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Principles of Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning
8th Edition Ronald Hunter Howell Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Ronald Hunter Howell
ISBN(s): 9781939200730, 1939200733
Edition: 8
File Details: PDF, 27.33 MB
Year: 2017
Language: english
 Principles of Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning is a textbook based on the 2017 ASHRAE

Principles of HVAC
Handbook—Fundamentals. It contains the most current ASHRAE procedures and definitive, yet
easy to understand, treatment of building HVAC systems, from basic principles through design and
operation. Principles
of Heating
It is suitable both as a textbook and as a reference book for undergraduate engineering courses in
the field of air conditioning, heating, and ventilation; for similar courses at technical and vocational
schools; for continuing education and refresher short courses for engineers; and for adult education
courses for professionals other than engineers, especially when combined with ASHRAE Handbook—
Fundamentals.

The material is divided into three major sections: general concepts, Chapters 1–10; air-conditioning
Ventilating
and
systems, Chapters 11–16; and HVAC&R equipment, Chapters 17–20. There are several significant
changes in this revised edition. Chapter 4 has new values for climatic design information. Chapter 7
has been extensively revised with new design data. In addition, the chapters on system design and
equipment have been significantly revised to reflect recent changes and concepts in modern heating
and air-conditioning system practices.

This book includes access to a website containing the Radiant Time Series (RTS) Method Load
Air Conditioning
Calculation Spreadsheets, which are intended as an educational tool both for the student and for
the experienced engineer wishing to explore the RTS method. These spreadsheets allow the user to
perform RTS cooling load calculations for lights, people, equipment, walls/roofs, and fenestration
components using design day weather profiles for any month. Cooling and heating loads can be 8th Edition
calculated for individual rooms or block load zones. Twelve-month cooling calculations can be done
to determine the month and time of peak cooling load for each room or block load zone. In addition,
room/zone worksheets can be copied and modified within the spreadsheet to analyze as many rooms
or zones as desired; the number of rooms/zones is limited only by the available computer memory.

8th Edition
Based on the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals

Ronald H. Howell

ISBN: 978-1-939200-73-0 (hardback)

978-1-939200-74-7 (PDF)

ASHRAE
1791 Tullie Circle
Atlanta, GA 30329-2305
404-636-8400 (worldwide)
Product
9 Code:200730
781939 90567 7/17
www.ashrae.org

PHVAC TEXT_cover.indd 1 7/12/2017 12:01:20 PM

 PRINCIPLES
OF HEATING
VENTILATING
AND
AIR CONDITIONING
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Ronald H. Howell, PhD, PE, Fellow ASHRAE, retired as professor and chair of mechanical engineering at the Univer-
sity of South Florida and is also professor emeritus of the University of Missouri-Rolla. For 45 years he taught courses
in refrigeration, heating and air conditioning, thermal analysis, and related areas. He has been the principal or co-prin-
cipal investigator of 12 ASHRAE-funded research projects. His industrial and consulting engineering experience ranges
from ventilation and condensation problems to the development and implementation of a complete air curtain test
program.

The following authors contributed significantly to the textbook Principles of Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning.
They recently passed away and were not part of the 2017 revisions.

William J. Coad, PE, Fellow ASHRAE, was ASHRAE president in 2001-2002. He was employed with McClure Engi-
neering Associates, St. Louis, Mo., for 45 years. He was also president of Coad Engineering Enterprises. He served as
a consultant to the Missouri state government and was a lecturer in mechanical engineering for 12 years and an affiliate
professor in the graduate program for 17 years at Washington University, St. Louis. He was the author of Energy Engi-
neering and Management for Building Systems (Van Nostrand Reinhold). Mr. Coad passed away in August 2014.

Harry J. Sauer, Jr., PhD, PE, Fellow ASHRAE, was a professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at the Univer-
sity of Missouri-Rolla. He taught courses in air conditioning, refrigeration, environmental quality analysis and control,
and related areas. His research ranged from experimental boiling/condensing heat transfer and energy recovery equip-
ment for HVAC systems to computer simulations of building energy use and actual monitoring of residential energy use.
He served as an advisor to the Missouri state government and has conducted energy auditor training programs for the
US Department of Energy. Dr. Sauer passed away in June 2008.
 PRINCIPLES
OF HEATING
VENTILATING
AND
AIR CONDITIONING
8th Edition

A Textbook with Design Data Based on the

2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals

Ronald H. Howell

Atlanta
 ISBN 978-1-939200-73-0 (hardback)
978-1-939200-74-7 (PDF)

© 1990, 1994, 1998, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2013, 2017 ASHRAE

1791 Tullie Circle, N.E.
Atlanta, GA 30329
www.ashrae.org

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

ASHRAE is a registered trademark in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, owned by the American Society of Heating, Refriger-
ating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

ASHRAE has compiled this publication with care, but ASHRAE has not investigated, and ASHRAE expressly disclaims any duty
to investigate, any product, service, process, procedure, design, or the like that may be described herein. The appearance of any
technical data or editorial material in this publication does not constitute endorsement, warranty, or guaranty by ASHRAE of any
product, service, process, procedure, design, or the like. ASHRAE does not warrant that the information in the publication is free
of errors, and ASHRAE does not necessarily agree with any statement or opinion in this publication. The entire risk of the use of
any information in this publication is assumed by the user.

No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission in writing from ASHRAE, except by a reviewer who may quote
brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with appropriate credit, nor may any part of this publication be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any way or by any means—electronic, photocopying, recording, or other—without
permission in writing from ASHRAE. Requests for permission should be submitted at www.ashrae.org/permissions.

Names: Howell, Ronald H. (Ronald Hunter), 1935- author.

Title: Principles of heating ventilating and air conditioning : a textbook
with design data based on the 2017 ashrae handbook of fundamentals /
Ronald H. Howell.
Description: 8th edition. | Atlanta : ASHRAE, [2017] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017033377| ISBN 9781939200730 (hardcover : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781939200747 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Heating--Textbooks. | Ventilation--Textbooks. | Air
conditioning--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC TH7012 .H73 2017 | DDC 697--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017033377

ASHRAE STAFF SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS

Mark S. Owen, Editor/Group Manager of Handbook and Special Publications
Cindy Sheffield Michaels, Managing Editor
James Madison Walker, Managing Editor of Standards
Lauren Ramsdell, Assistant Editor
Mary Bolton, Editorial Assistant
Michshell Phillips, Editorial Coordinator
PUBLISHING SERVICES
David Soltis, Group Manager of Publishing Services
Jayne Jackson, Publication Traffic Administrator
PUBLISHER
W. Stephen Comstock

Updates and errata for this publication will be posted on the

ASHRAE website at www.ashrae.org/publicationupdates.
 CONTENTS

Part I General Concepts

Chapter 1 Background
Introduction........................................................................................................... 1
Historical Notes .................................................................................................... 2
Building Energy Use............................................................................................. 5
Conceptualizing an HVAC System ...................................................................... 7
Sustainability and Green Buildings ...................................................................... 7
Problems ............................................................................................................... 8
Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 9

Chapter 2 Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics

Fundamental Concepts and Principles................................................................ 11
Properties of a Substance .................................................................................... 13
Forms of Energy ................................................................................................. 36
First Law of Thermodynamics............................................................................ 40
Second Law of Thermodynamics ....................................................................... 42
Third Law of Thermodynamics .......................................................................... 44
Basic Equations of Thermodynamics ................................................................. 44
Thermodynamics Applied to Refrigeration ........................................................ 44
Applying Thermodynamics to Heat Pumps........................................................ 49
Absorption Refrigeration Cycle.......................................................................... 49
Problems ............................................................................................................. 50
Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 55
SI Tables and Figures.......................................................................................... 55

Chapter 3 Basic HVAC System Calculations

Applying Thermodynamics to HVAC Processes ............................................... 67
Single-Path Systems ........................................................................................... 72
Air-Volume Equations for Single-Path Systems ................................................ 72
Psychrometric Representation of Single-Path Systems ...................................... 74
Sensible Heat Factor (Sensible Heat Ratio)........................................................ 74
Problems ............................................................................................................. 76
Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 80

Chapter 4 Design Conditions

Indoor Design Conditions ................................................................................... 81
Outdoor Design Conditions: Weather Data ........................................................ 88
Other Factors Affecting Design ........................................................................ 140
Temperatures in Adjacent Unconditioned Spaces ............................................ 140
Problems ........................................................................................................... 141
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 142
SI Tables and Figures........................................................................................ 143

Chapter 5 Load Estimating Fundamentals

General Considerations..................................................................................... 145
Outdoor Air Load Components ........................................................................ 145
Heat-Transfer Coefficients................................................................................ 156
Calculating Surface Temperatures.................................................................... 170
Problems ........................................................................................................... 171
Contents vi

Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 177

SI Figures and Tables........................................................................................ 179

Chapter 6 Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations

Background ....................................................................................................... 191
General Guidelines............................................................................................ 192
Cooling Load Methodology.............................................................................. 197
Heating Load Methodology .............................................................................. 200
Nomenclature.................................................................................................... 205
Load Calculation Example................................................................................ 207
Problems ........................................................................................................... 209
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 212
SI Figures and Tables........................................................................................ 214

Chapter 7 Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations

Principles........................................................................................................... 221
Initial Design Considerations............................................................................ 225
Heat Gain Calculation Concepts....................................................................... 225
Description of Radiant Time Series (RTS)....................................................... 252
Cooling Load Calculation Using RTS .............................................................. 255
Heating Load Calculations................................................................................ 258
Design Loads Calculation Example.................................................................. 262
Problems ........................................................................................................... 274
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 276
SI Figures and Tables........................................................................................ 281

Chapter 8 Energy Estimating Methods

General Considerations..................................................................................... 297
Component Modeling and Loads...................................................................... 298
Overall Modeling Strategies ............................................................................. 299
Integration of System Models........................................................................... 300
Degree-Day Methods ........................................................................................ 301
Bin Method (Heating and Cooling) .................................................................. 310
Problems ........................................................................................................... 312
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 316

Chapter 9 Duct and Pipe Sizing

Duct Systems .................................................................................................... 317
Fans ................................................................................................................... 354
Air-Diffusing Equipment .................................................................................. 362
Pipe, Tube, and Fittings .................................................................................... 364
Pumps................................................................................................................ 369
Problems ........................................................................................................... 371
References......................................................................................................... 375
SI Figures and Tables........................................................................................ 377

Chapter 10 Economic Analyses and Life-Cycle Costs

Introduction....................................................................................................... 381
Owning Costs.................................................................................................... 381
Service Life....................................................................................................... 381
Depreciation...................................................................................................... 384
Interest or Discount Rate .................................................................................. 384
Periodic Costs ................................................................................................... 384
Operating Costs................................................................................................. 385
vii Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Economic Analysis Techniques........................................................................ 389

Reference Equations ......................................................................................... 392
Problems ........................................................................................................... 392
Symbols ............................................................................................................ 393
References......................................................................................................... 394
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 394
Part II HVAC Systems
Chapter 11 Air-Conditioning System Concepts
System Objectives and Categories.................................................................... 397
System Selection and Design............................................................................ 398
Design Parameters ............................................................................................ 398
Performance Requirements............................................................................... 399
Focusing on System Options ............................................................................ 399
Narrowing the Choice ....................................................................................... 400
Energy Considerations of Air Systems ............................................................. 401
Basic Central Air-Conditioning and Distribution System ................................ 402
Smoke Management.......................................................................................... 404
Components ...................................................................................................... 404
Air Distribution................................................................................................. 407
Space Heating ................................................................................................... 409
Primary Systems ............................................................................................... 409
Space Requirements.......................................................................................... 411
Problems ........................................................................................................... 414
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 416

Chapter 12 System Configurations

Introduction....................................................................................................... 417
Selecting the System ......................................................................................... 418
Multiple-Zone Control Systems........................................................................ 418
Ventilation and Dedicated Outdoor Air Systems (DOAS) ............................... 421
All-Air System with DOAS Unit...................................................................... 422
Air-and-Water Systems with DOAS Unit......................................................... 422
In-Space Temperature Control Systems ........................................................... 423
Chilled-Beam Systems...................................................................................... 425
Problems ........................................................................................................... 429
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 432

Chapter 13 Hydronic Heating and Cooling System Design

Introduction....................................................................................................... 433
Closed Water Systems ...................................................................................... 434
Design Considerations ...................................................................................... 442
Design Procedures ............................................................................................ 451
Problems ........................................................................................................... 453
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 454

Chapter 14 Unitary and Room Air Conditioners

Unitary Air Conditioners .................................................................................. 455
Combined Unitary and Dedicated Outdoor Air Systems.................................. 457
Window Air Conditioners................................................................................. 457
Through-the-Wall Conditioner System............................................................. 458
Typical Performance......................................................................................... 459
Minisplits, Multisplits, and Variable-Refrigerant-Flow (VRF) Systems.......... 459
Contents viii

Water-Source Heat Pumps................................................................................ 460

Problems ........................................................................................................... 461
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 461

Chapter 15 Panel Heating and Cooling Systems

General.............................................................................................................. 463
Types................................................................................................................. 464
Design Steps...................................................................................................... 466
Problems ........................................................................................................... 467
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 467

Chapter 16 Heat Pump, Cogeneration, and Heat Recovery Systems

General.............................................................................................................. 469
Types of Heat Pumps ........................................................................................ 469
Heat Sources and Sinks..................................................................................... 471
Cogeneration ..................................................................................................... 474
Heat Recovery Terminology and Concepts ...................................................... 475
Heat Recovery Systems .................................................................................... 477
Problems ........................................................................................................... 480
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 480
SI Figures .......................................................................................................... 481
Part III HVAC Equipment
Chapter 17 Air-Processing Equipment
Air-Handling Equipment .................................................................................. 483
Cooling Coils .................................................................................................... 483
Heating Coils .................................................................................................... 488
Evaporative Air-Cooling Equipment ................................................................ 489
Air Washers ...................................................................................................... 490
Dehumidification .............................................................................................. 490
Humidification .................................................................................................. 492
Sprayed Coil Humidifiers/Dehumidifiers ......................................................... 494
Air Cleaners ...................................................................................................... 494
Air-to-Air Energy Recovery Equipment........................................................... 499
Economizers...................................................................................................... 506
Problems ........................................................................................................... 507
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 508
SI Table............................................................................................................. 509

Chapter 18 Refrigeration Equipment

Mechanical Vapor Compression....................................................................... 511
Absorption Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Equipment ............................ 529
Cooling Towers................................................................................................. 536
Problems ........................................................................................................... 537
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 539
SI Tables ........................................................................................................... 540

Chapter 19 Heating Equipment

Fuels and Combustion ...................................................................................... 543
Burners.............................................................................................................. 546
Residential Furnaces ......................................................................................... 547
Commercial Furnaces ....................................................................................... 549
Boilers ............................................................................................................... 552
ix Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Terminal Units .................................................................................................. 554

Electric Heating ................................................................................................ 555
Problems ........................................................................................................... 557
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 558

Chapter 20 Heat Exchange Equipment

Modes of Heat Transfer .................................................................................... 561
Heat Exchangers ............................................................................................... 567
Basic Heat Exchanger Design Equation ........................................................... 569
Estimation of Heat Load ................................................................................... 569
Mean Temperature Difference.......................................................................... 569
Estimation of the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U .................................... 570
Extended Surfaces, Fin Efficiency, and Fin-Tube Contact Resistance ............ 571
Fouling Factors ................................................................................................. 572
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients hi and ho ............................................. 573
Calculation of Heat Exchanger Surface Area and Overall Size ....................... 576
Fluids and Their Thermophysical Properties.................................................... 576
Example Finned-Tube Heat Exchanger Design ............................................... 576
Problems ........................................................................................................... 576
Bibliography ..................................................................................................... 578
Appendices
Appendix A SI for HVAC&R
General.............................................................................................................. 579
Units.................................................................................................................. 579
Symbols ............................................................................................................ 580
Prefixes ............................................................................................................. 581
Numbers............................................................................................................ 581
Words................................................................................................................ 582

Appendix B Systems Design Problems

Combination Water Chillers ............................................................................. 585
Absorption Chiller Selection............................................................................. 585
Owning and Operating Costs ............................................................................ 586
Animal Rooms .................................................................................................. 586
Greenhouse ....................................................................................................... 588
Drying Room .................................................................................................... 589
Air Washer ........................................................................................................ 589
Two-Story Building .......................................................................................... 589
Motel ................................................................................................................. 590
Building Renovation ......................................................................................... 590
Building with Neutral Deck Multizone............................................................. 591

Index 593

This book includes access to a website containing the Radiant Time Series (RTS) Method Load
Calculation Spreadsheets. See www.ashrae.org/PHVAC8.
 PREFACE

Principles of Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, a textbook based on the 2017 ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals, should provide an attractive text for air-conditioning courses at engi-
neering colleges and technical institutes. The text has been developed to give broad and current cov-
erage of the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning field when combined with the 2017 ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals.
The book should prove most suitable as a textbook and subsequent reference book for (a) under-
graduate engineering courses in the general field of HVAC, (b) similar courses at technical institutes,
(c) continuing education and refresher short courses for engineers, and (d) adult education courses
for nonengineers. It contains more material than can normally be covered in a one-semester course.
However, several different single-semester or shorter courses can be easily planned by merely elim-
inating the chapters and/or parts that are least applicable to the objectives of the particular course.
This text will also readily aid in self-instruction of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals by
engineers wishing to develop their competence in the HVAC&R field.
Although numerous references are made to the other ASHRAE Handbook volumes, sufficient
material has been included from these to make this text complete enough for various courses in the
HVAC&R field. The material covered for various audiences in regular university courses, technical
institute courses, and short courses can and will vary greatly. This textbook needed to be complete
to satisfy all of these anticipated uses and needs. Toward this end, the following major sections are
included:
Part I General Concepts, Chapters 1–10
Part II Air-Conditioning Systems, Chapters 11–16
Part III HVAC&R Equipment, Chapters 17–20
Although the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals is published in an SI edition, which uses
international units, and an inch-pound (I-P) edition, this single version of Principles of Heating, Ven-
tilating, and Air Conditioning is designed to serve the I-P edition with some SI interspersed through-
out.
There are several significant changes in this edition. Chapter 4 has new values for climatic design
information. Chapter 7 has been extensively revised with new design data. These changes make Prin-
ciples compatible with the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. In addition, the chapters on
system design and equipment have been significantly revised to reflect recent changes and concepts
in contemporary heating and air-conditioning system practices. Also, the Solutions Manual has been
extensively edited.
A particular point of confusion must be pointed out. Because this book was developed to be used
with the ASHRAE Handbook’s Fundamentals volume, a number of tables and figures have been
reproduced in the original form, complete with references to material elsewhere in Fundamentals
(not in this book). Thus, if the subheading in the table or figure indicates that it is a Fundamentals
table or figure, then all references to other locations, equations, tables, etc., refer to those in Funda-
mentals, not in Principles.
Dr. Harry Sauer, Jr., one of the co-authors of this textbook, passed away in June 2008. Likewise,
William J. Coad was also a co-author of this textbook and passed away in August 2014. Both Dr.
Sauer and Mr. Coad made significant contributions to the book.

September 2017 Ronald H. Howell

 Chapter 1

BACKGROUND
This chapter provides a brief background on the heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration (HVAC&R)
field and industry, including the early history and some significant developments. An introduction to a few basic concepts
is included along with suggestions for further reading.

1.1 Introduction • Spatial requirements

• First cost
On the National Academy of Engineering’s list of engi- • Operating cost
neering achievements “that had the greatest impact on the • Maintenance cost
quality of life in the 20th century,” air conditioning and • Reliability
refrigeration came in tenth, indicating the great significance • Flexibility
of this field in the world. With many people in the United • Life-cycle cost analysis
States spending nearly 90% of their time indoors, it is hardly The following details should be considered to properly
surprising that providing a comfortable and healthy indoor design an air-conditioning system:
environment is a major factor in life today. In fact, over $33
billion of air-conditioning equipment was sold in the US 1. The location, elevation, and orientation of the structure
during the year 2010 alone. so that the effects of the weather (wind, sun, and precip-
Air-conditioning systems usually provide year-round itation) on the building heating and cooling loads can be
control of several air conditions, namely, temperature, anticipated.
humidity, cleanliness, and air motion. These systems may 2. The building size (wall area, roof area, glass area, floor
also be referred to as environmental control systems, area, and so forth).
although today they are usually called heating, ventilating, 3. The building shape (L-shaped, A-shaped, rectangular,
and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems. etc.), which influences equipment location, type of
The primary function of an HVAC system is either (1) the heating and cooling system used, and duct or piping
generation and maintenance of comfort for occupants in a locations.
conditioned space; or (2) the supplying of a set of environ- 4. The space use characteristics. Will there be different
mental conditions (high temperature and high humidity, low users (office, bank, school, dance studios, etc.) of the
temperature and high humidity, etc.) for a process or product space from year to year? Will there be different concur-
within a space. Human comfort design conditions are quite rent requirements from the tenants? Will there be night
different from conditions required in textile mills or for setback of the temperature controller or intermittent use
grain storage and vary with factors such as time of year and of the building’s facilities?
the activity and clothing levels of the occupants. 5. The type of material (wood, masonry, metal, and so
If improperly sized equipment or the wrong type of forth) used in the construction of the building. What is
equipment is used, the desired environmental conditions the expected quality of the construction?
usually will not be met. Furthermore, improperly selected 6. The type of fenestration (light transmitting partition)
and/or sized equipment normally requires excess power used, its location in the building, and how it might be
and/or energy and may have a higher initial cost. The design shaded. Is glass heat absorbing, reflective, colored, etc.?
of an HVAC system includes calculation of the maximum 7. The types of doors (sliding, swinging, revolving) and
heating and cooling loads for the spaces to be served, selec- windows (sealed, wood or metal frames, etc.) used.
tion of the type of system to be used, calculation of piping What is their expected use? This will affect the amount
and/or duct sizes, selection of the type and size of equipment of infiltration air.
(heat exchangers, boilers, chillers, fans, etc.), and a layout of 8. The expected occupancy for the space and the time
the system, with cost, indoor air quality, and energy conser- schedule of this occupancy.
vation being considered along the way. Some criteria to be 9. Type and location of lighting. Types of appliances and
considered are electrical machinery in the space and their expected use.
10. Location of electric, gas, and water services. These
• Temperature, humidity, and space pressure requirements services should be integrated with the locations of the
• Capacity requirements heating and air-conditioning duct, piping, and equip-
• Equipment redundancy ment.
2 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

11. Ventilation requirements for the structure. Does it Committee. These excerpts provide a synopsis of the history
require 100% outdoor air, a given number of CFM per of environmental control.
person, or a given number of CFM per square foot of Obviously, the earliest form of heating was the open fire.
floor area? The addition of a chimney to carry away combustion
12. Local and/or national codes relating to ventilation, byproducts was the first important step in the evolution of
gas, and/or electric piping. heating systems. By the time of the Romans, there was suf-
13. Outside design temperatures and wind velocities for ficient knowledge of ventilation to allow for the installation
the location. of ventilating and panel heating in baths. Leonardo da Vinci
14. The environmental conditions that are maintained. had invented a ventilating fan by the end of the 15th century.
Will fluctuations of these conditions with load be detri- Robert Boyle’s law was established in 1659; John Dalton’s
mental to the purpose served by the structure? in 1800. In 1775, Dr. William Cullen made ice by pumping
15. The heating and cooling loads (also consider the mois- a vacuum in a vessel of water. A few years later, Benjamin
ture load, air contaminants, and noise). Franklin wrote his treatise on Pennsylvania fireplaces,
16. The type of heating and cooling system to be used in detailing their construction, installation, and operation.
the structure. Is it forced air, circulated water, or direct Although warming and ventilating techniques had greatly
expansion? Will it be a multizone, single zone, reheat, improved by the 19th century, manufacturers were unable to
variable air volume, or another type of system? What exploit these techniques because
method of control will be used? Will a dedicated out-
door air system be considered? • Data available on such subjects as transmission coeffi-
17. The heating and cooling equipment size that will cients, air and water friction in pipes, and brine and ammo-
maintain the inside design conditions for the selected nia properties were sparse and unreliable.
outside design condition. Electric heat or fossil fuel? • Neither set design conditions nor reliable psychrometric
Mechanical vapor compression or absorption chiller? charts existed.
18. The advantages and disadvantages of oversizing and • A definitive rational theory that would permit perfor-
undersizing the equipment as applied to the structure. mance calculation and prediction of results had not yet
Survey any economic tradeoffs to be made. Should a been developed.
different type of unit be installed in order to reduce • Little was known about physical, thermodynamic, and
operating costs? Should a more sophisticated control fluid dynamic properties of air, water, brines, and refrig-
system be used to give more exact control of humidity erants.
and temperature or should an on-off cycle be used? Fuel • No authoritative information existed on heat transmission
economy as related to design will become an even more involving combustion, conduction, convection, radiation,
important factor in system selection and operation. evaporation, and condensation.
19. What is the estimated annual energy usage? • No credible performance information for manufactured
In general, no absolute rules dictate correct selections or equipment was available.
specifications for each of the above items, so only engineer- Thanks to Thomas Edison, the first electric power plant
ing estimates or educated guesses can be made. However, opened in New York in 1882, making it possible for the first
estimates must be based on sound fundamental principles time to have an inexpensive source of energy for residential
and concepts. This book presents a basic philosophy of envi- and commercial buildings.
ronmental control as well as the basic concepts of design.
These ideas relate directly to the ASHRAE Handbook series: 1.1.1 Furnaces
2014 Refrigeration, 2015 HVAC Applications, 2016 HVAC By 1894, the year the American Society of Heating and
Systems and Equipment, and most directly to 2017 Funda- Ventilating Engineers (ASH&VE) was born, central heating
mentals. was fairly well developed. The basic heat sources were
warm air furnaces and boilers. The combustion chambers of
1.2 Historical Notes the first warm air furnaces were made of cast iron. Circula-
tion in a gravity warm air furnace system is caused by the
Knowing something of the past helps in understanding difference in air density in the many parts of the system. As
current design criteria and trends. As in other fields of tech- the force of combustion is small, the system was designed to
nology, the accomplishments and failures of the past affect allow air to circulate freely. The addition of fans (circa 1899)
current and future design concepts. The following para- to furnace systems provided a mechanical means of air cir-
graphs consist mainly of edited excerpts from ASHRAE culation. Other additions to the modern furnace include
Journal articles: “A History of Heating” by John W. James, cooling systems, humidification apparatuses, air distribu-
“The History of Refrigeration” by Willis R. Woolrich, and tors, and air filters. Another important step for the modern
“Milestones in Air Conditioning” by Walter A. Grant, with heating industry was the conversion of furnaces from coal to
additional information obtained from ASHRAE’s Historical oil and gas, and from manual to automatic firing.
Chapter 1| Background 3

1.1.2 Steam Systems 1.1.4 Mechanical and Chemical Refrigeration

James Watt developed the first steam heating system in In 1748, in Scotland, Dr. William Cullen and Joseph Black
1770. However, the first real breakthrough in design did not lectured on the latent heat of fusion and evaporation and
occur until the early 1900s when circulation problems in “fixed air” (later identified as carbon dioxide). These discov-
these systems were improved with the introduction of a eries served as the foundation on which modern refrigeration
fluid-operated thermostatic trap. is based.
From 1900 to 1925, two-pipe steam systems with thermo- In 1851, Dr. John Gorrie, was granted US Patent No. 8080
static traps at the outlet of each radiator and at drip points in for a refrigeration machine that produced ice and refrigerated
the piping gained wide acceptance. In smaller buildings, air with compressed air in an open cycle. Also in 1851, Fer-
gravity systems were commonly installed to remove con- dinand Carre designed the first ammonia absorption unit.
densate. For larger systems, boiler return traps and conden- In 1853, Professor Alexander Twining of New Haven,
sate pumps with receivers were used. By 1926, the vacuum Connecticut, produced 1600 lb of ice a day with a doubleact-
return line system was perfected for installation in large and ing vacuum and compression pump that used sulfuric ether as
moderate-sized buildings. the refrigerant.
Hot water heating systems were developed in parallel Daniel L. Holden improved the Carre machine by design-
with steam systems. As mentioned before, the first hot water ing and building reciprocating compressors. These compres-
heating system was the gravity system. In 1927, the circula- sors were applied to ice making, brewing, and meat packing.
tor, which forced water through the system, was added to In 1872, David Boyle developed an ammonia compression
two-pipe heating systems. A few years later, a diverting tee machine that produced ice.
was added to the one-pipe system, allowing for forced cir- Until 1880, mechanical refrigeration was primarily used to
culation. make ice and preserve meat and fish. Notable exceptions were
During the 1930s, radiators and convectors were com- the use of these machines in the United States, Europe, and
monly concealed by enclosures, shields, and cabinets. In Australia for beer making, oil dewaxing, and wine cooling. At
1944, the baseboard radiator was developed. Baseboard this time, comfort air cooling was obtained by ice or by chill-
heating improved comfort conditions as it reduced floor-to- ing machines that used either lake or manufactured ice.
ceiling temperature stratification.
1.1.5 History of ASHRAE
Unit heaters and unit ventilators are two other forms of
convection heating developed in the 1920s. Unit heaters The American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engi-
were available in suspended and floor types and were clas- neers (ASHVE) was formed in New York City in 1894 to con-
sified according to the heating medium used (e.g., steam, hot duct research, develop standards, hold technical meetings,
water, electricity, gas, oil, or coal combustion). In addition to and publish technical articles in journals and handbooks. Its
the heating element and fan, unit ventilators were often scope was limited to the fields of heating and ventilating for
equipped with an air filter. Many designs provided air recir- commercial and industrial applications, with secondary
culation and were equipped with a separate outdoor air con- emphasis on residential heating. Years later the Society’s
nection. name was changed to the American Society of Heating and
Panel heating, another form of heat distribution, was Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHAE) to recognize the
developed in the 1920s. In panel heating, a fluid such as hot increasing importance of air conditioning.
water, steam, air, or electricity, circulates through distribu- In 1904, the American Society of Refrigerating Engineers
tion units embedded in the building components. (ASRE) was organized and headquartered at the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). The new Society
1.1.3 Early Refrigeration
had 70 charter members and was the only engineering group
Early forms of refrigeration included the use of snow, in the world that confined its activities to refrigeration, which
pond and lake ice, chemical mixture cooling to form freez- at that time consisted mainly of ammonia systems.
ing baths, and the manufacture of ice by evaporative and In 1905, ASME established 288,000 Btu in 24 hrs as the
radiation cooling of water on clear nights.
commercial ton of refrigeration (within the United States). In
By the 18th century, certain mixtures were known to
the same year, the New York Stock Exchange was cooled by
lower temperatures. One such mixture, calcium chloride and
refrigeration. In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer coined the term “air
snow, was introduced for commercial use. This particular
conditioning.”
mixture made possible a temperature down to –27°F (–
The First International Congress on Refrigeration was
33°C). In Great Britain, machines using chemical mixtures
organized in Paris in 1908 and a delegation of 26 was sent
to produce low temperatures were introduced. However, by
from the United States. Most of the participants were mem-
the time these machines were ready for commercial
exploitation, mechanical ice-making processes had been bers of ASRE.
perfected to such an extent that chemical mixture freezing ASHAE and ASRE merged in 1959, creating the Ameri-
was rendered obsolete except for such batch processes as ice can Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
cream making. Engineers.
4 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Figure 1-1 depicts ASHRAE’s history. ASHRAE cele- wet-bulb, and dew-point temperatures of air, as well as its sen-
brated its Centennial Year during society year 1994-1995. In sible, latent, and total heat load, and set forth the theory of adi-
commemoration of the centennial, two books on the history of abatic saturation. The formulas and psychrometric chart
ASHRAE and of the HVAC industry were published, Pro- presented in this paper became the basis for all fundamental
claiming the Truth and Heat and Cold: Mastering the Great calculations used by the air-conditioning industry.
Indoors. By 1922, Carrier’s centrifugal refrigeration machine,
together with the development of nonhazardous, low-pressure
1.1.6 Willis H. Carrier
refrigerants, made water chilling for large and medium-size
Willis H. Carrier (1876-1950) has often been referred to as commercial and industrial applications both economical and
the “Father of Air Conditioning.” His analytical and practical practical. A conduit induction system for multiroom build-
accomplishments contributed greatly to the development of ings, was invented in 1937 by Carrier and his associate, Car-
the refrigeration industry. lyle Ashley.
Carrier graduated from Cornell University in 1901 and was
employed by the Buffalo Forge Company. He realized that 1.1.7 Comfort Cooling
satisfactory refrigeration could not be installed due to the Although comfort air-cooling systems had been built as of
inaccurate data that were available. By 1902, he developed the 1890s, no real progress was made in mechanical air cool-
formulas to optimize forced-draft boiler fans, conducted tests ing until after the turn of the century. At that time, several sci-
and developed multirating performance tables on indirect entifically designed air-conditioning plants were installed in
pipe coil heaters, and set up the first research laboratory in the buildings. One such installation included a theater in
heating and ventilating industry. Cologne, Germany. In 1902, Alfred Wolff designed a 400-ton
In 1902, Carrier was asked to solve the problem faced by system for the New York Stock Exchange. Installed in 1902,
the lithographic industry of poor color register caused by this system was in operation for 20 years. The Boston Float-
weather changes. Carrier’s solution was to design, test, and ing Hospital, in 1908, was the first hospital to be equipped
install at the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing Company of with modern air conditioning. Mechanical air cooling was
Brooklyn a scientifically engineered, year-round air-condi- installed in a Texas church in 1914. In 1922, Grauman’s Met-
tioning system that provided heating, cooling, humidifying, ropolitan Theater, the first air-conditioned movie theater,
and dehumidifying. opened in Los Angeles. The first office building designed
By 1904, Carrier had adapted atomizing nozzles and devel- with and built for comfort air-conditioning specifications was
oped eliminators for air washers to control dew-point tem- the Milam Building, in San Antonio, Texas, which was com-
perature by heating or cooling a system’s recirculated water. pleted in 1928. Also in 1928, the Chamber of the House of
Soon after this development, over 200 industries were using Representatives became air conditioned. The Senate became
year-round air conditioning. air conditioned the following year and in 1930, the White
At the 1911 ASME meeting, Carrier presented his paper, House and the Executive Office Building were air-condi-
“Rational Psychrometric Formulae,” which related dry-bulb, tioned.
The system of air bypass control, invented in 1924 by L.
Logan Lewis, solved the difficult problem of humidity control
under varying load. By the end of the 1920s, the first room air
conditioner was introduced by Frigidaire. Other important
inventions of the 1920s include lightweight extended surface
coils and the first unit heater and cold diffuser.
Thomas Midgley, Jr. developed the halocarbon refrigerants
in 1930. These refrigerants were found to be safe and eco-
nomical for the small reciprocating compressors used in com-
mercial and residential markets. Manufacturers were soon
producing mass market room air conditioners that used
Refrigerant 12.
Fluorinated refrigerants were also applied to centrifugal
compression, which required only half the number of impel-
lers for the same head as chlorinated hydrocarbons. Space and
materials were saved when pressure-formed extended-surface
tubes in shell-and-tube exchangers were introduced by Walter
Jones. This invention was an important advance for centrifu-
gal and reciprocating equipment.
Other achievements of the 1930s included
• The first residential lithium bromide absorption machine
Fig. 1-1 Background of ASHRAE was introduced in 1931 by Servel.
Chapter 1| Background 5

• In 1931, Carrier marketed steam ejector cooling units for designs rapidly became the most popular type of HVAC
railroad passenger cars. system for offices, hospitals, and some school buildings.
• As of the mid-1930s, General Electric introduced the heat Although energy-efficient, VAV systems proved to have their
pump; the electrostatic air cleaner was put out by Westing- own set of problems related to indoor air quality (IAQ), sick
house; Charles Neeson of Airtemp invented the high-speed building syndrome (SBS), and building related illness (BRI).
radial compressor; and W.B. Connor discovered that odors Solutions to these problems are only now being realized.
could be removed by using activated carbon. In 1987, the United Nations Montreal Protocol for protect-
ing the earth’s ozone layer was signed, establishing the phase-
With the end of World War II, air-conditioning technology
out schedule for the production of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
advanced rapidly. Among the advances were air-source heat
and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants. Contem-
pumps, large lithium-bromide water chillers, automobile air
porary buildings and their air-conditioning equipment must
conditioners, rooftop heating and cooling units, small, out-
now provide improved indoor air quality as well as comfort,
door-installed ammonia absorption chillers, air purifiers, a
while consuming less energy and using alternative refriger-
vapor cycle aircraft cabin cooling unit, and a large-capacity
ants.
Lysholm rotary compressor.
Improvements on and expansions of products that already
existed include 1.3 Building Energy Use
• Dual-duct central systems for office buildings Energy is generally used in buildings to perform functions
• Change from open to hermetic compressors from the small- of heating, lighting, mechanical drives, cooling, and special
est reciprocating units to large-capacity centrifugals applications. A typical breakdown of the relative energy use
• Resurgence of electric heating in all kinds of applications in a commercial building is given as Figure 1-2.
• Use of heat pumps to reclaim heat in large buildings Energy is available in limited forms, such as electricity,
• Application of electrostatic cleaners to residences fossil fuels, and solar energy, and these energy forms must be
• Self-contained variable volume air terminals for multiple converted within a building to serve the end use of the various
interior rooms functions. A degradation of energy is associated with any con-
• Increasing use of total energy systems for large buildings version process. In energy conservation efforts, two avenues
and clusters of buildings of approach were taken: (1) reducing the amount of use and/or
• Larger sizes of centrifugals, now over 5000 tons in a single (2) reducing conversion losses. For example, the furnace that
unit heats a building produces unusable and toxic flue gas that
• Central heating and cooling plants for shopping centers, must be vented to the outside and in this process some of the
colleges, and apartment and office building complexes energy is lost. Table 1-1 presents typical values for building
In the late 1940s and into the early 1950s, development heat losses and gains at design conditions for a mid-America
work continued on unitary heat pumps for residential and climate. Actual values will vary significantly with climate and
small commercial installations. These factory-engineered and building construction.
assembled units, like conventional domestic boilers, could be The projected total U.S. energy consumption by end-user
easily and cheaply installed in the home or small commercial sector: transportation, industrial, commercial, and residential
businesses by engineers. In 1952, heat pumps were placed on is shown in Figure 1-3. The per capita energy consumption for
the market for mass consumption. Early heat pumps lacked the U.S. and the world is shown in Figure 1-4, showing that in
the durability needed to withstand winter temperatures. Low 2007 the U.S. consumption was the same as in 1965. This has
winter temperatures placed severe stress on the components
of these heat pumps (compressors, outdoor fans, reversing
valves, and control hardware). Improvements in the design of
heat pumps has continued, resulting in more-reliable com-
pressors and lubricating systems, improved reversing valves,
and refined control systems.
In the 1950s came the rooftop unit for commercial build-
ings. Multizone packaged rooftop units were popular during
the 1960s; however, most were very energy inefficient and
lost favor during the 1970s. Beginning with the oil embargo of
1973, the air-conditioning field could no longer conduct
“business as usual,” with concern mainly for the initial cost of
the building and its conditioning equipment. The use of crude
rules of thumb, which significantly oversized equipment and
wasted energy, was largely replaced with reliance upon more
scientifically sound, and often computer-assisted, design,
sizing, and selection procedures. Variable air volume (VAV) Fig. 1-2 Energy Use in a Commercial Building
6 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

been achieved through application of energy conservation ponent, system, or subsystem within a building; and (3) build-
principles as well as increased energy costs and changes in the ing energy, which considers the performance of the building
economy. as a whole. In this last type, a design goal is set for the annual
The efficient use of energy in buildings can be achieved by energy requirements of the entire building on basis such as
implementing (1) optimum energy designs, (2) well-devel- Btu/ft2 per year (GJ/m2 per year). Any combination of mate-
oped energy use policies, and (3) dedicated management rials, systems, and operating procedures can be applied, as
backed up by a properly trained and motivated operating staff. long as design energy usage does not exceed the building’s
Optimum energy conservation is attained when the least annual energy budget goal. “Standard 90.1-2013 User’s Man-
amount of energy is used to achieve a desired result. If this is ual” is extremely helpful in understanding and applying the
not fully realizable, the next best method is to move excess requirements of ASHRAE Standard 90.1
energy from where it is not wanted to where it can be used or This approach allows greater flexibility while promoting
stored for future use, which generally results in a minimum the goals of energy efficiency. It also allows and encourages
expenditure of new energy. A system should be designed so the use of innovative techniques and the development of new
that it cannot heat and cool the same locations simultaneously. methods for saving energy. Means for its implementation are
ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2013, “Energy Standard for still being developed. They are different for new and for exist-
Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings,” and the ing buildings; in both cases, an accurate data base is required
100-2015 series standards, “Energy Conservation in Existing as well as an accurate, verifiable means of measuring con-
Buildings,” provide minimum guidelines for energy conser- sumption.
vation design and operation. They incorporate these types of As energy prices have risen, more sophisticated schemes
energy standards: (1) prescriptive, which specifies the mate- for reducing energy consumption have been conceived.
rials and methods for design and construction of buildings; (2) Included in such schemes are cogeneration, energy manage-
system performance, which sets requirements for each com- ment systems (EMS), direct digital control (DDS), daylight-
ing, closed water-loop heat pumps, variable air volume (VAV)
Table 1-1 Typical Building Design Heat Losses or Gains
systems, variable frequency drives, thermal storage, dessicant
Air Conditioning Heating dehumidication, and heat recovery in commercial and institu-
Building Type ft2/ton m2/kW Btu/h·ft3 W/m3 tional buildings and industrial plants.
Apartment 450 12 4.5 45 As detailed in a 1992 Department of Energy Report,
Bank 250 7 3.0 30 “Commercial Buildings Consumption and Expenditures,
Department Store 250 7 1.0 10 1989,” more than seventy percent of the commercial-indus-
Dormitories 450 12 4.5 45 trial-institutional (C-I-I) buildings recently built in the United
House 700 18 3.0 30 States made use of energy conservation measures for heating
Medical Center 300 8 4.5 45
and cooling.
Night Club 250 7 3.0 30
The type of building and its use strongly affects the energy
Office Interior 350 9 3.0 30
Exterior 275 7 3.0 30
use as shown in Table 1-2.
Post Office 250 7 3.0 30 Heating and air-conditioning systems that are simple in
Restaurant 250 7 3.0 30 design and of the proper size for a given building generally
Schools 275 7 3.0 30 have relatively low maintenance and operating costs. For opti-
Shopping Center 250 7 3.0 30 mum results, as much inherent thermal control as is econom-
ically possible should be built into the basic structure. Such

Fig. 1-3 Projected total U.S. Energy Consumption by End-

User Sector Fig. 1-4 U.S Per Capita Energy Consumption
(EIA 2016) (BP 2015)
Chapter 1| Background 7

control might include materials with high thermal properties, the use of 2.5 gpm/ton for determining the water flow rate
insulation, and multiple or special glazing and shading through the cooling coil and chiller unit, using 1.2 cfm/sq ft of
devices. The relationship between the shape, orientation, and gross floor area for estimating the required conditioned air-
air-conditioning requirement of a building should also be con- flow rate for comfort cooling, and the estimation of 0.6
sidered. Since the exterior load may vary from 30 to 60% of kW/ton as the power requirement for air conditioning. Table
the total air-conditioning load when the fenestration (light 1-3 provides very approximate data related to the cost of
transmitting) area ranges from 25 to 75% of the floor area, it HVAC equipment and systems.
may be desirable to minimize the perimeter area. For exam- Table 1.4 provides approximate energy costs for commer-
ple, a rectangular building with a 4-to-1 aspect ratio requires cial consumers in the United States for 2015. Keep in mind
substantially more refrigeration than a square building with that these energy costs are very volatile at this time.
the same floor area. Table 1.5 gives approximate total building costs for offices
When a structure is characterized by several exposures and and medical offices averaged for twenty U.S. locations in 2007.
multipurpose use, especially with wide load swings and non- The material presented in this book will enable the reader
coincident energy use in certain areas, multiunit or unitary to validate appropriate rules as well as to improve upon these
systems may be considered for such areas, but not necessarily approximations for the final design.
for the entire building. The benefits of transferring heat
absorbed by cooling from one area to other areas, processes, 1.5 Sustainability and Green Buildings
or services that require heat may enhance the selection of such
systems. The following discussion concerning sustainable design
Buildings in the US consume significant quantities of and green buildings has been extracted from Chapters 34 and
energy each year. According to the US Department of Energy 35 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.
(DOE), buildings account for 36% of all the energy used in the Pollution, toxic waste creation, waste disposal, global cli-
US, and 66% of all the electricity used. Beyond economics, mate change, ozone depletion, deforestation, and resource
energy use in the buildings sector has significant implications depletion are recognized as results of uncontrolled technolog-
for our environment. Emissions related to building energy use ical and population growth. Without mitigation, current
account for 35% of carbon dioxide emissions, 47% of sulfur trends will adversely affect the ability of the earth’s ecosystem
dioxide emissions, and 22% of nitrogen oxide emissions. to regenerate and remain viable for future generations.
The built environment contributes significantly to these
1.4 Conceptualizing an HVAC System effects, accounting for one-sixth of the world’s fresh water
use, one-quarter of its wood harvest, and two-fifths of its
An important tool for the HVAC design engineer is the material and energy flows. Air quality, transportation pat-
ability to develop a quick overview or “concept” of the mag- terns, and watersheds are also affected. The resources
nitude of the project at hand. Toward this goal, the industry required to serve this sector are considerable and many of
has developed a number of “rules of thumb,” some more accu- them are diminishing.
rate than others. As handy as they might be, these approxima-
Table 1-3 Capital Cost Estimating Factors
tions must be treated as just that—approximations. Don’t use
them as “rules of dumb.” Cooling Systems
• $1675/installed ton of cooling
Tables 1-1 and 1-2 are examples of such rules-of-thumb,
Heating Systems
providing data for a quick estimate of heating and cooling • $2.92/cfm of installed heating
equipment sizes and of building energy use, requiring knowl- Fans/Ducting/Coils/Dampers/Filters
edge only of the size and intended use of the building. Other • $7.84/cfm all-system
rules-of-thumb include using a face velocity of 500 fpm in
determining the face area for a cooling coil, the use of Table 1-4 Approximate Energy Costs
to Commercial Consumers (2015)
400 cfm/ton for estimating the required cooling airflow rate,
Electricity ($/kWh) 0.090
Table 1-2 Annual Energy Use Per Unit Floor Area Natural Gas ($/therm) 0.84
LPG ($/gal) 2.95
Building Type Annual Energy Use kWh/ft2
No. 2 Fuel Oil ($/gas) 3.46
Assembly 18.7
Education 25.5
Table 1-5 Approximate Total Building Costs ($/sq. ft.)
Food Sales 51.5
(Adapted from RSMeans Costs Comparisons 2007)
Health Care 64.0
Lodging 38.8 2–4-Story 5–10-Story 11–20-Story Medical
Mercantile 24.8 Office Office Office Office
Office 30.5 Building Building Building Building
Warehouse 16.9 High 194 181 167 219
Vacant 6.9 Average 149 130 121 169
All Buildings 26.7 Low 117 110 98 132
8 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Recognition of how the building industry affects the envi- • Installed lighting (overall) 0.8 W/ft2
ronment is changing the approach to design, construction, • Space sensible cooling 15 Btu/h·ft2
operation, maintenance, reuse, and demolition of buildings
• Space heating load 10 Btu/h·ft2
and focusing on environmental and long-term economic con-
sequences. Although this sustainable design ethic—sustain- • Electric power (overall) 3 W/ft2
ability—covers things beyond the HVAC industry alone, • Thermal power (overall) 20 Btu/h·ft2
efficient use of energy resources is certainly a key element of • Hydronic system head 70 ft of water
any sustainable design and is very much under the control of • Water chiller (water-cooled) 0.5 kW/ton
the HVAC designer. • Chilled-water system auxiliaries 0.15 kW/ton
Research over the years has shown that new commercial • Unitary air-conditioning systems 1.0 kW/ton
construction can reduce annual energy consumption by about • Annual electric energy 15 kWh/ft2·yr
50% using integrated design procedures and energy conserva-
• Annual thermal energy 5 Btu/ft2·yr·°F·day
tion techniques. In the past few years several programs pro-
moting energy efficiency in building design and operation These goals, however, may not be realistic for all projects.
have been developed. One of these is Energy Star Label As the building and systems are designed, all decisions
(www.energystar.gov) and another one, which is becoming become interactive as the result of each subsystem’s power or
well known, is Leadership in Energy and Environmental energy performance being continually compared to the “bud-
Design (LEED) (www.usgbc.org/leed). get.”
In 1999 the Environmental Protection Agency of the US Energy efficiency should be considered at the beginning
government introduced the Energy Star Label for buildings. of building design because energy-efficient features are most
This is a set of performance standards that compare a build- easily and effectively incorporated at that time. Active par-
ing’s adjusted energy use to that of similar buildings nation- ticipation of all members of the design team (including
wide. The buildings that perform in the top 25%, while owner, architect, engineer, and often the contractor) should
conforming to standards for temperature, humidity, illumina- be sought early. Consider building attributes such as building
tion, outdoor air requirements, and air cleanliness, earn the function, form, orientation, window/wall ratio, and HVAC
Energy Star Label. system types early because each has major energy implica-
LEED is a voluntary points-based national standard for tions.
developing a high-performance building using an integrated
design process. LEED evaluates “greenness” in five catego-
ries: sustainable sites, water efficiency, energy and atmo-
1.6 Problems
sphere, materials and resources, and the indoor air
environmental quality. 1.1 Estimate whether ice will form on a clear night when
In the energy and atmosphere category, building systems ambient air temperature is 45°F (7.2°C), if the water is placed
commissioning and minimum energy usages are necessary in a shallow pan in a sheltered location where the convective
requirements. The latter requires meeting the requirements heat transfer coefficient is 0.5 Btu/h·ft2 ·°F [2.8 W/(m2 ·K)].
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2013, Energy Standard 1.2 Obtain a sketch or drawing of Gorrie’s refrigeration
for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, or the machine and describe its operation.
local energy code, whichever is more stringent. 1.3 Plot the history of the annual energy use per square foot
Basically LEED defines what makes a building “green” of floor space for nonresidential buildings and predict the
while the Energy Star Label is concerned only with energy values for the years 2014 and 2015.
performance. Both of these programs require adherence to 1.4 Estimate the size of cooling and heating equipment that
ASHRAE standards. Chapter 35 of the 2017 ASHRAE Hand- is needed for a new bank building in middle America that is
book—Fundamentals provides guidance in achieving sustain- 140 ft by 220 ft by 12 ft high (42.7 m by 67 m by 3.7 m high).
able designs. [Answer: 123 tons cooling, 11,109,000 Btu/h heating]
The basic approach to energy-efficient design is reducing 1.5 Estimate the size of heating and cooling equipment that
loads (power), improving transport systems, and providing will be needed for a residence in middle America that is 28 ft
efficient components and “intelligent” controls. Important by 78 ft by 8 ft high (8.5 m by 23.8 m by 2.4 m high).
design concepts include understanding the relationship 1.6 Estimate the initial cost of the complete HVAC system
between energy and power, maintaining simplicity, using self- (heating, cooling, and air moving) for an office building,
imposed budgets, and applying energy-smart design prac- 40 ft by 150 ft by 10 ft high (12.2 m by 45.7 m by 3.1 m high).
tices. 1.7 Estimate the annual operating cost for the building in
Just as an engineer must work to a cost budget with most Problem 1.6 if it is all-electric. [Answer: $14,640]
designs, self-imposed power budgets can be similarly helpful 1.8 Conceptualize, as completely as possible, using infor-
in achieving energy-efficient design. For example, the follow- mation only from Sections 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5, the building of
ing are possible goals for mid-rise to high-rise office buildings Project 8 Two-Story Building, Appendix B, Systems Design
in a typical midwestern or northeastern temperature climate: Problems.
Chapter 1| Background 9

1.7 Bibliography Coad, W.J. 1997. Designing for Tomorrow, Heating/Pip-

ing/Air Conditioning, February.
ASHRAE. 2014. 2014 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration. Donaldson, B. and B. Nagengast. 1995. Heat and Cold: Mas-
ASHRAE. 2015. 2015 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applica- tering the Great Indoors. ASHRAE.
tions. Downing, R. 1984. Development of Chlorofluorocarbon
ASHRAE. 2016. 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems Refrigerants. ASHRAE Transactions 90(2).
and Equipment. Faust, F.H. 1992. The Merger of ASHAE and ASRE: The
ASHRAE. 2017. 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. Author Presents An Overview on Events Leading up to
ASHRAE. 1995. Proclaiming the Truth. ASHRAE’s Founding. ASHRAE Insights 7(5).
BP. 2012. Statistical review of world energy 2012. Ivanovich, M.G. 1997. HVAC&R and the Internet: Where to
http://www.bp.com/sectionbodycopy.do?categoryId=7500 Go, Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning, May.
&contentId=7068481. Nagengast, B.A. 1988. A historical look at CFC refrigerants.
EIA. 2001. Annual energy review 2000. DOE/EIA- ASHRAE Journal 30(11).
0384(2000). Energy Information Administration, U.S. Nagengast, B.A. 1993. The 1920s: The first realization of
Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. public air conditioning. ASHRAE Journal 35(1).
EIA. 2011. International energy statistics. U.S. Energy Infor- Nelson, L.W. 1989. Residential comfort: A historical look at
mation Administration, Washington, D.C. early residential HVAC systems. ASHRAE Journal 31(1).
http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IED Index3.cfm.
Woolrich, W.R. 1969. The History of Refrigeration; 220
EIA. 2012. Annual energy outlook 2012 with projects to 2035.
http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/aeo/tablebrowser/#release Years of Mechanical and Chemical Cold: 1748-1968.
=AEO2012&subject=0-AEO2012&table=1 ASHRAE Journal 33(7).
-AEO2012&region+0-0&cases=ref2012=d020112c.
 Chapter 2

THERMODYNAMICS AND PSYCHROMETRICS

This chapter reviews the principles of thermodynamics, evaluates thermodynamic properties, and applies thermody-
namics and psychrometrics to air-conditioning and refrigeration processes and systems. Greater detail on thermodynamics,
particularly relating to the Second Law and irreversibility, is found in Chapter 2, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamen-
tals. Details on psychrometric properties can be found in Chapter 1 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.

2.1 Fundamental Concepts and making it available, as entropy will have reached its maxi-
Principles mum value.
Like all sciences, the basis of thermodynamics is experi-
2.1.1 Thermodynamics mental observation. Findings from these experimental obser-
vations have been formalized into basic laws. In the sections
Thermodynamics is the science devoted to the study of that follow, these laws and their related thermodynamic prop-
energy, its transformations, and its relation to status of matter. erties will be presented and applied to various examples.
Since every engineering operation involves an interaction These examples should give the student an understanding of
between energy and materials, the principles of thermody- the basic concepts and an ability to apply these fundamentals
namics can be found in all engineering activities. to thermodynamic problems. It is not necessary to memorize
Thermodynamics may be considered the description of the numerous equations, for problems are best solved by applying
behavior of matter in equilibrium and its changes from one the definitions and laws of thermodynamics.
equilibrium state to another. The important concepts of ther- Thermodynamic reasoning is always from the general law
modynamics are energy and entropy; the two major principles to the specific case; that is, the reasoning is deductive rather
of thermodynamics are called the first and second laws of than inductive. To illustrate the elements of thermodynamic
thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics deals with reasoning, the analytical processes may be divided into two
energy. The idea of energy represents the attempt to find an steps:
invariant in the physical universe, something that remains
constant in the midst of change. The second law of thermody- 1. The idealization or substitution of an analytical model for
namics explains the concept of entropy; e.g., every naturally a real system. This step is taken in all engineering sciences.
occurring transformation of energy is accompanied some- Therefore, skill in making idealizations is an essential part
where by a loss in the availability of energy for future perfor- of the engineering art.
mance of work. 2. The second step, unique to thermodynamics, is the
The German physicist, Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888), deductive reasoning from the first and second laws of
devised the concept of entropy to quantitatively describe the thermodynamics.
loss of available energy in all naturally occurring transforma- These steps involve (a) an energy balance, (b) a suitable
tions. Although the natural tendency is for heat to flow from properties relation, and (c) accounting for entropy changes.
a hot to a colder body with which it is in contact, correspond-
ing to an increase in entropy, it is possible to make heat flow 2.1.2 System and Surroundings
from a colder body to a hot body, as is done every day in a Most applications of thermodynamics require the defini-
refrigerator. However, this does not take place naturally or tion of a system and its surroundings. A system can be an
without effort exerted somewhere. object, any quantity of matter, or any region of space selected
According to the fundamental principles of thermodynam- for study and set apart (mentally) from everything else, which
ics, the energy of the world stays constant and the entropy of then becomes the surroundings. The systems of interest in
the world increases without limit. If the essence of the first thermodynamics are finite, and the point of view taken is mac-
principle in everyday life is that one cannot get something for roscopic rather than microscopic. No account is taken of the
nothing, the second principle emphasizes that every time one detailed structure of matter, and only the coarse characteris-
does get something, the opportunity to get that something in tics of the system, such as its temperature and pressure, are
the future is reduced by a measurable amount, until ulti- regarded as thermodynamic coordinates.
mately, there will be no more “getting.” This “heat death,” Everything external to the system is the surroundings, and
envisioned by Clausius, will be a time when the universe the system is separated from the surroundings by the system
reaches a level temperature; and though the total amount of boundaries. These boundaries may be either movable or fixed;
energy will be the same as ever, there will be no means of either real or imaginary.
12 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

2.1.3 Properties and State Thus the value of the integral depends solely on the initial
and final states. Likewise, the change in the value of a prop-
A property of a system is any observable characteristic of
erty depends only on the end states. Hence the differential
the system. The more common thermodynamic properties are
change dY in a property Y is an exact differential. Throughout
temperature, pressure, specific volume or density, internal
this text, the infinitesimal variation of a property will be iden-
energy, enthalpy, and entropy.
tified by the differential symbol d preceding the property sym-
The state of a system is its condition or configuration bol. For example, the infinitesimal change in the pressure p of
described in sufficient detail so that one state may be distin- a system is given by dp. The finite change in a property is
guished from all other states. A listing of a sufficient number denoted by the symbol  (capital delta), for example, p. The
of independent properties constitutes a complete definition of change in a property value Y always represents the final
the state of a system. value minus the initial value. This convention must be kept in
The state may be identified or described by observable, mind.
macroscopic properties such as temperature, pressure, and The symbol  is used instead of the usual differential oper-
density. Each property of a substance in a given state has only ator d as a reminder that some quantities depend on the pro-
one value; this property always has the same value for a given cess and are not a property of the system. Q represents only
state, regardless of how the substance arrived at that state. In a small quantity of heat, not a differential. m represents only
fact, a property can be defined as any quantity that depends on a small quantity of matter.
the state of the system and is independent of the path (i.e., the The same qualifications for  hold in the case of thermo-
prior history) by which the system arrived at that given state. dynamic work. As there is no exact differential dW, small
Conversely, the state is specified or described by its properties. quantities of W similar in magnitude to differentials are
The state of a macroscopic system is the condition of the expressed as W.
system as characterized by the values of its properties. This
chapter directs attention to equilibrium states, with equilib- 2.1.4 Processes and Cycles
rium used in its generally accepted context—the equality of A process is a change in state which can be defined as any
forces, or the state of balance. In future discussion, the term change in the properties of a system. A process is described in
state refers to an equilibrium state unless otherwise noted. part by the series of states passed through by the system.
The concept of equilibrium is important, as it is only in an Often, but not always, some interaction between the system
equilibrium state that thermodynamic properties have mean- and surroundings occurs during a process; the specification of
ing. A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it is incapa- this interaction completes the description of the process.
ble of finite, spontaneous change to another state without a Describing a process typically involves specifying the ini-
finite change in the state of the surroundings. tial and final equilibrium states, the path (if identifiable), and
Included in the many types of equilibria are thermal, the interactions which take place across the boundaries of the
mechanical, and chemical. A system in thermal equilibrium is system during the process. The following terms define special
at the same temperature as the surroundings and the tempera- processes:
ture is the same throughout. A system in mechanical equilib- isobaric or constant pressure—process wherein the pressure
rium has no part accelerating ( F = 0) and the pressure within does not change;
the system is the same as in the surroundings. A system in
isothermal—process that occurs at constant temperature;
chemical equilibrium does not tend to undergo a chemical
reaction; the matter in the system is said to be inert. isometric—process with constant volume;
Any property of a thermodynamic system has a fixed value adiabatic—process in which no heat is transferred to or from
in a given equilibrium state, regardless of how the system the system;
arrives at that state. Therefore, the change that occurs in the
isentropic—process with no change in entropy.
value of a property when a system is altered from one equilib-
rium state to another is always the same. This is true regard- A cycle is a process, or more frequently, a series of pro-
less of the method used to bring about a change between the cesses wherein the initial and final states of the system are
two end states. The converse of this statement is equally true. identical. Therefore, at the conclusion of a cycle, all the prop-
If a measured quantity always has the same value between two erties have the same value they had at the beginning.
given states, that quantity is a measure of the change in a prop-
erty. This latter assertion is useful in connection with the con- 2.1.5 Reversibility
servation of energy principle introduced in the next section. All naturally occurring changes or processes are irrevers-
The uniqueness of a property value for a given state can be ible. Like a clock, they tend to run down and cannot rewind
described mathematically in the following manner. The inte- themselves without other changes in the surroundings occur-
gral of an exact differential dY is given by ring. Familiar examples are the transfer of heat with a finite
temperature difference, the mixing of two gases, a waterfall,
and a chemical reaction. All of the above changes can be
1 dY = Y 2 – Y 1 = Y
2
reversed, however. Heat can be transferred from a region of
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 13

low temperature to one of higher temperature; gas can be sep- conservation of mass and conservation of energy are treated
arated into its components; water can be forced to flow uphill. as separate laws in basic thermodynamics.
The important point is that these things can be done only at the The mass rate of flow of a fluid passing through a cross-
expense of some other system, which itself becomes run down. sectional area A is
A process is reversible if its direction can be reversed at
any stage by an infinitesimal change in external conditions. If m = AV  v (2-1)
a connected series of equilibrium states is considered, each where V is the average velocity of the fluid in a direction nor-
representing only an infinitesimal displacement from the mal to the plane of the area A, and v is the specific volume of
adjacent one, but with the overall result a finite change, then the fluid. For steady flow with fluid entering a system at a sec-
a reversible process exists. tion 1 and leaving at a section 2,
All actual processes can be made to approach a reversible
process by a suitable choice of conditions; but like the absolute m1 = m2 = A1 V 1  v1 = A2 V 2  v2 (2-1a)
zero of temperature, the strictly reversible process is only a
concept that aids in the analysis of problems. The approach of This is the continuity equation of steady flow. It can readily
actual processes to this ideal limit can be made almost as close be extended to any number of system inlets and outlets and is
as is desired. However, the closeness of approach is generally used in nearly all energy analyses.
limited by economic factors rather than physical ones. The
truly reversible process would require an infinite time for com- 2.2 Properties of a Substance
pletion. The sole reason for the concept of the reversible pro-
cess is to establish a standard for the comparison of actual
2.2.1 Specific Volume and Density
processes. The reversible process is one that gives the maxi-
mum accomplishment, i.e., yields the greatest amount of work The specific volume of a substance v is the volume per unit
or requires the least amount of work to bring about a given mass. The density of a substance  is the mass per unit vol-
change. It gives the maximum efficiency toward which to ume, and is therefore the reciprocal of the specific volume.
strive, but which will never be equalled. The reversible process Specific volume and density are intensive properties in that
is the standard for judging the efficiency of an actual process. they are independent of the size of the system.
Since the reversible process represents a succession of 2.2.2 Pressure
equilibrium states, each only a differential step from its neigh- When dealing with liquids and gases, we ordinarily speak
bor, the reversible process can be represented as a continuous of pressure; in solids we speak of stresses. The pressure in a
line on a state diagram (p-v, T-s, etc.). The irreversible process fluid at rest at a given point is the same in all directions. Pres-
cannot be so represented. The terminal states and general sure is defined as the normal component of force per unit area.
direction of change can be noted, but the complete path of Absolute pressure is the quantity of interest in most ther-
change is an indeterminate, irreversible process and cannot be modynamic investigations. Most pressure and vacuum gages,
drawn as a line on a thermodynamic diagram. however, read the difference between absolute pressure and
Irreversibilities always lower the efficiencies of processes. the atmospheric pressure existing at the gage (Figure 2-1).
Their effect is identical to that of friction, which is one cause
of irreversibility. Conversely, no process more efficient than a 2.2.3 Temperature
reversible process can be imagined. The reversible process Because temperature is difficult to define, equality of tem-
represents a standard of perfection that cannot be exceeded perature is defined instead. Two bodies have equality of tem-
because perature if no change in any observable property occurs
when they are in thermal communication.
1. It places an upper limit on the work that may be obtained
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two
for a given work-producing process;
bodies have equality of temperature with a third body, they in
2. It places a lower limit on the work input for a given work-
turn have equality of temperature with each other. Since this
requiring process.
fact is not derivable from other laws, and since in the logical
2.1.6 Conservation of Mass presentation of thermodynamics it precedes the first and sec-
From relativistic considerations, mass m and energy E are ond laws of thermodynamics, it has been called the zeroth
related by the well-known equation: law of thermodynamics. This law is the basis of temperature
measurement. Every time a body has equality of temperature
2 with a thermometer, it is said that the body has the tempera-
E = mc
ture read on the thermometer. The problem remains, how-
where c = velocity of light. ever, of relating temperatures that might be read on different
This equation shows that the mass of a system does change thermometers, or that are obtained when different
when its energy changes. However, for other than nuclear temperature-measuring devices are used, such as thermocou-
reactions, the change is quite small and even the most accurate ples and resistance thermometers. The need for a standard
chemical balance cannot detect the change in mass. Thus, scale for temperature measurements is apparent.
14 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

2.2.5 Enthalpy
In analyzing specific types of processes, certain combina-
tions of thermodynamic properties, which are therefore also
properties of the substance undergoing the change of state, are
frequently encountered. One such combination is U + pV. It is
convenient to define a new extensive property, called enthalpy:
H = U + pV
or, per unit mass
h = u + pv (2-2)
As in the case of internal energy, specific enthalpy can be
referred to as h, and total enthalpy H. However, both may be
called enthalpy, since the context makes it clear which is
meant.
2.2.6 Entropy
Entropy S is a measure of the molecular disorder or of the
probability of a given state. The more disordered a system, the
Fig. 2-1 Terms Used in Pressure Measurement greater is its entropy; conversely, an orderly or unmixed con-
figuration is one of low entropy.
Fahrenheit and Celsius are two commonly used tempera- By applying the theory of probability to molecular sys-
ture measuring scales. The Celsius scale was formerly called tems, Boltzmann showed a simple relationship between the
the Centigrade scale. entropy of a given system of molecules and the probability of
In this text, the abbreviations °F and °C denote the Fahren- its occurrence. This relationship is given as
heit and Celsius scales, respectively. The symbols t and T are S = k lnW
both used in the literature for temperature on all temperature
scales. Unfortunately, little uniformity exists with nomencla- where k is the Boltzmann constant and W is the thermody-
ture in engineering. namic probability.
The absolute scale related to the Celsius scale is referred to Since entropy is the property used in quantifying the Sec-
as the Kelvin scale and is designated K. For SI units, the ond Law of Thermodynamics, additional discussion from a
degree sign is not used with the Kelvin scale. The relation classical thermodynamic viewpoint will be presented when
between the SI temperature scales is the Second Law is discussed.

K = °C + 273.15 2.2.7 Specific Heats

The constant-volume specific heat and the constant-pres-
The absolute scale related to the Fahrenheit scale is
sure specific heat are useful functions for thermodynamic cal-
referred to as the Rankine scale and is designated °R. The
culations—particularly for gases.
relation between these scales is
The constant-volume specific heat cv is defined by the
°R = °F + 459.67 relation
2.2.4 Internal Energy c v =  u  T  v (2-3)
Internal energy refers to the energy possessed by a mate-
rial due to the motion and/or position of the molecules. This The constant-pressure specific heat cp is defined by the
form of energy may be divided into two parts: (1) kinetic relation
internal energy, which is due to the velocity of the molecules; c p =  h  T  p (2-4)
and (2) potential internal energy, which is due to the attractive
forces existing between molecules. Changes in the average Note that each of these quantities is defined in terms of
velocity of molecules are indicated by temperature changes of properties. Thus, the constant-volume and constant-pressure
the system; variations in relative distance between molecules specific heats are thermodynamic properties of a substance.
are denoted by changes in phase of the system.
The symbol U designates the internal energy of a given 2.2.8 Dimensions and Units
mass of a substance. Following the convention used with The fundamental and primitive concepts which underlie
other extensive properties, the symbol u designates the all physical measurements and all properties are time,
internal energy per unit mass. As in the case of specific vol- length, mass, absolute temperature, electric current, and
ume, u can represent specific internal energy. amount of substance. Arbitrary scales of measurement must
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 15

be established for these primary dimensions, with each scale In this book, all equations that derive from Newton’s law
divided into specific units of size. The internationally carry the constant gc.
accepted base units for the six quantities are as follows:
2.2.9 Pure Substance
length metre (m) A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and
mass kilogram (kg) invariable chemical composition. It may exist in more than
time second (s) one phase, but the chemical composition is the same in all
electric current ampere (A) phases. Thus, liquid water, a mixture of liquid water and water
thermodynamic temperature kelvin (K) vapor (steam), or a mixture of ice and liquid water are all pure
amount of substance mole (mol) substances, for every phase has the same chemical composi-
tion. On the other hand, a mixture of liquid air and gaseous air
Each of these has a precise definition according to interna- is not a pure substance, since the composition of the liquid
tional agreement. They form the basis for the SI from the phase is different from that of the vapor phase.
French document, Le Système International d’Unités (SI ), or Sometimes a mixture of gases is considered a pure sub-
International System of Units. stance as long as there is no change of phase. Strictly speak-
The mass of a system is often given by stating the number ing, this is not true. A mixture of gases, such as air, exhibits
of moles it contains. A mole is the mass of a chemical species some of the characteristics of a pure substance as long as there
equal numerically to its molecular mass. Thus, a kilogram is no change of phase.
mole of oxygen (O2) contains 32 kilograms. In addition, the Consider as a system that water is contained in the piston-
number of molecules in a kilogram mole is the same for all cylinder arrangement of Figure 2-2. Suppose that the piston
substances. This is also true for a gram mole, and in this case maintains a pressure of 14.7 lbf /in. (101.3 kPa) in the cylinder
the number of molecules is Avogadro’s number, equal to containing H2O, and that the initial temperature is 59°F
6.0225  1023 molecules. (15°C). As heat is transferred to the water, the temperature
Many derived units are important in thermodynamics. increases appreciably, the specific volume increases slightly,
Examples are force, pressure, and density. Force is deter- and the pressure remains constant. When the temperature
mined through Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma, and reaches 212°F (100°C), additional heat transfer results in a
has the basic unit (kg·m)/s2. The SI unit for this composite set change of phase. That is, some of the liquid becomes vapor,
is the newton (N). Pressure is defined as force per unit area and during this process both the temperature and pressure
(N/m2), called the pascal (Pa); and density is mass per unit remain constant, while the specific volume increases consid-
volume (kg/m3). erably. When the last drop of liquid has vaporized, further
The US customary engineering system of units also recog- heat transfer results in an increase in both temperature and
nizes the second as the basic unit of time, and the ampere as specific volume of the vapor.
the unit of current. However, absolute temperature is mea- Saturation temperature designates the temperature at
sured in degrees Rankine (°R). The foot (ft) is the usual unit which vaporization takes place at a given pressure; this pres-
of length and the pound mass (lbm) is the unit of mass. The sure is called the saturation pressure for the given tempera-
molar unit is the pound mole. ASHRAE calls this system the ture. Thus for water at 212°F (100°C), the saturation pressure
inch-pound (I-P) unit system. is 14.7 lbf /in.2 (101.3 kPa), and for water at 14.7 lbf /in.2
The unit of force, the pound force (lbf), is defined without (101.3 kPa), the saturation temperature is 212°F (100°C).
reference to Newton’s second law, so this law must be written If a substance exists as liquid at the saturation temperature
to include a dimensional proportionality constant: and pressure, it is called saturated liquid. If the temperature of
the liquid is lower than the saturation temperature for the
F = ma/gc existing pressure, it is called a subcooled liquid (implying that
the temperature is lower than the saturation temperature for
where gc is the proportionality constant. In the I-P system, the the given pressure) or a compressed liquid (implying that the
proportionality constant is pressure is greater than the saturation pressure for the given
gc = 32.174 (lbm/lbf)(ft/s2) temperature).
When a substance exists as part liquid and part vapor at the
The unit of density is lbm/ft3, and the unit of pressure is lbf /ft2 saturation temperature, its quality is defined as the ratio of the
or lbf /in2, often written psi. Pressure gages usually measure mass of vapor to the total mass. The quality may be consid-
pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. The term absolute ered as an intensive property, and it has the symbol x. Quality
pressure is often used to distinguish thermodynamic (actual) has meaning only when the substance is in a saturated state,
pressure (psia) from gage (relative) pressure (psig). i.e., at saturation pressure and temperature.
In SI units, the proportionality constant gc in Newton’s law If a substance exists as vapor at the saturation temperature,
is unity or it is called saturated vapor. (Sometimes the term dry saturated
vapor is used to emphasize that the quality is 100%.) When the
gc = 1 (kg/N)(m/s2) vapor is at a temperature greater than the saturation tempera-
16 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Fig. 2-3 The Pure Substance

To understand the significance of the term independent

property, consider the saturated-liquid and saturated-vapor
states of a pure substance. These two states have the same pres-
Fig. 2-2 Thermodynamic Fluid States sure and the same temperature, but are definitely not the same
state. Therefore, in a saturation state, pressure and temperature
ture, it is said to exist as superheated vapor. The pressure and are not independent properties. Two independent properties
temperature of superheated vapor are independent properties such as pressure and specific volume, or pressure and quality,
because the temperature may increase while the pressure are required to specify a saturation state of a pure substance.
remains constant. Actually, gases are highly superheated Thus, a mixture of gases, such as air, has the same charac-
vapors. teristics as a pure substance, as long as only one phase is pres-
The entire range of phases is summarized by Figure 2-3, ent. The state of air, which is a mixture of gases of definite
which shows how the solid, liquid, and vapor phases may exist composition, is determined by specifying two properties as
together in equilibrium. Along the sublimation line, the solid long as it remains in the gaseous phase, and in this regard, air
and vapor phases are in equilibrium, along the fusion line, the can be treated as a pure substance.
solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium, and along the vapor-
ization line, the liquid and vapor phases are in equilibrium. The 2.2.10 Tables and Graphs of Thermodynamic
only point at which all three phases may exist in equilibrium is Properties
the triple point. The vaporization line ends at the critical point
because there is no distinct change from the liquid phase to the Tables of thermodynamic properties of many substances
vapor phase above the critical point. are available, and they all generally have the same form. This
Consider a solid in state A, Figure 2-3. When the tempera- section refers to the tables for H2O and R-134a, as well as their
ture is increased while the pressure (which is less than the triple respective Mollier diagrams, the h-s chart for steam, and the p-
point pressure) is constant, the substance passes directly from h diagram for R-134a.
the solid to the vapor phase. Along the constant pressure line Table 3 in Chapter 1 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—
EF, the substance first passes from the solid to the liquid phase Fundamentals gives thermodynamic properties of water at sat-
at one temperature, and then from the liquid to the vapor phase uration and is reproduced in part as Table 2-1 on the following
at a higher temperature. Constant-pressure line CD passes pages. In Table 2-1, the first two columns after the temperature
through the triple point, and it is only at the triple point that the give the corresponding saturation pressure in pounds force per
three phases may exist together in equilibrium. At a pressure square inch and in inches of mercury. The next three columns
above the critical pressure, such as GH, there is no sharp dis- give specific volume in cubic feet per pound mass. The first of
tinction between the liquid and vapor phases. these gives the specific volume of the saturated solid (vi) or
One important reason for introducing the concept of a pure liquid (vf); the third column gives the specific volume of satu-
substance is that the state of a simple compressible pure sub- rated vapor vg. The difference between these two values, vg –
stance is defined by two independent properties. This means, vi or vg – vf , represents the increase in specific volume when
for example, if the specific volume and temperature of super- the state changes from saturated solid or liquid to saturated
heated steam are specified, the state of the steam is determined. vapor, and is designated vig or vfg.
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 17

Table 2-1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water

(Table 3, Chapter 1, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
Specific Volume, ft3/lbw Specific Enthalpy, Btu/lbw Specific Entropy, Btu/lbw ·°F
Temp., Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Temp.,
Absolute Pressure
°F Solid Evap. Vapor Solid Evap. Vapor Solid Evap. Vapor °F
t p, psi p, in. Hg vi vig vg hi hig hg si sig sg t
–80 0.000116 0.000236 0.01732 1953234 1953234 ––193.50 1219.19 1025.69 –0.4067 3.2112 2.8045 –80
–79 0.000125 0.000254 0.01732 1814052 1814052 –193.11 1219.24 1026.13 –0.4056 3.2029 2.7972 –79
–78 0.000135 0.000275 0.01732 1685445 1685445 –192.71 1219.28 1026.57 –0.4046 3.1946 2.7900 –78
–77 0.000145 0.000296 0.01732 1566663 1566663 –192.31 1219.33 1027.02 –0.4036 3.1964 2.7828 –77
–76 0.000157 0.000319 0.01732 1456752 1456752 –191.92 1219.38 1027.46 –0.4025 3.1782 2.7757 –76
–75 0.000169 0.000344 0.01733 1355059 1355059 –191.52 1219.42 1027.90 –0.4015 3.1701 2.7685 –75
–74 0.000182 0.000371 0.01733 1260977 1260977 –191.12 1219.47 1028.34 –0.4005 3.1619 2.7615 –74
–73 0.000196 0.000399 0.01733 1173848 1173848 –190.72 1219.51 1028.79 –0.3994 3.1539 2.7544 –73
–72 0.000211 0.000430 0.01733 1093149 1093149 –190.32 1219.55 1029.23 –0.3984 3.1459 2.7475 –72
–71 0.000227 0.000463 0.01733 1018381 1018381 –189.92 1219.59 1029.67 –0.3974 3.1379 2.7405 –71
–70 0.000245 0.000498 0.01733 949067 949067 –189.52 1219.63 1030.11 –0.3963 3.1299 2.7336 –70
–69 0.000263 0.000536 0.01733 884803 884803 –189.11 1219.67 1030.55 –0.3953 3.1220 2.7267 –69
–68 0.000283 0.000576 0.01733 825187 825187 –188.71 1219.71 1031.00 –0.3943 3.1141 2.7199 –68
–67 0.000304 0.000619 0.01734 769864 769864 –188.30 1219.74 1031.44 –0.3932 3.1063 2.7131 –67
–66 0.000326 0.000664 0.01734 718508 718508 –187.90 1219.78 1031.88 –0.3922 3.0985 2.7063 –66
–65 0.000350 0.000714 0.01734 670800 670800 –187.49 1219.82 1032.32 –0.3912 3.0907 2.6996 –65
–64 0.000376 0.000766 0.01734 626503 626503 –187.08 1219.85 1032.77 –0.3901 3.0830 2.6929 –64
–63 0.000404 0.000822 0.01734 585316 585316 –186.67 1219.88 1033.21 –0.3891 3.0753 2.6862 –63
–62 0.000433 0.000882 0.01734 548041 547041 –186.26 1219.91 1033.65 –0.3881 3.0677 2.6730 –62
–61 0.000464 0.000945 0.01734 511446 511446 –185.85 1219.95 1034.09 –0.3870 3.0601 2.6730 –61
–60 0.000498 0.001013 0.01734 478317 478317 –185.44 1219.98 1034.54 –0.3860 3.0525 2.6665 –60
–59 0.000533 0.001086 0.01735 447495 447495 –185.03 1220.01 1034.98 –0.3850 3.0449 2.6600 –59
–58 0.000571 0.001163 0.01735 418803 418803 –184.61 1220.03 1035.42 –0.3839 3.0374 2.6535 –58
–57 0.000612 0.001246 0.01735 392068 392068 –184.20 1220.06 1035.86 –0.3829 3.0299 2.6470 –57
–56 0.000655 0.001333 0.01735 367172 367172 –183.78 1220.09 1036.30 –0.3819 3.0225 2.6406 –56
–55 0.000701 0.001427 0.01735 343970 343970 –183.37 1220.11 1036.75 –0.3808 3.0151 2.6342 –55
–54 0.000750 0.001526 0.01735 322336 322336 –182.95 1220.14 1037.19 –0.3798 3.0077 2.6279 –54
–53 0.000802 0.001632 0.01735 302157 302157 –182.53 1220.16 1037.63 –0.3788 3.0004 2.6216 –53
–52 0.000857 0.001745 0.01735 283335 283335 –182.11 1220.18 1038.07 –0.3778 2.9931 2.6153 –52
–51 0.000916 0.001865 0.01736 265773 265773 –181.69 1220.21 1038.52 –0.3767 2.9858 2.6091 –51
–50 0.000979 0.001992 0.01736 249381 249381 –181.27 1220.23 1038.96 –0.3757 2.9786 2.6029 –50
–49 0.001045 0.002128 0.01736 234067 234067 –180.85 1220.25 1039.40 –0.3747 2.9714 2.5967 –49
–48 0.001116 0.002272 0.01736 219766 219766 –180.42 1220.26 1039.84 –0.3736 2.9642 2.5906 –48
–47 0.001191 0.002425 0.01736 206398 206398 –180.00 1220.28 1040.28 –0.3726 2.9570 2.5844 –47
–46 0.001271 0.002587 0.01736 193909 193909 –179.57 1220.30 1040.73 –0.3716 2.9499 2.5784 –46
–45 0.001355 0.002760 0.01736 182231 182231 –179.14 1220.31 1041.17 –0.3705 2.9429 2.5723 –45
–44 0.001445 0.002943 0.01736 171304 171304 –178.72 1220.33 1041.61 –0.3695 2.9358 2.5663 –44
–43 0.001541 0.003137 0.01737 161084 161084 –178.29 1220.34 1042.05 –0.3685 2.9288 2.5603 –43
–42 0.001642 0.003343 0.01737 151518 151518 –177.86 1220.36 1042.50 –0.3675 2.9218 2.5544 –42
–41 0.001749 0.003562 0.01737 142566 142566 –177.43 1220.37 1042.94 –0.3664 2.9149 2.5485 –41
–40 0.001863 0.003793 0.01737 134176 134176 –177.00 1220.38 1043.38 –0.3654 2.9080 2.5426 –40
–39 0.001984 0.004039 0.01737 126322 126322 –176.57 1220.39 1043.82 –0.3644 2.9011 2.5367 –39
–38 0.002111 0.004299 0.01737 118959 118959 –176.13 1220.40 1044.27 –0.3633 2.8942 2.5309 –38
–37 0.002247 0.004574 0.01737 112058 112058 –175.70 1220.40 1044.71 –0.3623 2.8874 2.5251 –37
–36 0.002390 0.004866 0.01738 105592 105592 –175.26 1220.41 1045.15 –0.3613 2.8806 2.5193 –36
–35 0.002542 0.005175 0.01738 99522 99522 –174.83 1220.42 1045.59 –0.3603 2.8738 2.5136 –35
–34 0.002702 0.005502 0.01738 93828 93828 –174.39 1220.42 1046.03 –0.3592 2.8671 2.5078 –34
–33 0.002872 0.005848 0.01738 88489 88489 –173.95 1220.43 1046.48 –0.3582 2.8604 2.5022 –33
–32 0.003052 0.006213 0.01738 83474 83474 –173.51 1220.43 1046.92 –0.3572 2.8537 2.4965 –32
–31 0.003242 0.006600 0.01738 78763 78763 –173.07 1220.43 1047.36 –0.3561 2.8470 2.4909 –31
–30 0.003443 0.007009 0.01738 74341 74341 –172.63 1220.43 1047.80 –0.3551 2.8404 2.4853 –30
–29 0.003655 0.007441 0.01738 70187 70187 –172.19 1220.43 1048.25 –0.3541 2.8338 2.4797 –29
–28 0.003879 0.007898 0.01739 66282 66282 –171.74 1220.43 1048.69 –0.3531 2.8272 2.4742 –28
–27 0.004116 0.008380 0.01739 62613 62613 –171.30 1220.43 1049.13 –0.3520 2.8207 2.4687 –27
–26 0.004366 0.008890 0.01739 59161 59161 –170.86 1220.43 1049.57 –0.3510 2.8142 2.4632 –26
–25 0.004630 0.009428 0.01739 55915 55915 –170.41 1220.42 1050.01 –0.3500 2.8077 2.4577 –25
–24 0.004909 0.009995 0.01739 52861 52861 –169.96 1220.42 1050.46 –0.3489 2.8013 2.4523 –24
–23 0.005203 0.010594 0.01739 49986 49986 –169.51 1220.41 1050.90 –0.3479 2.7948 2.4469 –23
–22 0.005514 0.011226 0.01739 47281 47281 –169.07 1220.41 1051.34 –0.3469 2.7884 2.4415 –22
–21 0.005841 0.011892 0.01740 44733 44733 –168.62 1220.40 1051.78 –0.3459 2.7820 2.4362 –21
–20 0.006186 0.012595 0.01740 42333 42333 –168.16 1220.39 1052.22 –0.3448 2.7757 2.4309 –20
–19 0.006550 0.013336 0.01740 40073 40073 –167.71 1220.38 1052.67 –0.3438 2.7694 2.4256 –19
–18 0.006933 0.014117 0.01740 37943 37943 –167.26 1220.37 1053.11 –0.3428 2.7631 2.4203 –18
–17 0.007337 0.014939 0.01740 35934 35934 –166.81 1220.36 1053.55 –0.3418 2.7568 2.4151 –17
–16 0.007763 0.015806 0.01740 34041 34041 –166.35 1220.34 1053.99 –0.3407 2.7506 2.4098 –16
–15 0.008211 0.016718 0.01740 32256 32256 –165.90 1220.33 1054.43 –0.3397 2.7444 2.4046 –15
–14 0.008683 0.017678 0.01741 30572 30572 –165.44 1220.31 1054.87 –0.3387 2.7382 2.3995 –14
18 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Table 2-1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water (Continued)

(Table 3, Chapter 1, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
Specific Volume, ft3/lbw Specific Enthalpy, Btu/lbw Specific Entropy, Btu/lbw ·°F
Temp., Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Temp.,
Absolute Pressure
°F Solid/Liq. Evap. Vapor Solid/Liq. Evap. Vapor Solid/Liq. Evap. Vapor °F
t p, psi p, in. Hg vi/vf vig vg hi/hf hig hg si/sf sig sg t
–13 0.009179 0.018689 0.01741 28983 28983 –164.98 1220.30 1055.32 –0.3377 2.7320 2.3943 –13
–12 0.009702 0.019753 0.01741 27483 27483 –164.52 1220.28 1055.76 –0.3366 2.7259 2.3892 –12
–11 0.010252 0.020873 0.01741 26067 26067 –164.06 1220.26 1056.20 –0.3356 2.7197 2.3841 –11
–10 0.010830 0.022050 0.01741 24730 24730 –163.60 1220.24 1056.64 –0.3346 2.7136 2.3791 –10
–9 0.011438 0.023288 0.01741 23467 23467 –163.14 1220.22 1057.08 –0.3335 2.7076 2.3740 –9
–8 0.012077 0.024590 0.01741 22274 22274 –162.68 1220.20 1057.53 –0.3325 2.7015 2.3690 –8
–7 0.012749 0.025958 0.01742 21147 21147 –162.21 1220.18 1057.97 –0.3315 2.6955 2.3640 –7
–6 0.013456 0.027396 0.01742 20081 20081 –161.75 1220.16 1058.41 –0.3305 2.6895 2.3591 –6
–5 0.014197 0.028906 0.01742 19074 19074 –161.28 1220.13 1058.85 –0.3294 2.6836 2.3541 –5
–4 0.014977 0.030493 0.01742 18121 18121 –160.82 1220.11 1059.29 –0.3284 2.6776 2.3492 –4
–3 0.015795 0.032159 0.01742 17220 17220 –160.35 1220.08 1059.73 –0.3274 2.6717 2.3443 –3
–2 0.016654 0.033908 0.01742 16367 16367 –159.88 1220.05 1060.17 –0.3264 2.6658 2.3394 –2
–1 0.017556 0.035744 0.01742 15561 15561 –159.41 1220.02 1060.62 –0.3253 2.6599 2.3346 –1
0 0.018502 0.037671 0.01743 14797 14797 –158.94 1220.00 1061.06 –0.3243 2.6541 2.3298 0
1 0.019495 0.039693 0.01743 14073 14073 –158.47 1219.96 1061.50 –0.3233 2.6482 2.3249 1
2 0.020537 0.041813 0.01743 13388 13388 –157.99 1219.93 1061.94 –0.3223 2.6424 2.3202 2
3 0.021629 0.044037 0.01743 12740 12740 –157.52 1219.90 1062.38 –0.3212 2.6367 2.3154 3
4 0.022774 0.046369 0.01743 12125 12125 –157.05 1219.87 1062.82 –0.3202 2.6309 2.3107 4
5 0.023975 0.048813 0.01743 11543 11543 –156.57 1219.83 1063.26 –0.3192 2.6252 2.3060 5
6 0.025233 0.051375 0.01743 10991 10991 –156.09 1219.80 1063.70 –0.3182 2.6194 2.3013 6
7 0.026552 0.054059 0.01744 10468 10468 –155.62 1219.76 1064.14 –0.3171 2.6138 2.2966 7
8 0.027933 0.056872 0.01744 9971 9971 –155.14 1219.72 1064.58 –0.3161 2.6081 2.2920 8
9 0.029379 0.059817 0.01744 9500 9500 –154.66 1219.68 1065.03 –0.3151 2.6024 2.2873 9
10 0.030894 0.062901 0.01744 9054 9054 –154.18 1219.64 1065.47 –0.3141 2.5968 2.2827 10
11 0.032480 0.066131 0.01744 8630 8630 –153.70 1219.60 1065.91 –0.3130 2.5912 2.2782 11
12 0.034140 0.069511 0.01744 8228 8228 –153.21 1219.56 1066.35 –0.3120 2.5856 2.2736 12
13 0.035878 0.073047 0.01745 7846 7846 –152.73 1219.52 1066.79 –0.3110 2.5801 2.2691 13
14 0.037696 0.076748 0.01745 7483 7483 –152.24 1219.47 1067.23 –0.3100 2.5745 2.2645 14
15 0.039597 0.080621 0.01745 7139 7139 –151.76 1219.43 1067.67 –0.3089 2.5690 2.2600 15
16 0.041586 0.084671 0.01745 6811 6811 –151.27 1219.38 1068.11 –0.3079 2.5635 2.2556 16
17 0.043666 0.088905 0.01745 6501 6501 –150.78 1219.33 1068.55 –0.3069 2.5580 2.2511 17
18 0.045841 0.093332 0.01745 6205 6205 –150.30 1219.28 1068.99 –0.3059 2.5526 2.2467 18
19 0.048113 0.097960 0.01745 5924 5924 –149.81 1219.23 1069.43 –0.3049 2.5471 2.2423 19
20 0.050489 0.102796 0.01746 5657 5657 –149.32 1219.18 1069.87 –0.3038 2.5417 2.2379 20
21 0.052970 0.107849 0.01746 5404 5404 –148.82 1219.13 1070.31 –0.3028 2.5363 2.2335 21
22 0.055563 0.113128 0.01746 5162 5162 –148.33 1219.08 1070.75 –0.3018 2.5309 2.2292 22
23 0.058271 0.118641 0.01746 4932 4932 –147.84 1219.02 1071.19 –0.3008 2.5256 2.2248 23
24 0.061099 0.124398 0.01746 4714 4714 –147.34 1218.97 1071.63 –0.2997 2.5203 2.2205 24
25 0.064051 0.130408 0.01746 4506 4506 –146.85 1218.91 1072.07 –0.2987 2.5149 2.2162 25
26 0.067133 0.136684 0.01747 4308 4308 –146.35 1218.85 1072.50 –0.2977 2.5096 2.2119 26
27 0.070349 0.143233 0.01747 4119 4119 –145.85 1218.80 1072.94 –0.2967 2.5044 2.2077 27
28 0.073706 0.150066 0.01747 3940 3940 –145.35 1218.74 1073.38 –0.2956 2.4991 2.2035 28
29 0.077207 0.157195 0.01747 3769 3769 –144.85 1218.68 1073.82 –0.2946 2.4939 2.1992 29
30 0.080860 0.164632 0.01747 3606 3606 –144.35 1218.61 1074.26 –0.2936 2.4886 2.1951 30
31 0.084669 0.172387 0.01747 3450 3450 –143.85 1218.55 1074.70 –0.2926 2.4834 2.1909 31
32 0.088640 0.180474 0.01747 3302 3302 –143.35 1218.49 1075.14 –0.2915 2.4783 2.1867 32
32* 0.08865 0.18049 0.01602 3302.07 3302.09 –0.02 1075.15 1075.14 0.0000 2.1867 2.1867 32
33 0.09229 0.18791 0.01602 3178.15 3178.16 0.99 1074.59 1075.58 0.0020 2.1811 2.1832 33
34 0.09607 0.19559 0.01602 3059.47 3059.49 2.00 1074.02 1076.01 0.0041 2.1756 2.1796 34
35 0.09998 0.20355 0.01602 2945.66 2945.68 3.00 1073.45 1076.45 0.0061 2.1700 2.1761 35
36 0.10403 0.21180 0.01602 2836.60 2836.61 4.01 1072.88 1076.89 0.0081 2.1645 2.1726 36
37 0.10822 0.22035 0.01602 2732.13 2732.15 5.02 1072.32 1077.33 0.0102 2.1590 2.1692 37
38 0.11257 0.22919 0.01602 2631.88 2631.89 6.02 1071.75 1077.77 0.0122 2.1535 2.1657 38
39 0.11707 0.23835 0.01602 2535.86 2535.88 7.03 1071.18 1078.21 0.0142 2.1481 2.1623 39
40 0.12172 0.24783 0.01602 2443.67 2443.69 8.03 1070.62 1078.65 0.0162 2.1426 2.1589 40
41 0.12654 0.25765 0.01602 2355.22 2355.24 9.04 1070.05 1079.09 0.0182 2.1372 2.1554 41
42 0.13153 0.26780 0.01602 2270.42 2270.43 10.04 1069.48 1079.52 0.0202 2.1318 2.1521 42
43 0.13669 0.27831 0.01602 2189.02 2189.04 11.04 1068.92 1079.96 0.0222 2.1265 2.1487 43
44 0.14203 0.28918 0.01602 2110.92 2110.94 12.05 1068.35 1080.40 0.0242 2.1211 2.1454 44
45 0.14755 0.30042 0.01602 2035.91 2035.92 13.05 1067.79 1080.84 0.0262 2.1158 2.1420 45
46 0.15326 0.31205 0.01602 1963.85 1963.87 14.05 1067.22 1081.28 0.0282 2.1105 2.1387 46
47 0.15917 0.32407 0.01602 1894.71 1894.73 15.06 1066.66 1081.71 0.0302 2.1052 2.1354 47
48 0.16527 0.33650 0.01602 1828.28 1828.30 16.06 1066.09 1082.15 0.0321 2.1000 2.1321 48
49 0.17158 0.34935 0.01602 1764.44 1764.46 17.06 1065.53 1082.59 0.0341 2.0947 2.1288 49
50 0.17811 0.36263 0.01602 1703.18 1703.20 18.06 1064.96 1083.03 0.0361 2.0895 2.1256 50
51 0.18484 0.37635 0.01602 1644.25 1644.26 19.06 1064.40 1083.46 0.0381 2.0843 2.1224 51
52 0.19181 0.39053 0.01603 1587.64 1587.65 20.07 1063.83 1083.90 0.0400 2.0791 2.1191 52
*Extrapolated to represent metastable equilibrium with undercooled liquid.
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 19

Table 2-1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water (Continued)

(Table 3, Chapter 1, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
Specific Volume, ft3/lbw Specific Enthalpy, Btu/lbw Specific Entropy, Btu/lbw ·°F
Temp., Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Temp.,
Absolute Pressure
°F Liquid Evap. Vapor Liquid Evap. Vapor Liquid Evap. Vapor °F
t p, psi p, in. Hg vf vfg vg hf hfg hg sf sfg sg t
53 0.19900 0.40516 0.01603 1533.22 1533.24 21.07 1063.27 1084.34 0.0420 2.0740 2.1159 53
54 0.20643 0.42029 0.01603 1480.89 1480.91 22.07 1062.71 1084.77 0.0439 2.0689 2.1128 54
55 0.21410 0.43591 0.01603 1430.61 1430.62 23.07 1062.14 1085.21 0.0459 2.0637 2.1096 55
56 0.22202 0.45204 0.01603 1382.19 1382.21 24.07 1061.58 1085.65 0.0478 2.0586 2.1064 56
57 0.23020 0.46869 0.01603 1335.65 1335.67 25.07 1061.01 1086.08 0.0497 2.0536 2.1033 57
58 0.23864 0.48588 0.01603 1290.85 1290.87 26.07 1060.45 1086.52 0.0517 2.0485 2.1002 58
59 0.24735 0.50362 0.01603 1247.76 1247.78 27.07 1059.89 1086.96 0.0536 2.0435 2.0971 59
60 0.25635 0.52192 0.01604 1206.30 1206.32 28.07 1059.32 1087.39 0.0555 2.0385 2.0940 60
61 0.26562 0.54081 0.01604 1166.38 1166.40 29.07 1058.76 1087.83 0.0575 2.0334 2.0909 61
62 0.27519 0.56029 0.01604 1127.93 1127.95 30.07 1058.19 1088.27 0.0594 2.0285 2.0878 62
63 0.28506 0.58039 0.01604 1090.94 1090.96 31.07 1057.63 1088.70 0.0613 2.0235 2.0848 63
64 0.29524 0.60112 0.01604 1055.32 1055.33 32.07 1057.07 1089.14 0.0632 2.0186 2.0818 64
65 0.30574 0.62249 0.01604 1020.98 1021.00 33.07 1056.50 1089.57 0.0651 2.0136 2.0787 65
66 0.31656 0.64452 0.01604 987.95 987.97 34.07 1055.94 1090.01 0.0670 2.0087 2.0758 66
67 0.32772 0.66724 0.01605 956.11 956.12 35.07 1055.37 1090.44 0.0689 2.0039 2.0728 67
68 0.33921 0.69065 0.01605 925.44 925.45 36.07 1054.81 1090.88 0.0708 1.9990 2.0698 68
69 0.35107 0.71478 0.01605 895.86 895.87 37.07 1054.24 1091.31 0.0727 1.9941 2.0668 69
70 0.36328 0.73964 0.01605 867.34 867.36 38.07 1053.68 1091.75 0.0746 1.9893 2.0639 70
71 0.37586 0.76526 0.01605 839.87 839.88 39.07 1053.11 1092.18 0.0765 1.9845 2.0610 71
72 0.38882 0.79164 0.01606 813.37 813.39 40.07 1052.55 1092.61 0.0783 1.9797 2.0580 72
73 0.40217 0.81883 0.01606 787.85 787.87 41.07 1051.98 1093.05 0.0802 1.9749 2.0552 73
74 0.41592 0.84682 0.01606 763.19 763.21 42.06 1051.42 1093.48 0.0821 1.9702 2.0523 74
75 0.43008 0.87564 0.01606 739.42 739.44 43.06 1050.85 1093.92 0.0840 1.9654 2.0494 75
76 0.44465 0.90532 0.01606 716.51 726.53 44.06 1050.29 1094.35 0.0858 1.9607 2.0465 76
77 0.45966 0.93587 0.01607 694.38 699.80 45.06 1049.72 1094.78 0.0877 1.9560 2.0437 77
78 0.47510 0.96732 0.01607 673.05 673.06 46.06 1049.16 1095.22 0.0896 1.9513 2.0409 78
79 0.49100 0.99968 0.01607 652.44 652.46 47.06 1048.59 1095.65 0.0914 1.9466 2.0380 79
80 0.50736 1.03298 0.01607 632.54 632.56 48.06 1048.03 1096.08 0.0933 1.9420 2.0352 80
81 0.52419 1.06725 0.01608 613.35 613.37 49.06 1047.46 1096.51 0.0951 1.9373 2.0324 81
82 0.54150 1.10250 0.01608 594.82 594.84 50.05 1046.89 1096.95 0.0970 1.9327 2.0297 82
83 0.55931 1.13877 0.01608 576.90 576.92 51.05 1046.33 1097.38 0.0988 1.9281 2.0269 83
84 0.57763 1.17606 0.01608 559.63 559.65 52.05 1045.76 1097.81 0.1006 1.9235 2.0242 84
85 0.59647 1.21442 0.01609 542.93 542.94 53.05 1045.19 1098.24 0.1025 1.9189 2.0214 85
86 0.61584 1.25385 0.01609 526.80 526.81 54.05 1044.63 1098.67 0.1043 1.9144 2.0187 86
87 0.63575 1.29440 0.01609 511.21 511.22 55.05 1044.06 1099.11 0.1061 1.9098 2.0160 87
88 0.65622 1.33608 0.01609 496.14 496.15 56.05 1043.49 1099.54 0.1080 1.9053 2.0133 88
89 0.67726 1.37892 0.01610 481.60 481.61 57.04 1042.92 1099.97 0.1098 1.9008 2.0106 89
90 0.69889 1.42295 0.01610 467.52 467.53 58.04 1042.36 1100.40 0.1116 1.8963 2.0079 90
91 0.72111 1.46820 0.01610 453.91 453.93 59.04 1041.79 1100.83 0.1134 1.8918 2.0053 91
92 0.74394 1.51468 0.01611 440.76 440.78 60.04 1041.22 1101.26 0.1152 1.8874 2.0026 92
93 0.76740 1.56244 0.01611 428.04 428.06 61.04 1040.65 1101.69 0.1170 1.8829 2.0000 93
94 0.79150 1.61151 0.01611 415.74 415.76 62.04 1040.08 1102.12 0.1188 1.8785 1.9973 94
95 0.81625 1.66189 0.01612 403.84 403.86 63.03 1039.51 1102.55 0.1206 1.8741 1.9947 95
96 0.84166 1.71364 0.01612 392.33 392.34 64.03 1038.95 1102.98 0.1224 1.8697 1.9921 96
97 0.86776 1.76678 0.01612 381.20 381.21 65.03 1038.38 1103.41 0.1242 1.8653 1.9895 97
98 0.89456 1.82134 0.01612 370.42 370.44 66.03 1037.81 1103.84 0.1260 1.8610 1.9870 98
99 0.92207 1.87736 0.01613 359.99 360.01 67.03 1037.24 1104.26 0.1278 1.8566 1.9844 99
100 0.95031 1.93485 0.01613 349.91 349.92 68.03 1036.67 1104.69 0.1296 1.8523 1.9819 100
101 0.97930 1.99387 0.01613 340.14 340.15 69.03 1036.10 1105.12 0.1314 1.8479 1.9793 101
102 1.00904 2.05443 0.01614 330.69 330.71 70.02 1035.53 1105.55 0.1332 1.8436 1.9768 102
103 1.03956 2.11667 0.01614 321.53 321.55 71.02 1034.95 1105.98 0.1349 1.8393 1.9743 103
104 1.07088 2.18034 0.01614 312.67 312.69 72.02 1034.38 1106.40 0.1367 1.8351 1.9718 104
105 1.10301 2.24575 0.01615 304.08 304.10 73.02 1033.81 1106.83 0.1385 1.8308 1.9693 105
106 1.13597 2.31285 0.01615 295.76 295.77 74.02 1033.24 1107.26 0.1402 1.8266 1.9668 106
107 1.16977 2.38168 0.01616 287.71 287.73 75.01 1032.67 1107.68 0.1420 1.8223 1.9643 107
108 1.20444 2.45226 0.01616 279.91 279.92 76.01 1032.10 1108.11 0.1438 1.8181 1.9619 108
109 1.23999 2.52464 0.01616 272.34 272.36 77.01 1031.52 1108.54 0.1455 1.8139 1.9594 109
110 1.27644 2.59885 0.01617 265.02 265.03 78.01 1030.95 1108.96 0.1473 1.8097 1.9570 110
111 1.31381 2.67494 0.01617 257.91 257.93 79.01 1030.38 1109.39 0.1490 1.8055 1.9546 111
112 1.35212 2.75293 0.01617 251.02 251.04 80.01 1029.80 1109.81 0.1508 1.8014 1.9521 112
113 1.39138 2.83288 0.01618 244.36 244.38 81.01 1029.23 1110.24 0.1525 1.7972 1.9497 113
114 1.43162 2.91481 0.01618 237.89 237.90 82.00 1028.66 1110.66 0.1543 1.7931 1.9474 114
115 1.47286 2.99878 0.01619 231.62 231.63 83.00 1028.08 1111.09 0.1560 1.7890 1.9450 115
116 1.51512 3.08481 0.01619 225.53 225.55 84.00 1027.51 1111.51 0.1577 1.7849 1.9426 116
117 1.55842 3.17296 0.01619 219.63 219.65 85.00 1026.93 1111.93 0.1595 1.7808 1.9402 117
118 1.60277 3.26327 0.01620 213.91 213.93 86.00 1026.36 1112.36 0.1612 1.7767 1.9379 118
119 1.64820 3.35577 0.01620 208.36 208.37 87.00 1025.78 1112.78 0.1629 1.7726 1.9356 119
120 1.69474 3.45052 0.01620 202.98 202.99 88.00 1025.20 1113.20 0.1647 1.7686 1.9332 120
20 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Table 2-1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water (Continued)

(Table 3, Chapter 1, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
Specific Volume, ft3/lbw Specific Enthalpy, Btu/lbw Specific Entropy, Btu/lbw ·°F
Temp., Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Temp.,
Absolute Pressure
°F Liquid Evap. Vapor Liquid Evap. Vapor Liquid Evap. Vapor °F
t p, psi p, in. Hg vf vfg vg hf hfg hg sf sfg sg t
121 1.74240 3.54755 0.01621 197.76 197.76 89.00 1024.63 1113.62 0.1664 1.7645 1.9309 121
122 1.79117 3.64691 0.01621 192.69 192.69 90.00 1024.05 1114.05 0.1681 1.7605 1.9286 122
123 1.84117 3.74863 0.01622 187.78 187.78 90.99 1023.47 1114.47 0.1698 1.7565 1.9263 123
124 1.89233 3.85282 0.01622 182.98 182.99 91.99 1022.90 1114.89 0.1715 1.7525 1.9240 124
125 1.94470 3.95945 0.01623 178.34 178.36 92.99 1022.32 1115.31 0.1732 1.7485 1.9217 125
126 1.99831 4.06860 0.01623 173.85 173.86 93.99 1021.74 1115.73 0.1749 1.7445 1.9195 126
127 2.05318 4.18032 0.01623 169.47 169.49 94.99 1021.16 1116.15 0.1766 1.7406 1.9172 127
128 2.10934 4.29465 0.01624 165.23 165.25 95.99 1020.58 1116.57 0.1783 1.7366 1.9150 128
129 2.16680 4.41165 0.01624 161.11 161.12 96.99 1020.00 1116.99 0.1800 1.7327 1.9127 129
130 2.22560 4.53136 0.01625 157.11 157.12 97.99 1019.42 1117.41 0.1817 1.7288 1.9105 130
131 2.28576 4.65384 0.01625 153.22 153.23 98.99 1018.84 1117.83 0.1834 1.7249 1.9083 131
132 2.34730 4.77914 0.01626 149.44 149.46 99.99 1018.26 1118.25 0.1851 1.7210 1.9061 132
133 2.41025 4.90730 0.01626 145.77 145.78 100.99 1017.68 1118.67 0.1868 1.7171 1.9039 133
134 2.47463 5.03839 0.01627 142.21 142.23 101.99 1017.10 1119.08 0.1885 1.7132 1.9017 134
135 2.54048 5.17246 0.01627 138.74 138.76 102.99 1016.52 1119.50 0.1902 1.7093 1.8995 135
136 2.60782 5.30956 0.01627 135.37 135.39 103.98 1015.93 1119.92 0.1919 1.7055 1.8974 136
137 2.67667 5.44975 0.01628 132.10 132.12 104.98 1015.35 1120.34 0.1935 1.7017 1.8952 137
138 2.74707 5.59308 0.01628 128.92 128.94 105.98 1014.77 1120.75 0.1952 1.6978 1.8930 138
139 2.81903 5.73961 0.01629 125.83 125.85 106.98 1014.18 1121.17 0.1969 1.6940 1.8909 139
140 2.89260 5.88939 0.01629 122.82 122.84 107.98 1013.60 1121.58 0.1985 1.6902 1.8888 140
141 2.96780 6.04250 0.01630 119.90 119.92 108.98 1013.01 1122.00 0.2002 1.6864 1.8867 141
142 3.04465 6.19897 0.01630 117.05 117.07 109.98 1012.43 1122.41 0.2019 1.6827 1.8845 142
143 3.12320 6.35888 0.01631 114.29 114.31 110.98 1011.84 1122.83 0.2035 1.6789 1.8824 143
144 3.20345 6.52229 0.01631 111.60 111.62 111.98 1011.26 1123.24 0.2052 1.6752 1.8803 144
145 3.28546 6.68926 0.01632 108.99 109.00 112.98 1010.67 1123.66 0.2068 1.6714 1.8783 145
146 3.36924 6.85984 0.01632 106.44 106.45 113.98 1010.09 1124.07 0.2085 1.6677 1.8762 146
147 3.45483 7.03410 0.01633 103.96 103.98 114.98 1009.50 1124.48 0.2101 1.6640 1.8741 147
148 3.54226 7.21211 0.01633 101.55 101.57 115.98 1008.91 1124.89 0.2118 1.6603 1.8721 148
149 3.63156 7.39393 0.01634 99.21 99.22 116.98 1008.32 1125.31 0.2134 1.6566 1.8700 149
150 3.72277 7.57962 0.01634 96.93 96.94 117.98 1007.73 1125.72 0.2151 1.6529 1.8680 150
151 3.81591 7.76925 0.01635 94.70 94.72 118.99 1007.14 1126.13 0.2167 1.6492 1.8659 151
152 3.91101 7.96289 0.01635 92.54 92.56 119.99 1006.55 1126.54 0.2184 1.6455 1.8639 152
153 4.00812 8.16061 0.01636 90.44 90.46 120.99 1005.96 1126.95 0.2200 1.6419 1.8619 153
154 4.10727 8.36247 0.01636 88.39 88.41 121.99 1005.37 1127.36 0.2216 1.6383 1.8599 154
155 4.20848 8.56854 0.01637 86.40 86.41 122.99 1004.78 1127.77 0.2233 1.6346 1.8579 155
156 4.31180 8.77890 0.01637 84.45 84.47 123.99 1004.19 1128.18 0.2249 1.6310 1.8559 156
157 4.41725 8.99360 0.01638 82.56 82.58 124.99 1003.60 1128.59 0.2265 1.6274 1.8539 157
158 4.52488 9.21274 0.01638 80.72 80.73 125.99 1003.00 1128.99 0.2281 1.6238 1.8519 158
159 4.63472 9.43637 0.01639 78.92 78.94 126.99 1002.41 1129.40 0.2297 1.6202 1.8500 159
160 4.7468 9.6646 0.01639 77.175 77.192 127.99 1001.82 1129.81 0.2314 1.6167 1.8480 160
161 4.8612 9.8974 0.01640 75.471 75.488 128.99 1001.22 1130.22 0.2330 1.6131 1.8461 161
162 4.9778 10.1350 0.01640 73.812 73.829 130.00 1000.63 1130.62 0.2346 1.6095 1.8441 162
163 5.0969 10.3774 0.01641 72.196 72.213 131.00 1000.03 1131.03 0.2362 1.6060 1.8422 163
164 5.2183 10.6246 0.01642 70.619 70.636 132.00 999.43 1131.43 0.2378 1.6025 1.8403 164
165 5.3422 10.8768 0.01642 69.084 69.101 133.00 998.84 1131.84 0.2394 1.5989 1.8383 165
166 5.4685 11.1340 0.01643 67.587 67.604 134.00 998.24 1132.24 0.2410 1.5954 1.8364 166
167 5.5974 11.3963 0.01643 66.130 66.146 135.00 997.64 1132.64 0.2426 1.5919 1.8345 167
168 5.7287 11.6638 0.01644 64.707 64.723 136.01 997.04 1133.05 0.2442 1.5884 1.8326 168
169 5.8627 11.9366 0.01644 63.320 63.336 137.01 996.44 1133.45 0.2458 1.5850 1.8308 169
170 5.9993 12.2148 0.01645 61.969 61.986 138.01 995.84 1133.85 0.2474 1.5815 1.8289 170
171 6.1386 12.4983 0.01646 60.649 60.666 139.01 995.24 1134.25 0.2490 1.5780 1.8270 171
172 6.2806 12.7874 0.01646 59.363 59.380 140.01 994.64 1134.66 0.2506 1.5746 1.8251 172
173 6.4253 13.0821 0.01647 58.112 58.128 141.02 994.04 1135.06 0.2521 1.5711 1.8233 173
174 6.5729 13.3825 0.01647 56.887 56.904 142.02 993.44 1135.46 0.2537 1.5677 1.8214 174
175 6.7232 13.6886 0.01648 55.694 55.711 143.02 992.83 1135.86 0.2553 1.5643 1.8196 175
176 6.8765 14.0006 0.01648 54.532 54.549 144.02 992.23 1136.26 0.2569 1.5609 1.8178 176
177 7.0327 14.3186 0.01649 53.397 53.414 145.03 991.63 1136.65 0.2585 1.5575 1.8159 177
178 7.1918 14.6426 0.01650 52.290 52.307 146.03 991.02 1137.05 0.2600 1.5541 1.8141 178
179 7.3539 14.9727 0.01650 51.210 51.226 147.03 990.42 1137.45 0.2616 1.5507 1.8123 179
180 7.5191 15.3091 0.01651 50.155 50.171 148.04 989.81 1137.85 0.2632 1.5473 1.8105 180
181 7.6874 15.6518 0.01651 49.126 49.143 149.04 989.20 1138.24 0.2647 1.5440 1.8087 181
182 7.8589 16.0008 0.01652 48.122 48.138 150.04 988.60 1138.64 0.2663 1.5406 1.8069 182
183 8.0335 16.3564 0.01653 47.142 47.158 151.05 987.99 1139.03 0.2679 1.5373 1.8051 183
184 8.2114 16.7185 0.01653 46.185 46.202 152.05 987.38 1139.43 0.2694 1.5339 1.8034 184
185 8.3926 17.0874 0.01654 45.251 45.267 153.05 986.77 1139.82 0.2710 1.5306 1.8016 185
186 8.5770 17.4630 0.01654 44.339 44.356 154.06 986.16 1140.22 0.2725 1.5273 1.7998 186
187 8.7649 17.8455 0.01655 43.448 43.465 155.06 985.55 1140.61 0.2741 1.5240 1.7981 187
188 8.9562 18.2350 0.01656 42.579 42.595 156.07 984.94 1141.00 0.2756 1.5207 1.7963 188
189 9.1510 18.6316 0.01656 41.730 41.746 157.07 984.32 1141.39 0.2772 1.5174 1.7946 189
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 21

Table 2-1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water (Continued)

(Table 3, Chapter 1, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
Specific Volume, ft3/lbw Specific Enthalpy, Btu/lbw Specific Entropy, Btu/lbw ·°F
Temp., Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Temp.,
Absolute Pressure
°F Liquid Evap. Vapor Liquid Evap. Vapor Liquid Evap. Vapor °F
t p, psi p, in. Hg vf vfg vg hf hfg hg sf sfg sg t
190 9.3493 19.0353 0.01657 40.901 40.918 158.07 983.71 1141.78 0.2787 1.5141 1.7929 190
191 9.5512 19.4464 0.01658 40.092 40.108 159.08 983.10 1142.18 0.2803 1.5109 1.7911 191
192 9.7567 19.8648 0.01658 39.301 39.317 160.08 982.48 1142.57 0.2818 1.5076 1.7894 192
193 9.9659 20.2907 0.01659 38.528 38.544 161.09 981.87 1142.95 0.2834 1.5043 1.7877 193
194 10.1788 20.7242 0.01659 37.774 37.790 162.09 981.25 1143.34 0.2849 1.5011 1.7860 194
195 10.3955 21.1653 0.01660 37.035 37.052 163.10 980.63 1143.73 0.2864 1.4979 1.7843 195
196 10.6160 21.6143 0.01661 36.314 36.331 164.10 980.02 1144.12 0.2880 1.4946 1.7826 196
197 10.8404 22.0712 0.01661 35.611 35.628 165.11 979.40 1144.51 0.2895 1.4914 1.7809 197
198 11.0687 22.5361 0.01662 34.923 34.940 166.11 978.78 1144.89 0.2910 1.4882 1.7792 198
199 11.3010 23.0091 0.01663 34.251 34.268 167.12 978.16 1145.28 0.2926 1.4850 1.7776 199
200 11.5374 23.4904 0.01663 33.594 33.610 168.13 977.54 1145.66 0.2941 1.4818 1.7759 200
201 11.7779 23.9800 0.01664 32.951 32.968 169.13 976.92 1146.05 0.2956 1.4786 1.7742 201
202 12.0225 24.4780 0.01665 32.324 32.340 170.14 976.29 1146.43 0.2971 1.4755 1.7726 202
203 12.2713 24.9847 0.01665 31.710 31.726 171.14 975.67 1146.81 0.2986 1.4723 1.7709 203
204 12.5244 25.5000 0.01666 31.110 31.127 172.15 975.05 1147.20 0.3002 1.4691 1.7693 204
205 12.7819 26.0241 0.01667 30.523 30.540 173.16 974.42 1147.58 0.3017 1.4660 1.7677 205
206 13.0436 26.5571 0.01667 29.949 29.965 174.16 973.80 1147.96 0.3032 1.4628 1.7660 206
207 13.3099 27.0991 0.01668 29.388 29.404 175.17 973.17 1148.34 0.3047 1.4597 1.7644 207
208 13.5806 27.6503 0.01669 28.839 28.856 176.18 972.54 1148.72 0.3062 1.4566 1.7628 208
209 13.8558 28.2108 0.01669 28.303 28.319 177.18 971.92 1149.10 0.3077 1.4535 1.7612 209
210 14.1357 28.7806 0.01670 27.778 27.795 178.19 971.29 1149.48 0.3092 1.4503 1.7596 210
212 14.7096 29.9489 0.01671 26.763 26.780 180.20 970.03 1150.23 0.3122 1.4442 1.7564 212
214 15.3025 31.1563 0.01673 25.790 25.807 182.22 968.76 1150.98 0.3152 1.4380 1.7532 214
216 15.9152 32.4036 0.01674 24.861 24.878 184.24 967.50 1151.73 0.3182 1.4319 1.7501 216
218 16.5479 33.6919 0.01676 23.970 23.987 186.25 966.23 1152.48 0.3212 1.4258 1.7469 218
220 17.2013 35.0218 0.01677 23.118 23.134 188.27 964.95 1153.22 0.3241 1.4197 1.7438 220
222 17.8759 36.3956 0.01679 22.299 22.316 190.29 963.67 1153.96 0.3271 1.4136 1.7407 222
224 18.5721 37.8131 0.01680 21.516 21.533 192.31 962.39 1154.70 0.3301 1.4076 1.7377 224
226 19.2905 39.2758 0.01682 20.765 20.782 194.33 961.11 1155.43 0.3330 1.4016 1.7347 226
228 20.0316 40.7848 0.01683 20.045 20.062 196.35 959.82 1156.16 0.3359 1.3957 1.7316 228
230 20.7961 42.3412 0.01684 19.355 19.372 198.37 958.52 1156.89 0.3389 1.3898 1.7287 230
232 21.5843 43.9461 0.01686 18.692 18.709 200.39 957.22 1157.62 0.3418 1.3839 1.7257 232
234 22.3970 45.6006 0.01688 18.056 18.073 202.41 955.92 1158.34 0.3447 1.3780 1.7227 234
236 23.2345 47.3060 0.01689 17.446 17.463 204.44 954.62 1159.06 0.3476 1.3722 1.7198 236
238 24.0977 49.0633 0.01691 16.860 16.877 206.46 953.31 1159.77 0.3505 1.3664 1.7169 238
240 24.9869 50.8738 0.01692 16.298 16.314 208.49 952.00 1160.48 0.3534 1.3606 1.7140 240
242 25.9028 52.7386 0.01694 15.757 15.774 210.51 950.68 1161.19 0.3563 1.3548 1.7111 242
244 26.8461 54.6591 0.01695 15.238 15.255 212.54 949.35 1161.90 0.3592 1.3491 1.7083 244
246 27.8172 56.6364 0.01697 14.739 14.756 214.57 948.03 1162.60 0.3621 1.3434 1.7055 246
248 28.8169 58.6717 0.01698 14.259 14.276 216.60 946.70 1163.29 0.3649 1.3377 1.7026 248
250 29.8457 60.7664 0.01700 13.798 13.815 218.63 945.36 1163.99 0.3678 1.3321 1.6998 250
252 30.9043 62.9218 0.01702 13.355 13.372 220.66 944.02 1164.68 0.3706 1.3264 1.6971 252
254 31.9934 65.1391 0.01703 12.928 12.945 222.69 942.68 1165.37 0.3735 1.3208 1.6943 254
256 33.1135 67.4197 0.01705 12.526 12.147 226.73 939.99 1166.72 0.3764 1.3153 1.6916 256
258 34.2653 69.7649 0.01707 12.123 12.140 226.76 939.97 1166.73 0.3792 1.3097 1.6889 258
260 35.4496 72.1760 0.01708 11.742 11.759 228.79 938.61 1167.40 0.3820 1.3042 1.6862 260
262 36.6669 74.6545 0.01710 11.376 11.393 230.83 937.25 1168.08 0.3848 1.2987 1.6835 262
264 37.9180 77.2017 0.01712 11.024 11.041 232.87 935.88 1168.74 0.3876 1.2932 1.6808 264
266 39.2035 79.8190 0.01714 10.684 10.701 234.90 934.50 1169.41 0.3904 1.2877 1.6781 266
268 40.5241 82.5078 0.01715 10.357 10.374 236.94 933.12 1170.07 0.3932 1.2823 1.6755 268
270 41.8806 85.2697 0.01717 10.042 10.059 238.98 931.74 1170.72 0.3960 1.2769 1.6729 270
272 43.2736 88.1059 0.01719 9.737 9.755 241.03 930.35 1171.38 0.3988 1.2715 1.6703 272
274 44.7040 91.0181 0.01721 9.445 9.462 243.07 928.95 1172.02 0.4016 1.2661 1.6677 274
276 46.1723 94.0076 0.01722 9.162 9.179 245.11 927.55 1172.67 0.4044 1.2608 1.6651 276
278 47.6794 97.0761 0.01724 8.890 8.907 247.16 926.15 1173.31 0.4071 1.2554 1.6626 278
280 49.2260 100.2250 0.01726 8.627 8.644 249.20 924.74 1173.94 0.4099 1.2501 1.6600 280
282 50.8128 103.4558 0.01728 8.373 8.390 251.25 923.32 1174.57 0.4127 1.2448 1.6575 282
284 52.4406 106.7701 0.01730 8.128 8.146 253.30 921.90 1175.20 0.4154 1.2396 1.6550 284
286 54.1103 110.1695 0.01731 7.892 7.910 255.35 920.47 1175.82 0.4182 1.2343 1.6525 286
288 55.8225 113.6556 0.01733 7.664 7.681 257.40 919.03 1176.44 0.4209 1.2291 1.6500 288
290 57.5780 117.2299 0.01735 7.444 7.461 259.45 917.59 1177.05 0.4236 1.2239 1.6476 290
292 59.3777 120.8941 0.01737 7.231 7.248 261.51 916.15 1177.66 0.4264 1.2187 1.6451 292
294 61.2224 124.6498 0.01739 7.026 7.043 263.56 914.69 1178.26 0.4291 1.2136 1.6427 294
296 63.1128 128.4987 0.01741 6.827 6.844 265.62 913.24 1178.86 0.4318 1.2084 1.6402 296
298 65.0498 132.4425 0.01743 6.635 6.652 267.68 911.77 1179.45 0.4345 1.2033 1.6378 298
300 67.0341 136.4827 0.01745 6.450 6.467 269.74 910.30 1180.04 0.4372 1.1982 1.6354 300
22 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

The specific volume of a substance having a given quality The relation between the internal energy u and the tem-
can be found by using the definition of quality. Quality is perature can be established by using the definition of con-
defined as the ratio of the mass of vapor to total mass of liquid stant-volume specific heat given by
plus vapor when a substance is in a saturation state. Consider
a mass of 1 kg having a quality x. The specific volume is the c v =  u  T  v
sum of the volume of the liquid and the volume of the vapor.
Since the internal energy of an ideal gas is not a function of
The volume of the liquid is (1 – x)vf , and the volume of the
volume, an ideal gas can be written as
vapor is xvg. Therefore, the specific volume v is
cv = du/dT
v = xvg + (1 – x)vf (2-5)
du = cv dt (2-10)
Since vf + vfg = vg, Equation 2-5 can also be written in the
following form: This equation is always valid for an ideal gas regardless of the
kind of process considered.
v = vf + xvfg (2-6) From the definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of
The same procedure is followed for determining the an ideal gas, it follows that
enthalpy and the entropy for quality conditions: h = u + pv = u + RT
h = xhg + (1 – x)hf (2-7) Since R is a constant and u is a function of temperature only,
the enthalpy h of an ideal gas is also a function of temperature
s = xsg + (1 – x)sf (2-8) only.
Internal energy can then be obtained from the definition of The relation between enthalpy and temperature is found
enthalpy as u = h – pv. from the constant pressure specific heat as defined by
If the substance is a compressed or subcooled liquid, the c p =  h  T  p
thermodynamic properties of specific volume, enthalpy, inter-
nal energy, and entropy are strongly temperature dependent Since the enthalpy of an ideal gas is a function of the tempera-
(rather than pressure dependent). If compressed liquid tables ture only, and is independent of the pressure, it follows that
are unavailable, they may be approximated by the correspond-
cp = dh/dT
ing values for saturated liquid (vf , hf , uf , and sf ) at the existing
temperature. dh = cp dT (2-11)
In the superheat region, thermodynamic properties must be
obtained from superheat tables or a plot of the thermodynamic This equation is always valid for an ideal gas regardless of the
properties, called a Mollier diagram (Figure 2-4). kind of process considered.
The thermodynamic and transport properties of the refrig- Entropy, however, remains a function of both temperature
erants used in vapor compression systems are found in simi- and pressure, and is given by the equation
lar tables typified by Table 2-2, which is a section of the R- ds = cp(dT/T ) − R(dp/p) (2-12)
134a property tables from Chapter 30 of the 2017 ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals. However, for these refrigerants where cp is frequently treated as being constant.
the common Mollier plot is the p-h diagram as illustrated in The ratio of heat capacities is often denoted by
Figure 2-5. k = cp/cv (2-13)
For fluids used in absorption refrigeration systems, the
thermodynamic properties are commonly found on a different and is a useful quantity in calculations for ideal gases. Ideal
type of plot—the enthalpy-concentration diagram, as illus- gas values for some common gases are listed in Table 2-3.
trated in Figure 2-6 for aqua-ammonia and in Figure 2-7 for No real gas exactly satisfies these equations over any finite
lithium-bromide/water. range of temperature and pressure. However, all real gases
approach ideal behavior at low pressures, and in the limit as
2.2.11 Property Equations for Ideal Gases p 0 do in fact meet the above requirements.
An ideal gas is defined as a gas at sufficiently low density Thus, in solving problems, ideal behavior is assumed in
so that intermolecular forces are negligible. As a result, an two cases. First, at very low pressures, ideal gas behavior can
ideal gas has the equation of state be assumed with good accuracy, regardless of the tempera-
pv = RT (2-9) ture. Second, at temperatures that are double the critical tem-
perature or above (the critical temperature of nitrogen is
For an ideal gas, the internal energy is a function of tem- 126 K), ideal gas behavior can be assumed with good accu-
perature only, which means that regardless of the pressure, an racy to pressures of at least 1000 lbf /in2 (7000 kPa). In the
ideal gas at a given temperature has a certain definite specific superheated vapor region, when the temperature is less than
internal energy u. twice the critical temperature and the pressure is above a very
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 23

Fig. 2-4 Mollier (h,s) Diagram for Steam

24 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Table 2-2 Refrigerant 134a Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
(Table Refrigerant 134a, Chapter 30, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific Heat cp, Vel. of Sound, Viscosity, Thermal Cond.,
Pres- Density, Volume, Surface
Btu/lb Btu/lb·°F Btu/lb·°F cp/cv ft/s lbm/ft·h Btu/h·ft·°F
Temp.,* sure, lb/ft3 ft3/lb Tension, Temp.,*
°F psia Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor dyne/cm °F
–153.94a 0.057 99.33 568.59 –32.992 80.362 –0.09154 0.27923 0.2829 0.1399 1.1637 3674. 416.0 5.262 0.0156 0.0840 0.00178 28.07 –153.94
–150.00 0.072 98.97 452.12 –31.878 80.907 –0.08791 0.27629 0.2830 0.1411 1.1623 3638. 418.3 4.790 0.0159 0.0832 0.00188 27.69 –150.00
–140.00 0.129 98.05 260.63 –29.046 82.304 –0.07891 0.26941 0.2834 0.1443 1.1589 3545. 424.2 3.880 0.0164 0.0813 0.00214 26.74 –140.00
–130.00 0.221 97.13 156.50 –26.208 83.725 –0.07017 0.26329 0.2842 0.1475 1.1559 3452. 429.9 3.238 0.0170 0.0794 0.00240 25.79 –130.00
–120.00 0.365 96.20 97.481 –23.360 85.168 –0.06166 0.25784 0.2853 0.1508 1.1532 3360. 435.5 2.762 0.0176 0.0775 0.00265 24.85 –120.00
–110.00 0.583 95.27 62.763 –20.500 86.629 –0.05337 0.25300 0.2866 0.1540 1.1509 3269. 440.8 2.396 0.0182 0.0757 0.00291 23.92 –110.00
–100.00 0.903 94.33 41.637 –17.626 88.107 –0.04527 0.24871 0.2881 0.1573 1.1490 3178. 446.0 2.105 0.0187 0.0739 0.00317 22.99 –100.00
–90.00 1.359 93.38 28.381 –14.736 89.599 –0.03734 0.24490 0.2898 0.1607 1.1475 3087. 450.9 1.869 0.0193 0.0722 0.00343 22.07 –90.00
–80.00 1.993 92.42 19.825 –11.829 91.103 –0.02959 0.24152 0.2916 0.1641 1.1465 2998. 455.6 1.673 0.0199 0.0705 0.00369 21.16 –80.00
–75.00 2.392 91.94 16.711 –10.368 91.858 –0.02577 0.23998 0.2925 0.1658 1.1462 2954. 457.8 1.587 0.0201 0.0696 0.00382 20.71 –75.00
–70.00 2.854 91.46 14.161 –8.903 92.614 –0.02198 0.23854 0.2935 0.1676 1.1460 2909. 460.0 1.509 0.0204 0.0688 0.00395 20.26 –70.00
–65.00 3.389 90.97 12.060 –7.432 93.372 –0.01824 0.23718 0.2945 0.1694 1.1459 2866. 462.1 1.436 0.0207 0.0680 0.00408 19.81 –65.00
–60.00 4.002 90.49 10.321 –5.957 94.131 –0.01452 0.23590 0.2955 0.1713 1.1460 2822. 464.1 1.369 0.0210 0.0671 0.00420 19.36 –60.00
–55.00 4.703 90.00 8.8733 –4.476 94.890 –0.01085 0.23470 0.2965 0.1731 1.1462 2778. 466.0 1.306 0.0212 0.0663 0.00433 18.92 –55.00
–50.00 5.501 89.50 7.6621 –2.989 95.650 –0.00720 0.23358 0.2976 0.1751 1.1466 2735. 467.8 1.248 0.0215 0.0655 0.00446 18.47 –50.00
–45.00 6.406 89.00 6.6438 –1.498 96.409 –0.00358 0.23252 0.2987 0.1770 1.1471 2691. 469.6 1.193 0.0218 0.0647 0.00460 18.03 –45.00
–40.00 7.427 88.50 5.7839 0.000 97.167 0.00000 0.23153 0.2999 0.1790 1.1478 2648. 471.2 1.142 0.0221 0.0639 0.00473 17.60 –40.00
–35.00 8.576 88.00 5.0544 1.503 97.924 0.00356 0.23060 0.3010 0.1811 1.1486 2605. 472.8 1.095 0.0223 0.0632 0.00486 17.16 –35.00
–30.00 9.862 87.49 4.4330 3.013 98.679 0.00708 0.22973 0.3022 0.1832 1.1496 2563. 474.2 1.050 0.0226 0.0624 0.00499 16.73 –30.00
–25.00 11.299 86.98 3.9014 4.529 99.433 0.01058 0.22892 0.3035 0.1853 1.1508 2520. 475.6 1.007 0.0229 0.0616 0.00512 16.30 –25.00
–20.00 12.898 86.47 3.4449 6.051 100.184 0.01406 0.22816 0.3047 0.1875 1.1521 2477. 476.8 0.968 0.0231 0.0608 0.00525 15.87 –20.00
–15.00 14.671 85.95 3.0514 7.580 100.932 0.01751 0.22744 0.3060 0.1898 1.1537 2435. 477.9 0.930 0.0234 0.0601 0.00538 15.44 –15.00
–14.93b 14.696 85.94 3.0465 7.600 100.942 0.01755 0.22743 0.3061 0.1898 1.1537 2434. 477.9 0.929 0.0234 0.0601 0.00538 15.44 –14.93
–10.00 16.632 85.43 2.7109 9.115 101.677 0.02093 0.22678 0.3074 0.1921 1.1554 2393. 478.9 0.894 0.0237 0.0593 0.00552 15.02 –10.00
–5.00 18.794 84.90 2.4154 10.657 102.419 0.02433 0.22615 0.3088 0.1945 1.1573 2350. 479.8 0.860 0.0240 0.0586 0.00565 14.60 –5.00
0.00 21.171 84.37 2.1579 12.207 103.156 0.02771 0.22557 0.3102 0.1969 1.1595 2308. 480.5 0.828 0.0242 0.0578 0.00578 14.18 0.00
5.00 23.777 83.83 1.9330 13.764 103.889 0.03107 0.22502 0.3117 0.1995 1.1619 2266. 481.1 0.798 0.0245 0.0571 0.00592 13.76 5.00
10.00 26.628 83.29 1.7357 15.328 104.617 0.03440 0.22451 0.3132 0.2021 1.1645 2224. 481.6 0.769 0.0248 0.0564 0.00605 13.35 10.00
15.00 29.739 82.74 1.5623 16.901 105.339 0.03772 0.22403 0.3147 0.2047 1.1674 2182. 482.0 0.741 0.0250 0.0556 0.00619 12.94 15.00
20.00 33.124 82.19 1.4094 18.481 106.056 0.04101 0.22359 0.3164 0.2075 1.1705 2140. 482.2 0.715 0.0253 0.0549 0.00632 12.53 20.00
25.00 36.800 81.63 1.2742 20.070 106.767 0.04429 0.22317 0.3181 0.2103 1.1740 2098. 482.2 0.689 0.0256 0.0542 0.00646 12.12 25.00
30.00 40.784 81.06 1.1543 21.667 107.471 0.04755 0.22278 0.3198 0.2132 1.1777 2056. 482.2 0.665 0.0258 0.0535 0.00660 11.72 30.00
35.00 45.092 80.49 1.0478 23.274 108.167 0.05079 0.22241 0.3216 0.2163 1.1818 2014. 481.9 0.642 0.0261 0.0528 0.00674 11.32 35.00
40.00 49.741 79.90 0.9528 24.890 108.856 0.05402 0.22207 0.3235 0.2194 1.1862 1973. 481.5 0.620 0.0264 0.0521 0.00688 10.92 40.00
45.00 54.749 79.32 0.8680 26.515 109.537 0.05724 0.22174 0.3255 0.2226 1.1910 1931. 481.0 0.598 0.0267 0.0514 0.00703 10.53 45.00
50.00 60.134 78.72 0.7920 28.150 110.209 0.06044 0.22144 0.3275 0.2260 1.1961 1889. 480.3 0.578 0.0270 0.0507 0.00717 10.14 50.00
55.00 65.913 78.11 0.7238 29.796 110.871 0.06362 0.22115 0.3297 0.2294 1.2018 1847. 479.4 0.558 0.0273 0.0500 0.00732 9.75 55.00
60.00 72.105 77.50 0.6625 31.452 111.524 0.06680 0.22088 0.3319 0.2331 1.2079 1805. 478.3 0.539 0.0275 0.0493 0.00747 9.36 60.00
65.00 78.729 76.87 0.6072 33.120 112.165 0.06996 0.22062 0.3343 0.2368 1.2145 1763. 477.0 0.520 0.0278 0.0486 0.00762 8.98 65.00
70.00 85.805 76.24 0.5572 34.799 112.796 0.07311 0.22037 0.3368 0.2408 1.2217 1721. 475.6 0.503 0.0281 0.0479 0.00777 8.60 70.00
75.00 93.351 75.59 0.5120 36.491 113.414 0.07626 0.22013 0.3394 0.2449 1.2296 1679. 474.0 0.485 0.0284 0.0472 0.00793 8.23 75.00
80.00 101.39 74.94 0.4710 38.195 114.019 0.07939 0.21989 0.3422 0.2492 1.2382 1636. 472.2 0.469 0.0287 0.0465 0.00809 7.86 80.00
85.00 109.93 74.27 0.4338 39.913 114.610 0.08252 0.21966 0.3451 0.2537 1.2475 1594. 470.1 0.453 0.0291 0.0458 0.00825 7.49 85.00
90.00 119.01 73.58 0.3999 41.645 115.186 0.08565 0.21944 0.3482 0.2585 1.2578 1551. 467.9 0.437 0.0294 0.0451 0.00842 7.13 90.00
95.00 128.65 72.88 0.3690 43.392 115.746 0.08877 0.21921 0.3515 0.2636 1.2690 1509. 465.4 0.422 0.0297 0.0444 0.00860 6.77 95.00
100.00 138.85 72.17 0.3407 45.155 116.289 0.09188 0.21898 0.3551 0.2690 1.2813 1466. 462.7 0.407 0.0301 0.0437 0.00878 6.41 100.00
105.00 149.65 71.44 0.3148 46.934 116.813 0.09500 0.21875 0.3589 0.2747 1.2950 1423. 459.8 0.393 0.0304 0.0431 0.00897 6.06 105.00
110.00 161.07 70.69 0.2911 48.731 117.317 0.09811 0.21851 0.3630 0.2809 1.3101 1380. 456.7 0.378 0.0308 0.0424 0.00916 5.71 110.00
115.00 173.14 69.93 0.2693 50.546 117.799 0.10123 0.21826 0.3675 0.2875 1.3268 1337. 453.2 0.365 0.0312 0.0417 0.00936 5.36 115.00
120.00 185.86 69.14 0.2493 52.382 118.258 0.10435 0.21800 0.3723 0.2948 1.3456 1294. 449.6 0.351 0.0316 0.0410 0.00958 5.03 120.00
125.00 199.28 68.32 0.2308 54.239 118.690 0.10748 0.21772 0.3775 0.3026 1.3666 1250. 445.6 0.338 0.0320 0.0403 0.00981 4.69 125.00
130.00 213.41 67.49 0.2137 56.119 119.095 0.11062 0.21742 0.3833 0.3112 1.3903 1206. 441.4 0.325 0.0324 0.0396 0.01005 4.36 130.00
135.00 228.28 66.62 0.1980 58.023 119.468 0.11376 0.21709 0.3897 0.3208 1.4173 1162. 436.8 0.313 0.0329 0.0389 0.01031 4.04 135.00
140.00 243.92 65.73 0.1833 59.954 119.807 0.11692 0.21673 0.3968 0.3315 1.4481 1117. 432.0 0.301 0.0334 0.0382 0.01058 3.72 140.00
145.00 260.36 64.80 0.1697 61.915 120.108 0.12010 0.21634 0.4048 0.3435 1.4837 1072. 426.8 0.288 0.0339 0.0375 0.01089 3.40 145.00
150.00 277.61 63.83 0.1571 63.908 120.366 0.12330 0.21591 0.4138 0.3571 1.5250 1027. 421.2 0.276 0.0344 0.0368 0.01122 3.09 150.00
155.00 295.73 62.82 0.1453 65.936 120.576 0.12653 0.21542 0.4242 0.3729 1.5738 980. 415.3 0.264 0.0350 0.0361 0.01158 2.79 155.00
160.00 314.73 61.76 0.1343 68.005 120.731 0.12979 0.21488 0.4362 0.3914 1.6318 934. 409.1 0.253 0.0357 0.0354 0.01199 2.50 160.00
165.00 334.65 60.65 0.1239 70.118 120.823 0.13309 0.21426 0.4504 0.4133 1.7022 886. 402.4 0.241 0.0364 0.0346 0.01245 2.21 165.00
170.00 355.53 59.47 0.1142 72.283 120.842 0.13644 0.21356 0.4675 0.4400 1.7889 837. 395.3 0.229 0.0372 0.0339 0.01297 1.93 170.00
175.00 377.41 58.21 0.1051 74.509 120.773 0.13985 0.21274 0.4887 0.4733 1.8984 786. 387.7 0.218 0.0381 0.0332 0.01358 1.66 175.00
180.00 400.34 56.86 0.0964 76.807 120.598 0.14334 0.21180 0.5156 0.5159 2.0405 734. 379.6 0.206 0.0391 0.0325 0.01430 1.39 180.00
185.00 424.36 55.38 0.0881 79.193 120.294 0.14693 0.21069 0.5512 0.5729 2.2321 680. 371.0 0.194 0.0403 0.0318 0.01516 1.14 185.00
190.00 449.52 53.76 0.0801 81.692 119.822 0.15066 0.20935 0.6012 0.6532 2.5041 624. 361.8 0.182 0.0417 0.0311 0.01623 0.90 190.00
195.00 475.91 51.91 0.0724 84.343 119.123 0.15459 0.20771 0.6768 0.7751 2.9192 565. 352.0 0.169 0.0435 0.0304 0.01760 0.67 195.00
200.00 503.59 49.76 0.0647 87.214 118.097 0.15880 0.20562 0.8062 0.9835 3.6309 502. 341.3 0.155 0.0457 0.0300 0.01949 0.45 200.00
205.00 532.68 47.08 0.0567 90.454 116.526 0.16353 0.20275 1.083 1.425 5.136 436. 329.4 0.140 0.0489 0.0300 0.02240 0.26 205.00
210.00 563.35 43.20 0.0477 94.530 113.746 0.16945 0.19814 2.113 3.008 10.512 363. 315.5 0.120 0.0543 0.0316 0.02848 0.09 210.00
213.91c 588.75 31.96 0.0313 103.894 103.894 0.18320 0.18320 • • 0. 0.0 – – • • 0.00 213.91
*Temperatures are on the ITS-90 scale a = triple point b = normal boiling point c = critical point
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 25

Fig. 2-5 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 134a

(Figure 9, Chapter 30, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
26 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Fig. 2-6 Enthalpy-Concentration Diagram for Aqua-Ammonia

(Figure 35, Chapter 30, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 27

Fig. 2-7a Equilibrium Chart for Aqueous Lithium Bromide Solutions

(Figure 36, Chapter 30, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
28 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Fig. 2-7b Enthalpy-Concentration Diagram for Water/Lithium Bromide Solutions

(Figure 35, Chapter 30, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 29

Table 2-3 Properties of Gases

Chemical Relative R, cp, cp, cv, cv ,
Gas Formula Molecular Mass ft·lbf /lbm°R Btu/lbm°R kJ/kg·K Btu/lbm°R kJ/kg·K k
Air — 28.97 53.34 0.240 1.0 0.171 0.716 1.400
Argon Ar 39.94 38.66 0.125 0.523 0.075 0.316 1.667
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.01 35.10 0.203 0.85 0.158 0.661 1.285
Carbon Monoxide CO 28.01 55.16 0.249 1.04 0.178 0.715 1.399
Helium He 4.003 386.0 1.25 5.23 0.753 3.153 1.667
Hydrogen H2 2.016 766.4 3.43 14.36 2.44 10.22 1.404
Methane CH4 16.04 96.35 0.532 2.23 0.403 1.69 1.32
Nitrogen N2 28.016 55.15 0.248 1.04 0.177 0.741 1.400
Oxygen O2 32.000 48.28 0.219 0.917 0.157 0.657 1.395
Steam H2O 18.016 85.76 0.445 1.863 0.335 1.402 1.329

low value (e.g., atmospheric pressure), the deviation from of the mixture, then the volume of each component is also
ideal gas behavior may be considerable. In this region, tables Vm, or
of thermodynamic properties or charts for a particular sub-
stance should be used. Vm = Va = Vb = Vc (2-15)

2.2.12 Mixtures However, the volume of a mixture of ideal gases equals the
A large number of thermodynamic problems involve mix- sum of the volumes of its constituents if each existed alone at
tures of different pure substances. A pure substance is a sub- the temperature and pressure of the mixture. This property is
stance which is homogeneous and unchanging in chemical known as Amagat’s law, Leduc’s law, or the law of additive
composition. Homogeneous mixtures of gases that do not volumes. Like Dalton’s law, it is strictly true only for ideal
react with each other are therefore pure substances, and the gases, but holds approximately for real-gas mixtures, even
properties of such mixtures can be determined, correlated, those in some ranges of pressure and temperature where
and either tabulated or fitted by equations just like the prop- pv = RT is inaccurate. When the temperature of a real-gas
erties of any other pure substance. This work has been done mixture is well above the critical temperatures of all its con-
for common mixtures such as air and certain combustion stituents, the additive volume law is usually more accurate
products, but, as an unlimited number of mixtures is possible, than the additive pressure law.
properties of all of them cannot be determined experimentally For ideal-gas mixtures, volumetric analyses are frequently
and tabulated. Thus, it is important to be able to calculate the used. The volume fraction is defined as
properties of any mixture from the properties of its constitu-
ents. Such calculations are discussed in this section, first for
V a  p m T m 
gas mixtures and then for gas-vapor mixtures. Volume fraction of A = -----------------------------
-
Vm
Since individual gases can often be approximated as ideal
gases, the study of mixtures of ideal gases and their properties Volume of A existing alone at p m T m
is of considerable importance. Each constituent gas in a mix- = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
Volume of mixture at p m T m
ture has its own pressure called the partial pressure of the
particular gas. The Gibbs-Dalton law states that in a mixture Note that in a gas mixture, each constituent occupies the
of ideal gases, the pressure of the mixture is equal to the sum total volume; thus volume fraction is not defined as the ratio
of the partial pressures of the individual constituent gases. In of a constituent volume to the mixture volume because this
equation form ratio is always unity.
pm = pa + pb + pc (2-14) Avogadro’s law goes on to state, equal volumes of ideal
gases held under exactly the same temperature and pressure
pa = pm (na /nm), pb = pm (nb /nm), pc = (nc /nm) have equal numbers of molecules. If Tm is the temperature of
the mixture,
where pm is the total pressure of the mixture of gases a, b, and
c, and pa, pb, and pc are the partial pressures. In a mixture of Tm = Ta = Tb = Tc (2-16)
ideal gases, the partial pressure of each constituent equals the
pressure that constituent would exert if it existed alone at the for the temperature relationship.
temperature and volume of the mixture. The analysis of a gas mixture based on mass is called a
Generally, in gas mixtures, each constituent gas behaves as gravimetric analysis. It is based on the fact that the mass of
though the other gases were not present; each gas occupies the a mixture equals the sum of the masses of its constituents:
total volume of the mixture at the temperature of the mixture
and the partial pressure of the gas. Thus, if Vm is the volume mm = ma + mb + mc (2-17)
30 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

where the subscript m refers to the mixture and the subscripts Psychrometrics is the science involving thermodynamic
a, b, and c refer to individual constituents of the mixture. The properties of moist air and the effect of atmospheric moisture
ratio ma/mm is called the mass fraction of constituent a. on materials and human comfort. As it applies in this text, the
The total number of moles in a mixture is defined as the definition is broadened to include the method of controlling
sum of the number of moles of its constituents: the thermal properties of moist air.
When moist air is considered to be a mixture of indepen-
nm = na + nb + nc (2-18)
dent, perfect gases, dry air, and water vapor, each is assumed
The mole fraction x is defined as n/nm , and to obey the perfect gas equation of state:

Mm = xaMa + xbMb + xcMc (2-19) Dry air: paV = naRT

where Mm is called the apparent (or average) molecular Water vapor: pwV = nwRT
weight of the mixture. The second part of the Gibbs-Dalton
where
law can be taken as a basic definition:
pa = partial pressure of dry air
Um = Ua + Ub + Uc (2-20) pw = partial pressure of water vapor
Hm = Ha + Hb + Hc (2-21) V= total mixture volume
na = number of moles of dry air
Sm = Sa + Sb + Sc (2-22) nw = number of moles of water vapor
R= universal gas constant
Remember that the constituent entropies here must be
(8.31441 J/g-mol·K or 1545.32 ft·lbf / lb·mol·°R)
evaluated at the temperature and volume of the mixture or at
T = absolute temperature
the mixture temperature and the constituent partial pressures.
The entropy of any constituent at the volume and temperature The mixture also obeys the perfect gas equation:
of the mixture (and hence at its partial pressure) is greater than
its entropy when existing at the pressure and temperature of pV = nRT or (pa + pw)V = (na + nw)RT
the mixture (and hence at its partial volume). Dry-bulb temperature t is the temperature of air as regis-
Consider the constituents as perfect gases: tered by an ordinary thermometer.
Rm = (maRa + mbRb + mcRc)/mm (2-23) Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature t* is the tempera-
ture at which water (liquid or solid), by evaporating into moist
cvm = (macva + mbcvb + mccvc)/mm (2-24) air at a given dry-bulb temperature t and humidity ratio W, can
bring the air to saturation adiabatically at the same temperature
cpm = (macpa + mbcpb + mccpc)/mm (2-25) t*, while the pressure p is maintained constant. Figure 2-8 may
2.2.13 Psychrometrics: Moist Air Properties be used as a schematic representation of the adiabatic saturation
process, where the leaving air is saturated and at a temperature
Consider a simplification of the problem involving a mix-
equal to that of the injected water. A device used in place of the
ture of ideal gases that is in contact with a solid or liquid phase
adiabatic saturator is the psychrometer.
of one of the components. The most familiar example is a
The psychrometer consists of two thermometers or other
mixture of air and water vapor in contact with liquid water or
temperature-sensing elements, one of which has a wetted cotton
ice, such as the problems encountered in air conditioning or
wick covering the bulb (Figure 2-9). When the wet bulb is
drying. This, and a number of similar problems can be ana-
placed in an airstream, water may evaporate from the wick. The
lyzed simply and with considerable accuracy if the following
equilibrium temperature the water eventually reaches is called
assumptions are made:
the wet-bulb temperature. This process is not one of adiabatic
1. The solid or liquid phase contains no dissolved gases. saturation which defines the thermodynamic wet-bulb tempera-
2. The gaseous phase can be treated as a mixture of ideal
gases.
3. When the mixture and the condensed phase are at a given
pressure and temperature, the equilibrium between the
condensed phase and its vapor is not influenced by the
presence of the other component. This means that when
equilibrium is achieved, the partial pressure of the vapor
equals the saturation pressure corresponding to the tem-
perature of the mixture.
If the vapor is at the saturation pressure and temperature,
the mixture is referred to as a saturated mixture. For an air-
water vapor mixture, the term saturated air is used. Fig. 2-8 Adiabatic Saturator
Chapter 2 | Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics 31

ture, but is one of simultaneous heat and mass transfer from the Degree of saturation  is the ratio of the actual humidity
wet-bulb thermometer. Fortunately, the corrections applied to ratio W to the humidity ratio Ws of saturated air at the same
wet-bulb thermometer readings to obtain the thermodynamic temperature and pressure.
wet-bulb temperature are usually small.
Humidity ratio W of a given moist air sample is defined as W
 = ------- (2-28)
the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air con- Ws
tained in the sample: t, p

Relative humidity  is the ratio of the mole fraction of

W = mw  ma water vapor xw in a given moist air sample to the mole fraction
(2-26) xws in an air sample which is saturated at the same temperature
W = 0.62198 p w   p – p w 
and pressure:
 2501 – 2.381t* W s* –  t – t* 
W = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (2-27a)
2501 + 1.805t – 4.186t* xw
 = -------
-
where t and t* are in °C. x ws
t, p
In inch-pound units (2-29)
pw
 1093 – 0.556t* W s* – 0.240  t – t*   = --------
-
W = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (2-27b) p ws
1093 + 0.444t – t* t, p
where t and t* are in °F. The term pws is the saturation pressure of water vapor at the
The term Ws* indicates the humidity ratio if saturated at given temperature t.
the wet bulb temperature. Dew-point temperature td is the temperature of moist air
which is saturated at the same pressure p and has the same
humidity ratio W as that of the given sample of moist air. It
corresponds to the saturation temperature (Column 1) of
Table 2-1 for the vapor pressure found in Column 2. As an
alternate to using the table, equations have been formulated
for the relationship.
For 0°C to 70°C

td = –35.957 – 1.8726a + 1.1689a2 (2-30a)

and for –60°C to 0°C

td = –60.45 + 7.0322a + 0.3700a2 (2-30b)

with td in °C and a = ln pw, with pw in pascals.

For the temperature range of 32°F to 150°F

td = 79.047 + 30.5790a + 1.8893a2 (2-31a)

and for temperatures below 32°F

td = 71.98 + 24.873a + 0.8927a2 (2-31b)

where td is the dew-point temperature in °F and a = ln pw, with

pw the water vapor partial pressure (in. Hg).
The volume v of a moist air mixture is expressed in terms
of a unit mass of dry air, with the relation p = pa + pw, or
v = RaT/(p – pw) (2-32)

The enthalpy of a mixture of perfect gases is equal to the

sum of the individual partial enthalpies of the components.
The enthalpy of moist air is then
Fig. 2-9 Sling Psychrometer h = ha + Whg

where ha is the specific enthalpy for dry air and hg is the spe- ture. Approximately
cific enthalpy for water vapor at the temperature of the mix-
32 Principles of HVAC, 8th Edition

Table 2-4 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure, 14.696 psia
(Table 2, Chapter 1, 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals)

Temp., °F Specific Volume, ft3/lbda Specific Enthalpy, Btu/lbda Specific Entropy, Btu/lbda·°F Temp., °F
Humidity Ratio
t Ws , lbw / lbda vda vas vs hda has hs sda ss t
–80 0.0000049 9.553 0.000 9.553 –19.221 0.005 –19.215 –0.04594 –0.04592 –80
–79 0.0000053 9.579 0.000 9.579 –18.980 0.005 –18.975 –0.04531 –0.04529 –79
–78 0.0000057 9.604 0.000 9.604 –18.740 0.006 –18.734 –0.04468 –0.04466 –78
–77 0.0000062 9.629 0.000 9.629 –18.500 0.007 –18.493 –0.04405 –0.04403 –77
–76 0.0000067 9.655 0.000 9.655 –18.259 0.007 –18.252 –0.04342 –0.04340 –76
–75 0.0000072 9.680 0.000 9.680 –18.019 0.007 –18.011 –0.04279 –0.04277 –75
–74 0.0000078 9.705 0.000 9.705 –17.778 0.008 –17.770 –0.04217 –0.04215 –74
–73 0.0000084 9.731 0.000 9.731 –17.538 0.009 –17.529 –0.04155 –0.04152 –73
–72 0.0000090 9.756 0.000 9.756 –17.298 0.010 –17.288 –0.04093 –0.04090 –72
–71 0.0000097 9.781 0.000 9.782 –17.057 0.010 –17.047 –0.04031 –0.04028 –71
–70 0.0000104 9.807 0.000 9.807 –16.806 0.011 –16.817 –0.03969 –0.03966 –70
–69 0.0000112 9.832 0.000 9.832 –16.577 0.012 –16.565 –0.03907 –0.03904 –69
–68 0.0000120 9.857 0.000 9.858 –16.336 0.013 –16.324 –0.03846 –0.03843 –68
–67 0.0000129 9.883 0.000 9.883 –16.096 0.013 –16.083 –0.03785 –0.03781 –67
–66 0.0000139 9.908 0.000 9.908 –15.856 0.015 –15.841 –0.03724 –0.03720 –66
–65 0.0000149 9.933 0.000 9.934 –15.616 0.015 –15.600 –0.03663 –0.03659 –65
–64 0.0000160 9.959 0.000 9.959 –15.375 0.017 –15.359 –0.03602 –0.03597 –64
–63 0.0000172 9.984 0.000 9.984 –15.117 0.018 –15.135 –0.03541 –0.03536 –63
–62 0.0000184 10.009 0.000 10.010 –14.895 0.019 –14.876 –0.03481 –0.03476 –62
–61 0.0000198 10.035 0.000 10.035 –14.654 0.021 –14.634 –0.03420 –0.03415 –61
–60 0.0000212 10.060 0.000 10.060 –14.414 0.022 –14.392 –0.03360 –0.03354 –60
–59 0.0000227 10.085 0.000 10.086 –14.174 0.024 –14.150 –0.03300 –0.03294 –59
–58 0.0000243 10.111 0.000 10.111 –13.933 0.025 –13.908 –0.03240 –0.03233 –58
–57 0.0000260 10.136 0.000 10.137 –13.693 0.027 –13.666 –0.03180 –0.03173 –57
–56 0.0000279 10.161 0.000 10.162 –13.453 0.029 –13.424 –0.03121 –0.03113 –56
–55 0.0000298 10.187 0.000 10.187 –13.213 0.031 –13.182 –0.03061 –0.03053 –55
–54 0.0000319 10.212 0.001 10.213 –12.972 0.033 –12.939 –0.03002 –0.02993 –54
–53 0.0000341 10.237 0.001 10.238 –12.732 0.035 –12.697 –0.02943 –0.02934 –53
–52 0.0000365 10.263 0.001 10.263 –12.492 0.038 –12.454 –0.02884 –0.02874 –52
–51 0.0000390 10.288 0.001 10.289 –12.251 0.041 –12.211 –0.02825 –0.02814 –51
–50 0.0000416 10.313 0.001 10.314 –12.011 0.043 –11.968 –0.02766 –0.02755 –50
–49 0.0000445 10.339 0.001 10.340 –11.771 0.046 –11.725 –0.02708 –0.02696 –49
–48 0.0000475 10.364 0.001 10.365 –11.531 0.050 –11.481 –0.02649 –0.02636 –48
–47 0.0000507 10.389 0.001 10.390 –11.290 0.053 –11.237 –0.02591 –0.02577 –47
–46 0.0000541 10.415 0.001 10.416 –11.050 0.056 –10.994 –0.02533 –0.02518 –46
–45 0.0000577 10.440 0.001 10.441 –10.810 0.060 –10.750 –0.02475 –0.02459 –45
–44 0.0000615 10.465 0.001 10.466 –10.570 0.064 –10.505 –0.02417 –0.02400 –44
–43 0.0000656 10.491 0.001 10.492 –10.329 0.068 –10.261 –0.02359 –0.02342 –43
–42 0.0000699 10.516 0.001 10.517 –10.089 0.073 –10.016 –0.02302 –0.02283 –42
–41 0.0000744 10.541 0.001 10.543 –9.849 0.078 –9.771 –0.02244 –0.02224 –41
–40 0.0000793 10.567 0.001 10.568 –9.609 0.083 –9.526 –0.02187 –0.02166 –40
–39 0.0000844 10.592 0.001 10.593 –9.368 0.088 –9.280 –0.02130 –0.02107 –39
–38 0.0000898 10.617 0.002 10.619 –9.128 0.094 –9.034 –0.02073 –0.02049 –38
–37 0.0000956 10.643 0.002 10.644 –8.888 0.100 –8.788 –0.02016 –0.01991 –37
–36 0.0001017 10.668 0.002 10.670 –8.648 0.106 –8.541 –0.01959 –0.01932 –36
–35 0.0001081 10.693 0.002 10.695 –8.407 0.113 –8.294 –0.01902 –0.01874 –35
–34 0.0001150 10.719 0.002 10.721 –8.167 0.120 –8.047 –0.01846 –0.01816 –34
–33 0.0001222 10.744 0.002 10.746 –7.927 0.128 –7.799 –0.01790 –0.01758 –33
–32 0.0001298 10.769 0.002 10.772 –7.687 0.136 –7.551 –0.01733 –0.01699 –32
–31 0.0001379 10.795 0.002 10.797 –7.447 0.145 –7.302 –0.01677 –0.01641 –31
–30 0.0001465 10.820 0.003 10.822 –7.206 0.154 –7.053 –0.01621 –0.01583 –30
–29 0.0001555 10.845 0.003 10.848 –6.966 0.163 –6.803 –0.01565 –0.01525 –29
–28 0.0001650 10.871 0.003 10.873 –6.726 0.173 –6.553 –0.01510 –0.01467 –28
–27 0.0001751 10.896 0.003 10.899 –6.486 0.184 –6.302 –0.01454 –0.01409 –27
–26 0.0001858 10.921 0.003 10.924 –6.245 0.195 –6.051 –0.01399 –0.01351 –26
–25 0.0001970 10.947 0.003 10.950 –6.005 0.207 –5.798 –0.01343 –0.01293 –25
–24 0.0002088 10.972 0.004 10.976 –5.765 0.220 –5.545 –0.01288 –0.01235 –24
–23 0.0002214 10.997 0.004 11.001 –5.525 0.233 –5.292 –0.01233 –0.01176 –23
–22 0.0002346 11.022 0.004 11.027 –5.284 0.247 –5.038 –0.01178 –0.01118 –22
–21 0.0002485 11.048 0.004 11.052 –5.044 0.261 –4.783 –0.01123 –0.01060 –21
–20 0.0002632 11.073 0.005 11.078 –4.804 0.277 –4.527 –0.01069 –0.01002 –20
–19 0.0002786 11.098 0.005 11.103 –4.564 0.293 –4.271 –0.01014 –0.00943 –19
–18 0.0002950 11.124 0.005 11.129 –4.324 0.311 –4.013 –0.00960 –0.00885 –18
–17 0.0003121 11.149 0.006 11.155 –4.084 0.329 –3.754 –0.00905 –0.00826 –17
–16 0.0003303 11.174 0.006 11.180 –3.843 0.348 –3.495 –0.00851 –0.00768 –16
–15 0.0003493 11.200 0.006 11.206 –3.603 0.368 –3.235 –0.00797 –0.00709 –15
–14 0.0003694 11.225 0.007 11.232 –3.363 0.390 –2.973 –0.00743 –0.00650 –14
–13 0.0003905 11.250 0.007 11.257 –3.123 0.412 –2.710 –0.00689 –0.00591 –13
–12 0.0004128 11.276 0.007 11.283 –2.882 0.436 –2.447 –0.00635 –0.00532 –12
–11 0.0004362 11.301 0.008 11.309 –2.642 0.460 –2.182 –0.00582 –0.00473 –11
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
further information. The London Horticultural Society mentioned the
variety as long ago as in 1831. Another Mr. Pond, a nurseryman in
Massachusetts, grew a variety very similar in appearance to the
English plum and permitted his name to be given it to the great
confusion of the nomenclature of the two. The Hungarian prune of
the Pacific Coast is Pond, why so-called does not appear; with this as
with several other plums the Pacific Coast fruit-growers persist in
using a name known to have been wrongly applied to an old and
well-known variety elsewhere called rightly. Oswego, a supposed
seedling grown in Oswego, New York, is identical with the Pond as
tested by this Experiment Station and by local growers. The
American Pomological Society placed this fruit on its catalog list in
1856.

Tree of medium size, vigorous, upright, hardy, variable in

productiveness; branches light gray, smooth, with small, raised lenticels;
branchlets of medium thickness and length, with internodes of average
length, greenish-red changing to brownish-drab, dull, sparingly pubescent,
with inconspicuous small lenticels; leaf-buds large, long, conical, free;
leaf-scars plump, often much enlarged at the apex of the twigs.
Leaves somewhat folded backward, oval, two and one-quarter inches
wide, four inches long, thick, leathery; upper surface dark green, finely
pubescent, rugose, with a grooved midrib; lower surface silvery-green,
pubescent; apex abruptly pointed or acute, base abrupt, margin crenate
or serrate, with small dark glands; petiole five-eighths inch long, thick,
pubescent, tinged red, with one or two globose, yellowish glands variable
in size, usually on the stalk.
Season of bloom intermediate in time and length; flowers appearing
after the leaves, one and five-sixteenths inches across, white; borne in
thin clusters on lateral spurs and buds, singly or in pairs; pedicels thirteen-
sixteenths inch long, pubescent, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate,
pubescent; calyx-lobes broad, obtuse, lightly pubescent on both surfaces,
margins with few glands and hairs, reflexed; petals roundish, crenate,
tapering to short, broad claws; filaments seven-sixteenths inch long; pistil
glabrous, equal to or shorter than the stamens.
Fruit late, season short; two inches by one and three-quarters inches in
size, obovate or oval, frequently with a slight neck, halves equal; cavity
shallow, narrow, abrupt; suture very shallow, often a line; apex roundish;
color varies from reddish-purple to purplish-red, overspread with thick
 bloom; dots numerous, small, reddish-brown, obscure, larger in size but
fewer in number towards the base; stem thick, seven-eighths inch long,
heavily pubescent, adhering well to the fruit; skin tough, separating
readily; flesh attractive golden-yellow, not very juicy, fibrous, firm, of
average sweetness, mild, not highly flavored; fair in quality; stone semi-
free to free, one and one-sixteenths inches by nine-sixteenths inch in size,
long-oval, flattened, the surfaces roughened and deeply pitted, tapering
towards the base and apex; ventral suture heavily furrowed, with a
distinct but not prominent wing; dorsal suture usually widely and deeply
grooved.

POOLE PRIDE
Prunus munsoniana

1. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 108. 1885. 2. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:50. 1892. 3.
Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 334. 1894. 4. Wis. Sta. Bul. 63:24, 53. 1897. 5. Ibid.
87:15. 1901. 6. Waugh Plum Cult. 186. 1901. 7. Budd-Hansen Am. Hort.
Man. 299. 1903. 8. Ohio Sta. Bul. 162:245 fig., 256, 257. 1905.
Kroh 1, 6. Kroh 3, 7. Poole 2, 7. Poole 6. Poole’s Pride 3, 4, 5. Poole’s
Pride 2, 6, 7.

As compared with other native plums growing on the grounds at

this Station, Poole Pride has considerable merit. It is very attractive
in appearance, it seems to have all the characters of a long-keeping
and a good-shipping sort of its species and the trees are large,
vigorous, hardy, healthy and productive. It is, however, lacking in the
very important character of flavor though the texture of the flesh is
all that could be desired. Its very peculiar flavor, incomparable with
any other plum or fruit, while disagreeable to the writer, might be
liked by some. The flesh of this plum is so transparent that the pit
can be readily seen when the skin is removed. To those growing
native plums, Poole Pride is recommended for trial.
This variety was raised by P. H. Kroh, Anna, Illinois, and was
exhibited by him under the name Kroh at the American Pomological
Society meeting in 1885. Three years later the same plum was
introduced by Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri, under the name of
Poole’s Pride. The latter name has been so much more widely used
that it has been retained even though the former is correct
according to the rule of priority.

Tree large, vigorous, open and round-topped, hardy, productive,

healthy; branches rough, zigzag, with few thorns, dark ash-gray, with
numerous, small lenticels; branchlets twiggy, slender, above medium in
length, with short internodes, greenish-red changing to light chestnut-red,
glabrous, with numerous, very conspicuous, large, raised lenticels; leaf-
buds small, short, obtuse, plump, appressed.
Leaves folded upward, ovate or obovate, peach-like, one and three-
eighths inches wide, three and one-half inches long, thin and leathery;
upper surface dull red late in the season, smooth, glossy, with a narrow
groove on the midrib; lower surface lightly pubescent; apex taper-pointed,
base rather abrupt, margin finely crenate, with small dark glands; petiole
seven-eighths inch long, slender, hairy, light purplish-red, with from one to
four small, globose, reddish-brown glands on the stalk.
Blooming season late and long; flowers appearing after the leaves, five-
eighths inch across, white; borne in clusters on short lateral spurs and
buds; pedicels nine-sixteenths inch long, very slender, glabrous, green;
calyx-tube greenish, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes narrow, obtuse,
heavily pubescent within and along the margin which is serrate and
covered with reddish glands, erect; petals small, ovate or roundish,
crenate, tapering into long pubescent claws; anthers yellowish; filaments
five-sixteenths inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens.
Fruit early, season very long; one inch in diameter, roundish-oval, not
compressed, halves equal; cavity very shallow and narrow; suture a
distinct line; apex roundish; color clear, dark, currant-red, with thin bloom;
dots few, large, light russet, conspicuous, clustered about the apex; stem
slender, five-eighths inch long, glabrous, but overspread with a grayish
bloom, adhering to the fruit; skin thin, tough, separating from the pulp;
flesh semi-transparent, dark amber-yellow, very juicy, fibrous, tender and
melting, sweet, with a strong, peculiar flavor not pleasant; of fair quality;
stone adhering, five-eighths inch by three-eighths inch in size, long-oval,
slightly flattened, compressed at the base, pointed at the apex, roughish;
ventral suture blunt, faintly ridged; dorsal suture acute, entire.

POTTAWATTAMIE
 POTTAWATTAMIE

Prunus munsoniana

1. Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 287. 1887. 2. Pop. Gard. 3:27 fig. 1887. 3. Cornell
Sta. Bul. 38:64. 86. 1892. 4. Mich Sta. Bul. 123:20. 1895. 5. Ia. Sta. Bul.
31:346. 1895. 6. Wis. Sta. Bul. 63:53. 1897. 7. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 25.
 1897. 8. Ohio Sta. Bul. 113:156. 1899. 9. Ia. Sta. Bul. 46:287. 1900. 10.
Waugh Plum Cult. 199 fig. 1901. 11. Ga. Sta. Bul. 67:279. 1904.

The plum under notice is possibly of greater cultural value than

any other of its species especially for northern latitudes. It is of high
quality for a native plum, the texture of the fruit being especially
pleasing in eating, and though melting and juicy it keeps and ships
very well because of a tough skin. It escapes both the curculio and
the brown-rot to a higher degree than most of its kind. The trees,
though dwarfish at maturity, are vigorous, productive and among the
hardiest of the Munsoniana plums, growing without danger of winter
injury to tree or bud as far north as the forty-fourth parallel.
Pottawattamie is deservedly one of the best known of the native
plums and if varieties of its species are to be grown in New York, is
as desirable as any.
Pottawattamie, according to the most authoritative accounts, was
taken from Tennessee to Iowa with a lot of Miner trees. It came
under the notice of J. B. Rice, Council Bluffs, Iowa, in 1875, and was
introduced by him and named after one of the counties of his State.

Tree medium in size, strong and vigorous when young becoming

spreading and somewhat dwarfish when older, round-topped, hardy at
Geneva, usually productive; branches dark brown, zigzag, thorny,
roughened by the numerous, raised lenticels of various sizes which are
often narrow and much elongated; branchlets slender, long, with
internodes of medium length, greenish-red changing to dark chestnut-red,
glabrous, with numerous, conspicuous, large, raised lenticels; leaf-buds
small, short, obtuse, free.
Leaves flat or folded upward, lanceolate, peach-like, one and one-eighth
inches wide, three and one-quarter inches long, thin; upper surface light
green, reddish late in the season, smooth, glossy, with a grooved midrib;
lower surface pale green, lightly pubescent along the midrib and larger
veins; apex taper-pointed, base abrupt, margin finely serrate or crenate,
with small, reddish glands; petiole one inch long, slender, tinged red,
thinly pubescent, glandless or with from one to five very small, globose,
reddish-yellow glands usually on the stalk.
Blooming season late and long; flowers appearing after the leaves, five-
eighths inch across, creamy-white as the buds unfold changing to whitish,
with a disagreeable odor; borne in clusters from lateral buds, in threes,
fours or fives; pedicels five-eighths inch long, very slender, glabrous,
greenish; calyx-tube green, broadly obconic, glabrous, calyx-lobes narrow,
somewhat acute, pubescent on the inner surface, serrate, with reddish
glands and hairy margin, erect; petals small, oval, slightly toothed,
narrowly clawed; anthers yellowish; filaments one-quarter inch long; pistil
glabrous, shorter than the stamens.
Fruit early, season of medium length; variable in size ranging from
seven-eighths inch to one and one-eighth inches in diameter, roundish-
oval, slightly compressed, halves equal; cavity very shallow and narrow,
abrupt; suture indistinct; apex roundish or depressed; color clear currant-
red, with thin bloom; dots few, medium to large, whitish, somewhat
conspicuous, clustered about the apex; stem very slender, three-quarters
inch long, glabrous, adhering poorly to the fruit; skin tough, cracking
under unfavorable conditions, separating readily; flesh deep yellow, juicy,
fibrous, tender and melting, sweet next the skin but sour at the center, of
pleasant flavor; fair to good in quality; stone clinging closely, five-eighths
inch by three-eighths inch in size, narrow, long-oval, turgid, smooth,
flattened and necked at the base, abruptly sharp-tipped at the apex;
ventral suture acute, inconspicuous; dorsal suture blunt, faintly grooved.

PURPLE GAGE
Prunus domestica

1. Pom. Mag. 3:129, Pl. 1830. 2. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 152, 153. 1831.
3. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 308 fig. 127. 1845. 4. Poiteau Pom. Franc. 1.
1846. 5. Thomas Am. Fruit Cult. 339. 1849. 6. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 54.
1852. 7. Ann. Pom. Belge 3:71, Pl. 1855. 8. Thompson Gard. Ass’t 519,
Pl. 1. 1859. 9. Hogg Fruit Man. 377. 1866. 10. Pom. France 7: No. 9.
1871. 11. Mas Le Verger 6:3 fig. 2. 1866-73. 12. Cat. Cong. Pom. France
367. 1887. 13. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 452. 1889. 14. Guide Prat. 155, 364.
1895.
Blaue Reine-Claude 10, 11, 13 incor., 14. Die Violette Königin Claudia
13. Die Violette Königin Claudie 1. Die Violette Köning Claudie 3. Die
Violette oder blaue Renoclode 10, 14. Die Violette oder Blaue Reneclode
11, 13. Purple Gage 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. Prune Reine Claude Violette
4, 10. Reine-Claude Alex. Dumas 14. Reine-Claude Violette 2, 7, 8, 11, 12,
14. Reine-Claude Violette 1, 3, 5, 9, 13. Violet Queen Claude 3, 5. Violet
 Gage 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14. Violette Reine-Claude 13. Violet Gage 2. Violette
Queen Claude 13. Violet oder Blaue Reneclode 13.

Purple Gage is worthy of attention as one of the best flavored of

all purple plums. In all but color of fruit it is a true Gage, to say
which is a sufficient characterization as to quality. In size it averages
larger than most of the Gages or Reine Claude plums, and in color is
a rich dark purple as attractive as any of the purple plums. Another
good quality of the fruit is that of hanging to the tree until it shrivels
at which time it is richest in flavor. Unfortunately the trees, while
averaging very well in other respects, are not productive and the
variety cannot be recommended for money-making though it well
deserves a place in home orchards.
Purple Gage is a European variety of unknown origin, though in
the Catalogue descriptif des fruits adoptes par le Congres
pomologique for 1887, it is said to have been raised by M. Galopin of
Liege, Belgium. As it was not mentioned by Duhamel in his Traite
des Arbres Fruitiers in 1768, it is thought to have been unknown at
that date. English and American authors generally apply the name
Purple Gage to this variety but in continental countries the name
Reine Claude Violette is most common. It was imported into America
early in the last century and in 1852 was added to the recommended
list of fruits in the American Pomological Society catalog.

Tree large, vigorous, round-topped, hardy, not very productive;

branches numerous, light ash-gray, with few, small, raised lenticels;
branchlets thick, above medium in length, with rather short internodes,
greenish-red changing to brownish-red, marked with much scarf-skin,
glabrous throughout the season, with few, small, slightly-raised lenticels;
leaf-buds of medium size and length, conical, appressed; leaf-scars greatly
enlarged.
Leaves folded upward, oval, one and three-quarters inches wide, three
and one-half inches long, thick, stiff; upper surface dark green, distinctly
rugose, lightly pubescent, with a shallow groove on the midrib; lower
surface silvery-green, covered with thick pubescence; apex abruptly
pointed or acute, base rather abrupt, margin serrate or crenate,
eglandular or with small dark glands; petiole three-quarters inch long,
thick, greenish, pubescent, glandless or with one or two rather large,
globose, yellowish-green glands variable in position.
Blooming season late, of medium length; flowers appearing with the
leaves, nearly one and one-quarter inches across, white; borne from
lateral buds, usually singly; pedicels five-eighths inch long, thick,
pubescent, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-
lobes narrow, obtuse, lightly pubescent on both surfaces, glandular-
serrate, reflexed; petals obovate or oval, crenate, short-clawed; anthers
yellow; filaments nearly one-half inch long; pistil glabrous except at the
base, shorter than the stamens.
Fruit intermediate in time and length of ripening season; one and one-
half inches by one and three-eighths inches in size, roundish or ovate,
slightly compressed, halves equal; cavity shallow, narrow, abrupt; suture
very shallow, often a line; apex variable in shape; color dark purple or
purplish-black, overspread with thick bloom; dots numerous, russet,
conspicuous when the bloom is removed, clustered about the apex; stem
five-eighths inch long, thinly pubescent, adhering well to the fruit; skin
thin, separating readily; flesh dull yellow, juicy, somewhat fibrous, firm but
tender, sweet, of pleasant flavor; very good; stone semi-clinging, seven-
eighths inch by five-eighths inch in size, irregular-oval, flat, often
contracted at the base into a long narrow neck, blunt at the apex, with
markedly rough and pitted surfaces; ventral suture swollen, rather wide,
distinctly furrowed, often with a prominent wing; dorsal suture with a
wide and deep groove.

QUACKENBOSS
 QUACKENBOSS

Prunus domestica

1. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 393. 1857. 2. Cultivator 6:269 fig. 1858. 3.
Thomas Am. Fruit Cult. 345. 1867. 4. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 941. 1869.
5. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 24. 1871. 6. Mas. Pom. Gen. 2:151, fig. 76. 1873.
 7. Barry Fr. Garden 415. 1883. 8. Mich. Sta. Bul. 103:34, fig. 6. 1894. 9.
Ont. Fr. Exp. Sta. Rpt. 52. 1895. 10. Cornell Sta. Bul. 131:191, fig. 40 II.
1897. 11. Waugh Plum Cult. 119. 1901. 12. Va. Sta. Bul. 134:44. 1902.
Quackenbos 9, 12.

Though not a leading variety, Quackenboss is a prominent one in

the list of commercial sorts for New York. Its fruits possess to a high
degree the characters which make a good market plum; they are of
large size, averaging nearly an inch and a half in diameter; round-
oval, a better shape for the markets than the prune shapes; very
prepossessing in color—a handsome, dark purple with heavy bloom;
the flesh is tender and juicy with a sweet, pleasant flavor making it
one of the good purple plums, though not one of the best in quality.
The tree is large, vigorous, hardy, with a round and spreading top.
This gives it great bearing capacity but though productive in the
Station orchard, the variety does not have the reputation of being
fruitful and fails chiefly as a commercial sort for this reason. It is a
late-maturing variety and comes on the market at a time when
plums are wanted for home canning, the demand for this purpose,
for which it is most suitable, helping greatly its sale. The variety has
two peculiarities; the petals are comparatively distinct from each
other giving the flower, or a tree in flower, an odd appearance; and
the leaves are remarkably variable in size.
It is not quite certain when or where this variety first came to
notice. C. Reagles, a competent authority, of Schenectady, New York,
in describing the Quackenboss for The Cultivator in 1858, says
“There is a seedling tree of this identical sort in the garden of Mr. S.
C. Groot of this city, which is about thirty years old.” If true, this puts
its origin in Schenectady at about 1828. But beyond question a Mr.
Quackenboss of Greenbush, New York, introduced the variety,
though some years later, and it has taken his name. In 1871, the
American Pomological Society placed the Quackenboss on its
recommended fruit list.

Tree very large and vigorous, round-topped, hardy, productive;

branches numerous, ash-gray, the trunk rough but the limbs smooth, with
smallish raised lenticels; branchlets thick, with long internodes, greenish-
red changing to brownish-drab over red, dull, pubescent, with numerous,
small lenticels; leaf-buds of medium size and length, pointed, free.
Leaves flattened, obovate or oval, variable in size averaging one and
seven-eighths inches wide by three and five-eighths inches long; upper
surface very dark green, nearly glabrous, with a grooved midrib; lower
surface pale green, pubescent; apex obtuse, base tapering, margin finely
serrate, with small black glands; petiole five-eighths inch long, pubescent,
faintly tinged red, glandless or with from one to four small, globose,
greenish-yellow glands usually on the stalk.
Blooming season intermediate in time and length; flowers appearing
after the leaves, one and one-eighth inches across, white, with a yellow
tinge at the tips of the opening buds; scattered on lateral spurs, singly or
in pairs; pedicels three-quarters inch long, above medium in thickness,
finely pubescent, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous;
calyx-lobes obtuse, lightly pubescent, glandular-serrate, reflexed; petals
obovate, crenate, with broad claws of medium length; anthers yellow with
a reddish tinge; filaments seven-sixteenths inch long; pistil glabrous
except on the ovary, shorter than the stamens.
Fruit late, season short; one and five-eighths inches by one and three-
eighths inches in size, roundish-oval, compressed slightly, halves equal;
cavity narrow, abrupt; suture shallow, often lacking; apex roundish or
depressed; color bluish-black, with thick bloom; dots numerous, small,
yellowish-brown, inconspicuous; stem three-quarters inch long,
pubescent, adhering well to the fruit; skin tender, somewhat astringent;
flesh deep yellow, juicy, tender, sweet, of pleasant, mild flavor; good;
stone semi-free, one inch by five-eighths inch in size, flattened, irregular-
oval, tapering to a long, narrow neck at the base, bluntly acute at the
apex, with rough and pitted surfaces; ventral suture prominent, heavily
furrowed, distinctly ridged; dorsal suture acute, often with a narrow,
indistinct, shallow groove.

RED APRICOT
Prunus domestica

1. Knoop Fructologie 2:52, 54. 1771. 2. Kraft Pom. Aust. 2:27, Tab. 172
fig. 1. 1796. 3. Prince Pom. Man. 2:72. 1832. 4. Poiteau Pom. Franc. 1.
1846. 5. Goodrich N. Fr. Cult. 83. 1849. 6. Mas Pom. Gen. 2:127, fig. 64.
 1873. 7. Hogg Fruit Man. 720. 1884. 8. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 447. 1889. 9.
Lucas Vollst. Hand. Obst. 474. 1894.
Abricot Rouge 1. Abricote Rouge 3. Apricot Plum 5. Abricotée Rouge 6.
Abricot Rouge 6, 7, 8. Abricotée Rouge 7, 8. Die Aprikosenpflaume 2.
Fürstenzeller Pflaume 8. Fürstenzeller Reine-Claude 6. Prune d’Abricot
Rouge 1, 8. Prune d’Abricos 2. Prune d’Abricot rouge 1. Prune Abricotée
Rouge 4. Red Apricot Plum 3. Rothe Aprikosenpflaume 6. Red Apricot 6, 8.
Rote Aprikosenpflaume 8. Rote Aprikosenzwetsche 9.

This plum, well known in Europe, is probably not now grown in

America and it may not deserve recognition here except for its
historical interest. Red Apricot is probably an inferior off-shoot of the
Apricot plum although no definite record of its lineage is obtainable.
It does not seem to have been known until nearly one hundred and
fifty years after the Apricot was brought to notice. Kraft figured and
described a long prune-like red plum under this name but because of
its shape his plum was undoubtedly spurious. The variety was
rejected by the American Pomological Society in 1856. It is described
as follows:

Tree vigorous, shoots glabrous; fruit mid-season, large, roundish; color

red over yellow; suture shallow; cavity small; stem an inch long, stout;
flesh yellow, dryish, inferior in flavor; poor; freestone.

RED DATE
Prunus domestica

1. Parkinson Par. Ter. 576. 1629. 2. Rea Flora 208. 1676. 3. Ray Hist.
Plant. 2:1529. 1688. 4. Kraft Pom. Aust. 2:43, Tab. 196 fig. 2. 1796. 5.
Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 147. 1831. 6. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 447. 1889.
A Fleur Double 5. Dattel Pflaume 6. Dattel Zwetsche 6. Die grosse rothe
Feigenpflaume 4. Figue Grose Rouge 5. Figue Grosse Rouge 6. Früh
Zwetsche 6. Grosse Rote Feigen Pflaume 6. Lange Violette Dattel
Zwetsche 6. Lange Violette Dattel Pflaume 6. Prune figue grosse rouge 4.
Prune d’Autriche 6. Prune Figue 6. Prune Datte 6. Purpur Pflaume 6. Red
Date-plum 3. Rote. Dattelzwetsche 6. Rote Feigen Pflaume 6. Turkische
 Zwetsche 6. Ungarische Zwetsche 6. Wilmot’s Russian 5. Zucker Zwetsche
6.

Red Date is an interesting variety because of its very peculiar

shape which is that of an elongated curved date. Its flavor is
agreeable and all of the characters of fruit and tree are as good as in
the average variety; yet it can probably be counted as nothing more
than an interesting curiosity. Parkinson described the Red Date as
long ago as 1629 and it seems to have maintained a place in
horticulture since then. The variety was imported from France in
1901 by the United States Department of Agriculture from which
source trees were obtained by this Station.

Tree of medium size, upright-spreading, dense-topped, productive;

branches thorny; branchlets developing many laterals on the new wood at
right angles to the direction of growth, thickly pubescent; leaf-buds free;
leaves folded backward, obovate, one and one-half inches by three and
one-quarter inches long; margin crenate, with small dark glands; petiole
pubescent, rather long, glandless or with from one to three small glands;
blooming season intermediate in time and length; flowers appearing after
the leaves, seven-eighths inch across; borne in scattering clusters on
lateral buds and spurs, singly or in pairs.
Fruit mid-season; one and five-eighths inches by one inch in size, long
irregular-oval, enlarged on the suture side, dark purplish-red, with thick
bloom; flesh golden-yellow, rather dry, firm, sweet, mild; of fair quality;
stone free, one and one-eighth inches by one-half inch in size, very long
and narrow, somewhat oblique, acute and oblique at both base and apex;
ventral suture blunt; dorsal suture with a long, narrow, deep groove.

RED DIAPER
Prunus domestica

1. Quintinye Com. Gard. 67, 68, 69. 1699. 2. Miller Gard. Kal. 184.
1734. 3. Knoop Fructologie 2:57. 1761. 4. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:102,
Pl. XX fig. 12. 1768. 5. Kraft Pom. Aust. 2:36, Tab. 185 fig. 2. 1796. 6.
Willichs Dom. Enc. 300. 1803. 7. Pom. Mag. 1:6, Pl. 1828. 8. Prince Pom.
Man. 2:69, 90. 1832. 9. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 298. 1845. 10. Floy-
 Lindley Guide Orch. Gard. 285, 287, 288, 383. 1846. 11. Poiteau Pom.
Franc. 1:1846. 12. Horticulturist 3:29. 1848. 13. Thomas Am. Fruit Cult.
335, fig. 261. 1849. 14. Horticulturist 4:195. 1849. 15. Ann. Pom. Belge
75 Pl. 1853. 16. Bridgeman Gard. Ass’t 128, 129, 130. 1857. 17. Pom.
France 7: No. 10. 1871. 18. Mas Pom. Gen. 2:135, fig. 68. 1873. 19. Le
Bon Jard. 339. 1882. 20. Hogg Fruit Man. 697. 1884. 21. Cat. Cong. Pom.
France 345. 1887. 22. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 447. 1889. 23. Guide Prat.
158, 365. 1895.
Amalia Pflaume 22, 23. Bunte Herzformige Pflaume 17, 22. Cyprische
Pflaume 22, 23. Diaprée de Roche Corbon 22. Dame Aubert Rouge 22, 23.
Diademe Imperial 22. De Chypre 23. Diademe Imperiale 23. Diaper 1, 10.
Die Blutfarbige Pflaume 5. Diaprée Rouge 3, 4, 9, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21.
Diaprée Rouge 5, 8, 10, 13, 16, 18, 22. Diapre Rouge 8, 22, 23. Die Rothe
Eierpflaume 14. Diaper Rouge 16. Diaper 17, 20, 22. Die Blutfarbege
Pflaume 17. Diaprea rubra 17. Diademe 19. De Briancon 21. Gluhende
Kohle 22. Hoheits Pflaume 22, 23. Imperial Diadem 8, 9, 13, 20, 22.
Imperial Diadem 10, 16. Imperial Diademe 17, 21. Imperatrice 19. La
Roche-Corbon 22. La Courbon 17. Mimms 10, 16. Mimms 9, 13, 17, 20.
Mimms Plum 10, 16, 22. Mimms Plum 7, 8. Mimms Pflaume 22. Matchless
22. Prune Diaprée Rouge 11. Prune Imperatrice 15. Prune Diademe 15.
Prune de Briancon 17. Prune de Chypre 22. Prinzessin Pflaume 22, 23.
Roche-Carbon 22. Rote Diaprée 22. Rouge Corbon 22. Rote Eier Pflaume
22. Rote Cyprische Pflaume 22. Rote Marunke 22. Rote Osterei 22. Rote
Masche 22. Rote Ross Pflaume 22. Rothe Eierpflaume 23. Rothe Marunke
23. Roche Corbon 1. Roche Courbon 2. Roche Corbon 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16,
17, 18, 20, 21, 22. Roch-courbon 6. Red Diaper 6, 10, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22.
Roche Courbon 8. Red Egg Plum 14. Reine de Chypre 14. Red Imperial 16.
Rothe Diaprée 17. Rothe Violen Pflaume 17. Red Diaper Plum 17. Rothe
Eierpflaume 17. Rothe Süsse Pflaume 17. Rothe Diapre 18. Virginische
Pflaume 17.

Red Diaper is of historical value only, as it is now rarely found. It

does not seem to have been known as long as Violet Diaper and
may be an off-shoot of the older variety. It probably originated in
France, one of its synonyms, Roche Corbon, having been derived
from a small village near Tours. The Mimms plum said to have been
raised from a stone of the Blue Perdrigon about 1800 by Henry
Browne, North Mimms Place, Hertfordshire, England, and the
Imperial Diadem said to be a seedling of about the same date raised
at Duckenfield, near Manchester, England, are identical with Red
Diaper in spite of their supposed separate origin. The Chypre, or
Prune de Chypre, thought by some to be a synonym of this variety,
is undoubtedly distinct, as it is a clingstone and is earlier. The
following description is compiled.

Tree of slow growth in the nursery, hardy, vigorous and productive in

the orchard. Fruit mid-season; large, obovate; cavity slight; stem one-half
inch in length; skin brownish-red; bloom thin; dots very numerous,
brownish, conspicuous; flesh greenish-yellow, firm, fine-grained, sweet;
good; stone small, free.

RED JUNE
Prunus triflora

1. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 106. 1891. 2. Cornell Sta. Bul. 62:28. 1894. 3.
Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 95. 1895. 4. Cornell Sta. Bul. 106:60. 1896. 5. Ala.
Col. Sta. Bul. 85:444. 1897. 6. Cornell Sta. Bul. 139:45. 1897. 7. Rural N.
Y. 56:615. 1897. 8. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 26. 1897. 9. Mich. Sta. Bul.
169:242, 243, 249, 250. 1899. 10. Cornell Sta. Bul. 175:136. 1899. 11.
U. S. D. A. Rpt. 386. 1901. 12. Waugh Plum Cult. 140. 1901. 13. Budd-
Hansen Am. Hort. Man. 324. 1903. 14. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 43:37. 1903.
15. Mass. Sta. Ann. Rpt. 17:160. 1905. 16. Md. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 85. 1905.
17. Ga. Sta. Bul. 68:5, 32. 1905.
Botan 14. Hytankayo 11. Long Fruit 3. Nagate no Botankyo 10, 11, 17.
Red Nagate 1, 2, 3, 6, 9. Red Nagate 4, 5, 11, 12, 13, 17. Red June 2, 3.
Shiro Smomo 2, 4, 7, 11, 12, 14. Shiro Smomo 9.

Red June is variously estimated by fruit-growers and pomologists.

A concensus of the opinions of those who have had actual
experience with the variety shows that it closely follows Abundance
and Burbank in popularity among the Trifloras. The variety is
distinguished from all other plums by its fruit-characters; the plums
are distinctly cordate in shape with a deep cavity and a very pointed
apex; the color is a mottled garnet-red overlaid with thin but very
distinct and delicate bloom; the flesh is a light yellow, firm enough to
endure transportation well, peculiarly aromatized, sweetish and not
wholly agreeable in flavor and ranking rather low in quality; the
stone adheres tightly to the flesh. The trees are large, vigorous,
spreading, hardy, healthy and productive—very good for the species
to which the variety belongs. Other good qualities of the variety are
that it blooms late for a Triflora, and that the fruits are comparatively
immune to curculio and brown-rot and hang to the trees
exceptionally well for an early plum. This is one of the Trifloras that
varies in season of ripening, a peculiarity of several of the varieties
of this species, but usually the fruits ripen a week or more before
Abundance. Red June is reported to be somewhat self-sterile and in
need of cross-pollination. This variety ought to have value as an
early market plum in New York.
Red June was imported from Japan by H. H. Berger and Company,
San Francisco, California, under the name Shiro Smomo, about 1887.
Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri, obtained the variety in 1892 and
introduced it as the Red June in 1893. In 1897 it was added to the
fruit catalog list of the American Pomological Society. The
nomenclature of this variety is much confused. The true Japanese
Red Nagate (Red Nagate is one of the synonyms of Red June) has
red flesh while this one has not; this variety, to which the name
Shiro Smomo is most often applied, is not a Smomo plum nor is it
white, (Shiro is the Japanese for white) affording another instance of
the confusion in the American application of the Japanese names of
the Triflora plums.

Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, hardy, productive, healthy;

branches rough, thorny, dark brown, with numerous lenticels of medium
size; branchlets slender, long, with short internodes, dark brown, marked
with considerable scarf-skin, glabrous, with numerous large, raised
lenticels; leaf-buds small, medium in length, conical, free.
Leaves folded upward, oblanceolate, one inch wide, two and three-
quarters inches long, thin; upper surface glabrous, with a lightly grooved
midrib; lower surface light green, thinly pubescent along the midrib and
larger veins which are tinged red; apex taper-pointed, base acuminate,
margin finely serrate, with small glands; petiole one-half inch long,
slender, tinged red, slightly hairy along one side, with from one to three
small, brown glands usually at the base of the leaf.
 Blooming season intermediate in time and length; flowers appearing
before the leaves, white; borne in clusters on lateral buds and spurs, in
twos or in threes; pedicels of medium length and thickness, glabrous
except for occasional hairs, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate,
glabrous; calyx-lobes narrow, obtuse, sparingly glandular, with marginal
hairs, glabrous on the outer side, thinly pubescent on the inner side,
erect; petals oval, entire, tapering at the base to short claws; anthers light
yellow; filaments short; pistil glabrous, longer than the stamens.
Fruit early, one and one-half inches by one and three-eighths inches in
size, roundish-ovate to roundish-cordate, sides unequal; cavity large,
deep, narrow, regular, abrupt; suture deep, distinct; apex very pointed;
color garnet-red, mottled; bloom thin; dots numerous, small, russet; stem
one-half inch long, adhering to the fruit; skin above medium in thickness,
tender, slightly astringent, separating easily; flesh light yellow, fibrous,
somewhat meaty, sweet except near the center; good; stone clinging,
five-eighths inch by one-half inch in size, irregular-oval, slightly flattened,
pointed at both ends, with pitted surfaces; ventral suture prominently
winged, narrow; dorsal suture not grooved.

RED MAGNUM BONUM

Prunus domestica

1. Parkinson Par. Ter. 576, 577. 1629. 2. Rea Flora 208. 1676. 3.
Langley Pomona 92, Pl. XX fig. V. 1729. 4. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:98,
Pl. XV. 1768. 5. Kraft Pom. Aust. 2:31, Tab. 178 fig. 1. 1796. 6. Willichs
Dom. Enc. 4:300. 1803. 7. Prince Pom. Man. 2:59. 1832. 8. Hoffy Orch.
Com. fig. 1841. 9. Floy-Lindley Guide Orch. Gard. 292. 1846. 10.
Horticulturist 4:194. 1849. 11. Ann. Pom. Belge 99, Pl. 1853. 12. Elliott
Fr. Book 428, 429. 1854. 13. Noisette Man. Comp. Jard. 2:499. 1860. 14.
Downing Fr. Trees Am. 943. 1869. 15. Mas Pom. Gen. 2:139, fig. 70.
1873. 16. Hogg Fruit Man. 721. 1884. 17. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 61. 1887.
18. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 445, 448. 1889. 19. Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 87. 1890.
20. Guide Prat. 158, 358. 1895.
Askew’s Purple Egg 12, 14, 16, 18. Blaue Kaiserpflaume 15, 18, 20
incor. Blaue Eier Pflaume 18 incor. Bockshoden 18, 20. Bocksdutten 18,
20. Bonum Magnum 18 incor., 20. Blue Imperatrice 7 incor., 8. Copper
Plum 8. Die Kaiserliche veilchenfarbige Pflaume 5. Die Rothe
Kaiserpflaume 10. Dame Aubert 13. Dame Aubert Violette 14, 16, 18, 20.
Die Rothe Eierpflaume 14. Dame Aubert Rouge 17. Dame Aubert Rouge
 19. D’Oeuf Violette 20. Early Forcing 12. Florence 12, 14, 16, 18, 20.
Frühe Treib Zwetsche 18. Frühe Treibzwetsche 20. Great Imperial Plum
18, 20. Grosse Früh Zwetsche 18 incor. Grosse Ungarische Zwetsche 18
incor. Imperiall 1. Imperial 3, 6. Impériale Violette 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 16,
18, 20. Impériale Violette 4, 15, 20. Imperial Violet 7. Impériale 7, 14, 16,
18, 20. Imperiall 9. Imperial 9, 14, 18. Impériale Rouge 10, 14, 16, 18.
Imperial Rouge 12, 18. Imperial Violet 14, 18. Impériale Hâtive 18, 20.
Impériale rouge 20. Large Orlean 7. Mogul Rouge 16, 18. Oeuf Rouge 16,
18. Prune d’Oeuf Violette 18. Prinzessinpflaume 15. Prune-figue 13. Prune
Impériale Violette 11. Prune d’oeuf 7, 14, 18. Purple Egg 7, 12, 14, 16, 18.
Prune-oeuf 7. Purple Magnum Bonum 12, 14, 18. Red Magnum Bonum 8,
12, 20. Red Magnum 6. Red Imperiale 7, 8, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20. Red
Bonum Magnum 3, 7, 18, 20. Red Egg Plum 10. Red Egg 12. Red Imperial
12. Red Egg 14, 16, 18. Red Aubert 17. Rote Eier Pflaume 18. Rote
Kaiserpflaume 18. Rote Kaiser Zwetsche 18. 116 Riga 19. Rothe
Kaiserpflaume 20. Rothe Kaiserzwetsche 20. Shepler ?14, ?18. Sainte-
Catherine (Belgien) 18, 20. The Imperial Plum 2. Violette oder Blaue
Kaiserpflaume 15.

Once popular, Red Magnum Bonum is now but of historical

interest. Three centuries ago this variety was cultivated in England
by John Tradescant under the name Imperiall. It was mentioned by
all of the early horticultural writers and it seems clear that the
variety was well established in Europe at least as early as the
beginning of the Seventeenth Century. As all plums at that time were
propagated from seed, a large number of sub-varieties of this sort
were produced and as these became established the nomenclature
of the variety became much involved. In 1729 Langley called it the
Red Magnum Bonum, a name it has since retained. It is not known
when the variety was introduced into this country but its first
appearance in American literature was in 1803. After its introduction
nurserymen sold any large red plum as Red Magnum Bonum and it
became difficult to find the true variety. Professor J. L. Budd
apparently reintroduced this plum in 1881-1882 under the name
Dame Aubert Rouge. Although very extensively grown in America at
one time it has never been a favorite because of its poor quality. The
American Pomological Society rejected it in 1858 from a list of
candidates for its catalog. The following description is compiled.
 Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; young shoots glabrous. Fruit mid-
season; large, oval, deep red in the sun, pale red in the shade, covered
with thin bloom; stem one inch long; flesh greenish, firm, slightly coarse,
dry, brisk subacid; of fair quality; stone oval, free.

REINE CLAUDE
Prunus domestica

1. Quintinye Com. Gard. 67, 68, 69. 1699. 2. Langley Pomona 93, Pl.
XXIII fig. 7. 1729. 3. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:89, Pl. XI. 1768. 4. Knoop
Fructologie 2:62. 1771. 5. Kraft Pom. Aust. 28, Tab. 173 fig. 2, 41, Tab.
193 fig. 2. 1796. 6. Forsyth Treat. Fr. Trees 20. 1803. 7. Miller Gard. Dict.
3. 1807. 8. Coxe Cult. Fr. Trees 237, fig. 14. 1817. 9. Phillips Com. Orch.
306. 1831. 10. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 147, 148. 1831. 11. Prince Pom.
Man. 2:48. 1832. 12. Gallesio Pom. Ital., Pl. 1839. 13. Downing Fr. Trees
Am. 276 fig. 106. 1845. 14. Floy-Lindley Guide Orch. Gard. 283, 382, 419.
1846. 15. Poiteau Pom. Franc. 1:1846. 16. Horticulturist 2:178, 179, fig.
30, 291. 1847. 17. Thomas Am. Fruit Cult. 326 fig. 253, 329. 1849. 18.
Hovey Fr. Am. 2:69, Pl. 1851. 19. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 54. 1852. 20. Elliott
Fr. Book 410. 1854. 21. Thompson Gard. Ass’t 517. 1859. 22. Downing Fr.
Trees Am. 917. 1869. 23. Mas Le Verger 6:55, fig. 28. 1866-73. 24. Pom.
France 7: No. 5. 1871. 25. Oberdieck Deut. Obst. Sort. 434. 1881. 26.
Lauche Deut. Pom. 20, Pl. IV 20. 1882. 27. Hogg Fruit Man. 703. 1884.
28. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 433. 1889. 29. Guide Prat. 154, 363. 1895. 30.
Bailey Sur. Unlike 176, 243. 1896. 31. Cornell Sta. Bul. 131:186. 1897.
32. Botanical Gazette 26:423. 1898. 33. Gard. Chron. 3rd Ser. 24:465.
1898. 34. Waugh Plum Cult. 22, 106, 107 fig. 1901.
Abricot Verd 5, 9. Abricot Vert 3, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27,
28, 29. Abricotée Sageret ?22, 28. Aloise’s Green Gage 22, 24, 27, ?28,
29. Blanche Grosse Espece 10. Bonne Verte 5. Bradford Gage 13, 20, 21,
22, 28, 29. Bradford Green Gage 27, 28. Bradford Queen Gage 24, ?29.
Brugnon Green Gage 10, 18, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Brugnon Gage 20, 22,
28, 29. Bruyn Gage 13, 17, 18 incor., 20, 22, 28, 29. Burgnon Gage 13,
24. Cant’s Late Green Gage 22, 28. Claudia 12. Damas Gris 24, 28, 29.
Damas Verd 9. Damas Vert 7, 10, 13, 18, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Dauphine
5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29. Die grosse Königin
Claudiapflaume, die grüne Abrikose 5. Die Königin Klaudia 5. Dauphine 3.
Dauphiny 6. Drap d’Or of some 10, 18, 28, 29. Echte Grosse Reine-Claude
28, 29. Gage Verte 28, 29. Great Green Damask 22, 27, 28. Great Green
Damaski 24, 29. Great Queen Claudia 11. Green Gage 2, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13,
 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34. Green Spanish 14, 18. Gros
Damas Vert 11, 22, 28, 29. Grosse Königin Claudiapflaume 5. Green Gage
7, 9, 23, 24, 28, 29, 32, 34. Goring’s Golden Gage 22, 24, 27, 28, 29.
Grosse Reine 10, 13, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Grosse Grüne Reine-
Claude 25, 28. Grosse Reine-Claude 7, 25, 26, 28. Grosse Reine-Claude 3,
5, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29. Gros Reine-Claude 14.
Grüne Aprikose 5, 28, 29. Grüne Abrikose 5. Grüne Reineclaude 25. Gute
Grüne 28, 29. Huling’s Reine-Claudia 22, 28. Huling’s Reine Claude 11. Ida
Gage 22. Ida Green Gage 16. Ida Green Gage 20, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29.
Isleworth Green Gage 13, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Isleworth Green
Gage 10. King of Plums 20. Königin Claudia 28, 29. Königin Klaudia 5.
Large Queen Claude 11. La Grosse Reine-Claude 11. Large Queen Claudia
6. Large green claudia 11. Livingston Manor 22, 28. Louis Brun ?22, ?28.
Mammola 12. Mirabelle Vert Double 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Murray’s Reine
Claudia 22, 28. Murray’s Reine Claude 11, 14, 22, 27. Prune de Reine
Claude 15. Prunus Domestica Cereola 32. Prunus Domestica var. cereola
33. Prunus Domestica var. Claudiana 32. Queen Claude 2. Queen Claudia
11, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Reine-Claude Ancienne 23, 24, 28, 27. Reine-
Claude Blanche Grosse Espece 10. Reineclaude d’oree 29. Reine-Claude
Blanche La Grosse 11, 22. Reine-Claude 8, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22,
27, 28, 33. Reine Claud 1. Reine-Claudia 2. Reine-Claude Blanche 10.
Reine-Claude Dorée 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29. Reine-Claude Dore 18, 22.
Reine-Claude Grosse 27, 28. Reine-Claude Verde Perdrigon 5. Reine-
Claude Verte 23, 29. Rensselaer Gage 20, 22. Rensselvar Gage 24, 29.
Rensselaar Gage 27, 28. Reine-Claude Verte Tiquetée 28, 29. Reine-
Claudia Blanche La Grosso 22, 28. Royal Green Gage 28, 29. Schuyler
Gage 20, incor. 22, 24, 27. Schuyler’s Gage ?13, 20, 28, 29. Sucrin Vert
10, 11, 13, 18, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Sultaneck Erik ?28, 29. Susina
Regina 12. Triomphe Garcon 24, 28, 29. Triomphe Valet 24, 28, 29.
Trompe Garcon 22, 27, 28, 29. Tromp-Valet 7. Trompe Valet 22, 27, 28,
29. Verdacia 27, 28. Verdacchia rotonda 12. Verdoch 27, 32, 34. Verdochia
32. Verdochio 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Verducia 22. Verte Bonne 3, 7, 9, 10, 11,
14, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29. Vert Bonne 13, 22, 27. Verte d’Espagne 23,
28, 29. Verte Tiquetée 22, 24, 27, 28, 29. Vilmot’s Green Gage 29. Vilmot’s
Late Green Gage 29. Wilmot’s Green Gage 10, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27,
28. Wilmot’s Late Green Gage 11, 18, 20, 21, 22. Wilmot’s Late Green
Gage 10, 13, 18, 20, 21, 22, 28, 29. Wilmot’s New Green Gage 10, 11, 13,
18, 20, 22, 28, 29. Waterloo 20.

In the pomological literature since Quintinye in 1699, Reine Claude

has been the standard in quality for plums. For the qualities that
gratify or assist in gratifying the sense of taste,—richness of flavor,
consistency and texture of flesh, abundance of juice and pleasant
aroma,—the Reine Claude is unsurpassed. It is, however, now
probably equalled in quality by several of the great number of similar
varieties which have originated in America and for which American
plum-growing is justly distinguished. Under ordinary cultivation the
Reine Claude is not a remarkably handsome plum but when grown
on thrifty trees, the crop thinned, foliage and fruit kept free from
pests and the fruits sufficiently exposed to the sun to color well, it is
a beautiful fruit, its size, form and color all adding to its beauty. The
tree is only of moderate size in the orchard and in the nursery is so
small and wayward that nurserymen hesitate to grow it. The trees,
though small, are productive and bear regularly, the chief defect
being the susceptibility to sunscald whereby the bark on the trunk is
killed and the beginning of the end is marked. The short life of the
trees of this variety is largely due to this injury to the bark and has
led to top-working on Lombard and other stocks, an operation
successful only when done early in the life of the stock. Another
serious fault is that the fruit cracks badly if showers occur at ripening
time. Reine Claude is still one of the most profitable plums grown in
New York and whether for the commercial or home plantation
deserves a place in the plum orchard.
For a complete history of this variety the reader is referred to the
discussion of the Reine Claude group of plums. The Bavay, a distinct
variety, is called the true Reine Claude by many nurserymen and
horticultural writers. Green Gage is a synonym of the Reine Claude
and is preferred by some writers for this plum but since “Reine
Claude” is as well known and much older it has been retained in The
Plums of New York. The American Pomological Society placed this
variety on its fruit catalog list in 1852.

Tree of medium size and vigor, round-topped, hardy, productive; trunk

and branches of medium thickness and smoothness; branches ash-brown,
with few lenticels; branchlets short, with short internodes, reddish-brown,
lightly pubescent; leaf-buds large, long, conical or pointed, free; leaf-scars
prominent.
 Leaves four and one-half inches long, two inches wide, oval, thick,
leathery; upper surface dark green, smooth, covered with fine, scattering
hairs; lower surface pale green, pubescent; apex acute, margin often
doubly crenate, glandular; petiole three-quarters inch long, tinged red,
glandless or with one or two small, globose, greenish glands variable in
position.
Fruit mid-season; one and three-quarters inches by one and five-
eighths inches in size, roundish-oval, halves equal; cavity narrow, regular,
abrupt; suture shallow, broad; apex pubescent, roundish or slightly
depressed; color yellowish green, indistinctly streaked with green,
becoming golden-yellow at full maturity, sometimes mottled on the sunny
side with red, overspread with thin bloom; dots very numerous, small,
grayish, conspicuous, clustered about the apex; stem thick, three-quarters
inch long, pubescent; skin tough, adhering to the pulp; flesh greenish-
yellow or golden-yellow, juicy, firm, sweet, mild; very good; stone semi-
clinging, one inch by three-quarters inch in size, oval, turgid, tapering at
the base, blunt at the apex, with thickly pitted surfaces; ventral suture
wide, distinctly furrowed, often with a short wing; dorsal suture with a
very wide and deep groove.

ROBINSON
 ROBINSON

Prunus munsoniana

1. Ind. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 134. 1883. 2. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 151. 1891. 3.
Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:64, 86. 1892. 4. Me. Sta. An. Rpt. 12:67. 1896. 5.
Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 89. 1897. 6. Wis. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 137. 1899. 7. Wis.
 Sta. Bul. 87:15. 1901. 8. Waugh Plum Cult. 199. 1901. 9. Kan. Sta. Bul.
101:131. 1901. 10. Ga. Sta. Bul. 67:280. 1904. 11. Ohio Sta. Bul.
162:256, 257. 1905.

Robinson has long been one of the best known of its species
though it is probably inferior in fruit-characters at least to several
other Munsoniana sorts. The plums are attractive in coloring but
small in size and comparatively low in quality. The trees are
capricious in growth and not as hardy as some others of the species
but where they can be grown are always productive. The variety is
rated by some authors among those that need cross-pollination to
insure large crops. Robinson may be worth growing in the South and
in the States of the Plains but it cannot be recommended for any
purpose in New York.
This variety is a seedling grown by a Mr. Pickett of Putnam County,
Indiana, from a seed brought with him from North Carolina about
1835. In 1879, Dr. J. H. Robinson read a paper before the Indiana
Horticultural Society on Chicasaw plums, and gave a very flattering
description of this plum, which he had been growing since 1872.
Later it was named by the Putnam County Horticultural Society in
honor of Dr. Robinson. This name was used as a synonym of Miner
by Downing in 1869 but at the present time that usage has almost
disappeared in plum literature.

Tree variable in size, often large, vigorous, spreading, not uniform in

habit, somewhat open and flat-topped, hardy, medium to productive;
trunk shaggy; branches very rough, zigzag, thorny, dark ash-gray, with
numerous, large, narrow and strongly elongated, raised lenticels;
branchlets slender to medium, with internodes medium to below in length,
greenish-red changing to dull, dark chestnut-red, glabrous, with numerous
very conspicuous, large, raised lenticels; leaf-buds small, short, obtuse,
free.
Leaves folded upward, lanceolate, peach-like, one and five-sixteenths
inches wide, three and one-half inches long, thin; upper surface dark
green, glabrous, with deeply grooved midrib; lower surface glabrous
except along the midrib and larger veins; apex taper-pointed, base
obtuse, margin very finely serrate, with small, dark red glands; petiole
slender, five-eighths inch long, reddish, lightly pubescent along one side,
glandless or with from one to seven small, globose, reddish-brown glands
on the stalk and on the base of the leaf.
Blooming season medium to late, long; flowers appearing with the
leaves, eleven-sixteenths inch across, whitish, somewhat self-fertile; borne
in clusters on lateral buds and spurs, in twos, threes or fours; pedicels
seven-sixteenths inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green,
narrow-campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes narrow, slightly obtuse,
glandular, pubescent and with marginal hairs, erect; petals ovate or oval,
small, narrow, slightly crenate, tapering below to long, narrow claws;
anthers yellowish; filaments one-quarter inch long; pistil glabrous, slightly
shorter than or equal to the stamens in length.
Fruit early, season very long; less than an inch in diameter, roundish or
roundish-oval, halves equal; cavity of medium depth and width, abrupt;
suture a line; apex roundish; color clear currant-red, overspread with thick
bloom; dots scattering, large, russet, conspicuous, clustered around the
apex; stem slender, five-eighths inch long, glabrous, adhering to the fruit;
skin tough, bitter, separating readily; flesh golden-yellow, very juicy,
somewhat fibrous, tender and melting, sweet next the skin, with some
astringency near the center, of mild but pleasant flavor; fair in quality;
stone clinging, five-eighths inch by three-eighths inch in size, oval, turgid,
very slightly flattened and necked at the base, abrupt-pointed at the apex,
roughish; ventral suture blunt, slightly ridged; dorsal suture with a rather
broad groove of medium depth.

ROLLINGSTONE
Prunus americana

1. Rural N. Y. 44:645. 1885. 2. Minn. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 279. 1885. 3. N.

J. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 186. 1885. 4. Wis. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 32. 1885. 5. Minn.
Sta. Bul. 10:73 fig. 1890. 6. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:41, 86. 1892. 7. Am.
Pom. Soc. Cat. 24. 1897. 8. Wis. Sta. Bul. 63:56, 58 fig. 28. 1897. 9.
Colo. Sta. Bul. 50:45. 1898. 10. Ohio. Sta. Bul. 113:153. 1899. 11.
Waugh Plum Cult. 162. 1901. 12. Ga. Sta. Bul. 67:280. 1904. 13. Ohio
Sta. Bul. 162:256, 257. 1905.
Minnesota 2. Rolling Stone 3, 4.
 Rollingstone is an old Americana sort which has been kept in
cultivation chiefly because it is of very good quality for one of its
species. The fruit is rather dull in color and small but not unattractive
in appearance; the plums are little troubled by either the brown-rot
or the plum curculio and ship very well because of the tough skin.
The tree is dwarfish with a crooked trunk, shaggy bark, unkempt top
and very twiggy—a typical Americana and most difficult to grow into
a good orchard plant. The variety is characterized by long,
conspicuous stamens, stigmas frequently defective and by very large
leaves. The variety has little or no value in New York.
Rollingstone was found near an old Indian camping ground on the
Rollingstone Creek, Winona County, Minnesota, by Mr. O. M. Lord,
[220] Minnesota City, about 1852. Mr. Lord planted trees of this plum
in his garden and found that they improved greatly under cultivation,
so much so that they soon became very popular in the local market.
About 1882 he introduced the Rollingstone to fruit-growers in
general. Mr. H. M. Thompson of St. Francis, according to the
Minnesota Horticultural Society Report for 1885, sent this plum out
under the name Minnesota but fortunately it has not been
distributed under its synonym widely enough to cause much
confusion. In 1897 the American Pomological Society added
Rollingstone to its fruit catalog list.

Tree dwarfish, variable in vigor, spreading, flat-topped, hardy,

productive, healthy; trunk shaggy; branches dark ash-gray, thorny, rough,
zigzag, with numerous, rather large lenticels; branchlets slender, twiggy,
medium to short, with internodes of average length, greenish turning to
dark brown, glossy, glabrous, with conspicuous, small, raised lenticels;
leaf-buds medium in size and length, appressed.
Leaves falling early, folded upward, obovate or long-ovate, one and
one-half inches wide, three and one-half inches long, thin; upper surface
smooth, glabrous, with a narrow groove on the midrib; lower surface
silvery green, lightly pubescent, the veins prominent; apex taper-pointed,
base rather acute, margin coarsely and doubly serrate, eglandular; petiole
slender, five-eighths inch long, tinged red, sparingly pubescent, glandless
or with one or two small, globose, reddish glands on the stalk.
 Blooming season late and short; flowers appearing after the leaves;
three-quarters inch across, the buds creamy-white changing to white as
the flowers expand; borne in clusters on lateral buds and spurs, in threes
or in fours; pedicels seven-sixteenths inch long, below medium in
thickness, glabrous, green; calyx-tube reddish-green, obconic, glabrous;
calyx-lobes narrow, acute, eglandular, glabrous on the outer surface but
lightly pubescent within, heavily pubescent on the margin and with
irregular deep serrations, erect; petals oval or slightly ovate, dentate,
tapering below into narrow claws reddish at the base; stamens
conspicuous; anthers yellow; filaments three-eighths inch long; pistil
glabrous, equal to the stamens in length; stigma often abortive.
Fruit mid-season or earlier, ripening period short; about one inch in
diameter, roundish, halves equal; cavity shallow, flaring, marked before
maturity with light-colored, radiating streaks; suture a line; apex roundish;
color dark purplish-red, with thin bloom; dots numerous, small, light
russet, inconspicuous; stem slender, nine-sixteenths inch long, adhering
poorly to the fruit; skin thick, tough, semi-adherent; flesh orange-yellow,
juicy, slightly fibrous, tender and melting, sweet, strongly aromatic; good;
stone semi-free, five-eighths inch by one-half inch in size, roundish-oval,
flattened, smoothish, blunt at the base and apex; ventral suture acute,
faintly ridged; dorsal suture acute, with a narrow, shallow, indistinct
groove.

ROYAL TOURS
Prunus domestica

1. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:81, Pl. XX fig. 8. 1768. 2. Kraft Pom. Aust.
2:35, Tab. 184 fig. 2. 1796. 3. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 313. 1845. 4. Elliott
Fr. Book 423. 1854. 5. Mas Le Verger 6:53, fig. 27. 1866-73. 6. Lange
Allgem. Garten. 2:420. 1879. 7. Le Bon Jard. 2:341. 1882. 8. Cat. Cong.
Pom. France 368. 1887. 9. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 438. 1889. 10. Guide Prat.
160, 365. 1895. 11. Waugh Plum Cult. 120, 121. 1901.
Damas de Tours 7. Die königliche Pflaume von Tours 2. Diel’s
Königspflaume 9 incor. Diels Königpflaume 10. Frühe Herrn Pflaume 9
incor., 10. Kings plum of Tours 6. Königspflaume von Tours 5, 10.
Königspflaume von Tours 9. Königliche Pflaume von Tours 9, 10. Königs
Pflaume 9 incor., 10. Königliche Grosse Pflaume 9, 10. Königin von Tours
9, 10. Moroccopflaume 10. Morocco 9 incor. Prune Royale de Tours 5, 9.
Rothe Königspflaume 10. Roi 10. Royale 8, 10. Royale de Tours 1, 3, 5, 7,
 8, 10. Royale de Tours 2, 4, 9, 10, 11. Royal Tours 3, 4, 9. Royal of Tours
4. Royal red Plum 8, 10. Worth 11.

This excellent variety should be grown generally in America for

home use, at least, if it proves nearly as desirable as it is rated in
Europe. Royal Tours is an old French sort supposed to have
originated in the neighborhood of Tours, France. Although highly
esteemed in Europe, it has not gained favor in this country and is
rarely found here. Waugh states that in 1899 he secured specimens
of it from North Carolina where it was grown locally under the name
Worth. The following description is compiled.

Tree strong, vigorous; branches thick, short, smooth; fruit early mid-
season; of medium size, irregularly roundish, swollen on one side, dark
reddish-purple covered with thick bloom; cavity deep; suture prominent;
stem short, thick; skin thick, firm; dots conspicuous; flesh greenish-yellow,
firm, sweet; very good; stone large, oblong, rough, clinging.

RUTLAND PLUMCOT
Prunus triflora × Prunus armeniaca

1. Burbank Cat. 13 fig. 1901. 2. De Vries Pl. Br. 218. 1907. 3. Fancher
Creek Nur. Cat. 10 fig. 1909.
Plumcot 1, 2.

One of the interesting novelties of recent plum-breeding is the

Plumcot grown by Luther Burbank[221] from a cross between the
plum and the apricot. Not having seen the fruit of this remarkable
cross we are unable to judge of its value to the plum-grower. Out of
a large number of extremely variable seedlings of this cross Burbank
selected this, the Rutland Plumcot, named in honor of an Australian
admirer of the fruit. The variety was introduced by the Fancher
Creek Nursery in 1906 and 1907. The following description is partly
compiled.
 Tree vigorous, spreading, open, not a heavy bearer; branches thorny;
branchlets rather slender, with short internodes, dull red; leaves folded
upward, oval, one and five-eighths inches wide, two and seven-eighths
inches long, rather stiff; margin finely and doubly crenate, glandular;
petiole greenish-red, with from one to four globose glands.
The fruit in California attains a large size; suture and cavity deep; skin
fuzzy like an apricot, purple; flesh deep red, subacid; quality fair; stone
large, broad-oval.

SAINT CATHERINE
Prunus domestica

1. Quintinye Com. Gard. 67, 68, 69. 1699. 2. Langley Pomona 94, Pl. 24
fig. 6. 1729. 3. Miller Gard. Dict. 3. 1754. 4. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:97,
Pl. XX fig. 5, 109, Pl. XIX. 1768. 5. Knoop Fructologie 2:55. 1771. 6.
Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 153. 1831. 7. Prince Pom. Man. 2:76, 103. 1832. 8.
Kenrick Am. Orch. 267. 1832. 9. Gallesio Pom. Ital. 2: Pl. 1839. 10.
Downing Fr. Trees Am. 283 fig. 112. 1845. 11. Floy-Lindley Guide Orch.
Gard. 298, 383. 1846. 12. Poiteau Pom. Franc. 1:1846. 13. U. S. Pat. Off.
Rpt. XXX. 1854. 14. Ann. Pom. Belge 65, Pl. 1855. 15. Thompson Gard.
Ass’t 520. 1859. 16. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 86. 1862. 17. Pom. France 7:
No. 23. 1871. 18. Mas Le Verger 6:89, fig, 45. 1866-73. 19. Hogg Fruit
Man. 724. 1884. 20. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 431. 1889. 21. Wickson Cal.
Fruits 356 fig. 1891. 22. Guide Prat. 161, 365. 1895. 23. Oregon Sta. Bul.
45:33 fig. 1897.
Bricet 7. Bricette 4, 7, 12. Bricette 7, 19. Brisette 20, 22. Catherine
(Prune de Ste.) 5. Catharinenpflaume 18, 20, 21. De Sainte-Catherine 22.
Gelbe Catharinenpflaume 20. Gelbe Catharinenpflaume 18, 22. Gelbe
Katharinenpflaume 17, 22. Gute Kathe 20. Mirabelle Tardive 7. Petite
Bricette 7. Pruneau de Tours 18. Prune de Sainte Catherine 7, 17, 20.
Prune Sainte Catherine 13. Prune Sainte-Catherine 18. Prune Sainte-
Catherine Jaune 18. Prunier Sainte-Catherine 14. Pruneaux de Tours 13.
St. Catharine 1, 2, 7, 8, 16, 19, 23. Saint Catherine 7. Sainte Catherine 11,
20. Sainte-Catharine 3, 4, 12, 17, 18, 22. Sainte-Catherine de Tours 17,
20, 22. Sainte-Catherine jaune 20, 21. Sainte-Catherine ordinaire 17, 20,
22. St. Katharine 1. Späte Mirabelle 20 incor., 22. Susina Di Santa Caterina
9. Torlo d’Ovo 9. Torlo d’Uovo 9. Yellow St. Catharine 7.
 This plum is grown only on the Pacific Coast in America and even
there is to be found but locally and is now passing from cultivation.
It is, however, one of the well-known sorts in Europe, especially in
France where it is used for prune-making. It appears to be of the
Reine Claude group in which group America has so many plums of
surpassing merit that this one has no place on this side of the
Atlantic. It is included in The Plums of New York largely because of
its historic interest and because there seems to be no complete
description of it made from trees and fruits grown on this continent.
The origin of this old plum is unknown. It was first mentioned by
Quintinye in 1699. Wherever it originated, it is now grown most
extensively in France and is known to commerce as the Prune of
Tours. The people in Northern Italy cultivate it under the name Torlo
d’Ovo (References, 9). The Belgians have used Saint Catherine
incorrectly for the Imperiale Violette (References, 14). In America,
according to Kenrick, it was not uncommon around Boston in 1832
but it evidently did not receive much recognition, for the United
States Patent Office reimported it from France in 1854 and
distributed it in the northeastern part of this country. The American
Pomological Society added it to its fruit catalog list in 1862 and
dropped it in 1899.

Tree large, vigorous, round-topped, usually hardy, productive; branches

sparingly thorny, light ash-brown, smooth except for the few raised
lenticels; branchlets thick, long, with long internodes, greenish-red
changing to dark reddish-brown, marked with scarf-skin, nearly glabrous
throughout the season, with few, conspicuous, large, raised lenticels; leaf-
buds of medium size and length, conical or pointed, broad at the base,
appressed.
Leaves folded upward, oval, one and one-half inches wide, three inches
long; upper surface lightly pubescent, with a grooved midrib; lower
surface silvery-green, pubescent; apex and base acute, margin crenate,
with small, dark glands; petiole three-quarters inch long, thick, with a red
tinge, pubescent, glandless or with from one to three conspicuous,
globose, bright yellow glands variable in size, usually on the stalk.
Season of bloom intermediate, long; flowers appearing after the leaves,
one inch across, white, the buds tinged yellow as they open; borne on