𝑟𝑑 =
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

7.839 𝑥 107 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑟𝑑 =
7.03 𝑚𝑖 2 (5280𝑓𝑡)2 /𝑚𝑖 2
𝒓𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟗 𝒇𝒕 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟗𝟗 𝒊𝒏

Step 4.
Estimate the rate of rainfall abstractions by infiltration and surface storage in the watershed. Any rainfall prior to
the beginning of direct runoff is taken as initial abstraction (i.e., that rainfall prior to 9:30 P.M. in Table). The abstraction
rate 𝜙and 𝑀, the number of nonzero pulses of excess rainfall, are found by trial and error.

1. If 𝑀 = 1 the largest rainfall pulse, 𝑅𝑚 = 2.20 𝑖𝑛 , is selected, substituted into Eq. using 𝑟𝑑 = 4.80𝑖𝑛
and ∆𝑡 = 0.5ℎ, and solved for a trial value of 𝜙
𝑀

𝑟𝑑 = ∑ (𝑅𝑚 − 𝜙∆𝑡)
𝑚=1
4.80 = 2.20 − (𝜙 ∗ 0.5)
𝜙 = −5.20 𝑖𝑛/ℎ

which is not physically possible.

2. If 𝑀 = 2 the one-hour period having the highest rainfall is selected (between 10:00 P.M. and 11:00 P.M.) and
substituted into (5.3.1) to solve for a new trial, and solved for a trial value of ϕ
𝑀

𝑟𝑑 = ∑ (𝑅𝑚 − 𝜙∆𝑡)
𝑚=1
4.80 = 2.20 + 2.08 − (𝜙 ∗ 2 ∗ 0.5)
𝜙 = −0.52 𝑖𝑛/ℎ
which is not physically possible

3. If M = 2, the 11/2 hour period having pulses 1.33, 2.20, and 2.08 in is selected, and the data is substituted
𝑀

𝑟𝑑 = ∑ (𝑅𝑚 − 𝜙∆𝑡)
𝑚=1
4.80 = 2.20 + 2.08 + 1.33 − (𝜙 ∗ 3 ∗ 0.5)
𝜙 = 0.54 𝑖𝑛/ℎ

This value of 𝜙 is satisfactory because it gives 𝜙∆𝑡 = 0.27𝑖𝑛, which is greater than all of the
rainfall pulses in column 2 outside of the three assumed to contribute to direct runoff

Step 5. Calculate the excess rainfall hyetograph.

The ordinates (column 5) are found by subtracting ϕ∆t = 0.27in from the ordinates of the observed rainfall
hyetograph (column 2), neglecting all intervals in which the observed rainfall depth is less than ϕ∆t. The duration of
excess rainfall is 1.5 h in this example (9:30 to 11:00 P.M.). The depth of excess rainfall is checked to ensure that it
equals 𝑟𝑑 (total of column 5 = 4.80 in). The excess portion of the observed rainfall hyetograph is cross-hatched.

Example:
Determine the runoff coefficient for the storm given above.
Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Solution:
𝑟𝑑
𝐶= 𝑀
∑𝑚=1 𝑅𝑚
4.80
𝐶=
1.33 + 2.20 + 2.08 + 0.20 + 0.09
𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏

TOPIC 4: Unit Hydrograph Theory

Sherman (1932) originally advanced the theory of the unit hydrograph (UH), defined as “basin outflow
resulting from 1.0 inch (1.0 mm) of direct runoff generated uniformly over the drainage area at a uniform rainfall rate
during a specified period of rainfall duration.” An important point here is that UH is composed of 1.0 inch of direct
runoff, which is equivalent to 1.0 inch of net rainfall for a given duration, D , and therefore all losses to infiltration must
be subtracted before computations. Several assumptions inherent in the unit hydrograph approach tend to limit its
application for any given watershed (Johnstone and Cross, 1949):
1. Rainfall excesses of equal duration are assumed to produce hydrographs with equivalent time bases regardless
of the intensity of the rain.
2. Direct runoff ordinates for a storm of given duration are assumed directly proportional to rainfall excess volumes.
Thus, twice the rainfall produces a doubling of hydrograph ordinates.
3. The time distribution of direct runoff is assumed independent of antecedent precipitation.
4. Rainfall distribution is assumed to be the same for all storms of equal duration, both spatially and temporally.

Unit hydrograph determination. (a) Total storm

hydrograph. (b) Hydrograph minus base flow, rainfall
minus losses. (c) Hydrograph adjusted to be a 2-hr unit
hydrograph.

The hydrograph is characterized by a rising limb, a crest segment, and a recession curve. Timing
parameters such as 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷 of rainfall excess and 𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑝 , are also illustrated. The main timing
aspects of the hydrograph can be characterized by the following parameters:
Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

1. Duration of rainfall excess ( 𝐷 ): the time from start to finish of rainfall excess.
2. Lag time (𝑡𝑝 ): the time from the center of mass of rainfall excess to the peak of the hydrograph.
3. Time of rise (TR): the time from the start of rainfall excess to the peak of the hydrograph.
4. Time of concentration (𝑡𝑐 ): the time for a wave (of water) to propagate from the most distant point in the
watershed to the outlet. One estimate is the time from the end of net rainfall to the inflection point of the
hydrograph.
5. Time base (𝑡𝑏 ):): the total duration of the DRO hydrograph.

If rainfall–runoff data exist, it is useful to develop unit hydrographs from measured rainfall events and
stream flow from gages in a defined watershed. The following general rules should be observed in developing unit
hydrographs from gauged watersheds:
 Storms should be selected with a simple structure with relatively uniform spatial and temporal distributions.
 Watershed sizes should generally fall between 1.0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 100 𝑚𝑖 2 in modern watershed analysis.
 Direct runoff should range from 0.5 to 2.0 in.
 Duration of rainfall excess D should be approximately 25% to 30% of lag time tp.
 A number of storms of similar duration should be analyzed to obtain an average unit hydrograph for that
duration.
 Step 5 should be repeated for several rainfalls of different duration.

The following are the essential steps for developing a unit hydrograph from a single storm hydrograph:
1. Analyze the hydrograph and separate base flow.
2. Measure the total volume of DRO under the hydrograph and convert this to inches (mm) over the watershed.
3. Convert total rainfall to rainfall excess through infiltration methods, such that rainfall excess = DRO, and evaluate
duration D of the rainfall excess that produced the DRO hydrograph.
4. Divide the ordinates of the DRO hydrograph by the volume in inches (mm) and plot these results as the unit
hydrograph for the basin. The time base 𝑡𝑏 is assumed constant for storms of equal duration and thus it will not
change.
5. Check the volume of the unit hydrograph to make sure that it is 1.0in. (1.0 mm), and graphically adjust ordinates
as required.

Example:
Convert the direct runoff hydrograph shown into a 2-hr UH. (The UH is labeled with its duration.) Note that the
duration of net rainfall is 2 hr. The total rainfall hyetograph is given in the figure, and the infiltration loss for the storm
was 0.5 in./hr as a constant value. The base flow in the channel was 100 cfs (constant). What are 𝑡𝑝 and 𝑡𝑏 for the
storm?

1. Find the net rainfall.

After subtracting the infiltration, plot the rainfall excess hyetograph shown. This represents 2.0 in.
of rainfall, or 1 in./hr for 2 hr. Then we subtract base flow from all the flow values. Finally, the hydrograph
must be converted to 1 in. of direct runoff over the watershed, or 0.5 in./hr of rain for 2 hr. Take each ordinate
minus its base flow and divide it by 2. This entire procedure is tabulated as follows

Resulting hyetograph.

Time (hr) Q (cfs) Q-BF (cfs) 2-hr UH, Q

0 100 0 0
Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

1 100 0 0
2 300 200 100
3 700 600 300
4 1000 900 450
5 800 700 350
6 600 500 250
7 400 300 150
8 300 200 100
9 300 100 50
10 100 0 0
11 100 0 0

The 2-hr UH graphs as shown below . 𝑡𝑏 , the time base of the storm, is 9 hr, and the time to peak tp measured
from the center of mass of rainfall is 2 hr.

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-100

Because of assumptions of linearity inherent in the UH development, care must be used in applying UHs under
conditions that tend to violate linearity. If intensity variations are large over the long-duration storm, assumptions of
linearity may be violated. Also, if storage effects in the watershed are important, assumptions may be violated. For
large watersheds (above 100–500 𝑚𝑖 2 ), it is usually advisable to divide the watershed into a number of subareas so
that individual UHs can be developed for each. Typically, UH should not exceed areas of 5 to 10 sq mi