CHAPTER 12

12.4. Direct Shear Stress

The direct shear test is the oldest and simplest form of shear test arrangement. A diagram of the
direct shear test apparatus is shown in Figure 12.4. The test equipment consists of a metal shear box in
which the soil specimen is placed. The soil specimens may be square or circular in plan.

The size of the specimens generally used is about 51 mm x 51 mm or 102 mm x 102 mm (2 in. x
2 in. or 4 in. x 4 in.) across and about 25 mm (1 in.) high. The box is split horizontally into halves.
Normal force on the specimen is applied from the top of the shear box. The normal stress on the
specimens can be as great as 1050 kN/m (150 lb/in.). Shear force is applied by moving one-half of the
box relative to the other to cause failure in the soil specimen. Depending on the equipment, the shear test
can be either stress controlled or strain controlled. In stress-controlled tests, the shear force is applied in
equal increments until the specimen fails. The failure occurs along the plane of split of the shear box.

The volume change of the specimen during the test is obtained in a manner similar to that in the
stress-controlled tests. Figure 12.5 shows a photograph of strain-controlled direct shear test equipment.
Figure 12.6 shows a photograph taken from the top of the direct shear test equipment with the dial gauges
and proving ring in place.
 The advantage of the strain-controlled tests is that in the case of dense sand, peak shear resistance
(that is, at failure) as well as lesser shear resistance (that is, at a point after failure called ultimate strength)
can be observed and plotted. In stress-controlled tests, only the peak shear resistance can be observed and
plotted. Note that the peak shear resistance in stress-controlled tests can be only approximated because
failure occurs at a stress level somewhere between the prefailure load increment and the failure load
increment. Nevertheless, compared with strain-controlled tests, stress controlled tests probably model real
field situations better. For a given test, the normal stress can be calculated as

The resisting shear stress for any shear displacement can be calculated as

Normal Force
σ =Normal Stress=
Cross−Sectional Areaof the Specimen

The resisting shear stress for any shear displacement can be calculated as

Resisting Shear Force

τ =Shear Stress=
Cross−Sectional Area of the Specimen

The following generalizations can be developed from Figure 12.7 regarding the variation of
resisting shear stress with shear displacement: In loose sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear
displacement until a failure shear stress of τf is reached. After that, the shear resistance remains
approximately constant for any further increase in the shear displacement. In dense sand, the resisting
shear stress increases with shear displacement until it reaches a failure stress of τf. This τf is called the
peak shear strength. After failure stress is attained, the resisting shear stress gradually decreases as shear
displacement increases until it finally reaches a constant value called the ultimate shear strength.
 Since the height of the specimen changes during the application of the shear force (as shown in
Figure 12.7), it is obvious that the void ratio of the sand changes (at least in the vicinity of the split of the
shear box). Figure 12.8 shows the nature of variation of the void ratio for loose and dense sands with
shear displacement. At large shear displacement, the void ratios of loose and dense sands become
practically the same, and this is termed the critical void ratio.

It is important to note that, in dry sand, σ = σ’ and c’ = 0

Direct shear tests are repeated on similar specimens at various normal stresses. The normal
stresses and the corresponding values of τf obtained from a number of tests are plotted on a graph from
which the shear strength parameters are determined. Figure 12.9 shows such a plot for tests on dry sand.
 The equation for the average line obtained from experimental results is τ f =σ ' tan −1 φ ' So, the
−1 τf
friction angle can be determined as follows: φ=tan ( )
σ

It is important to note that in situ cemented sands may show a c’ intercept. If the variation of the ultimate
shear strength (τ ) with normal stress is known, it can be plotted as shown in Figure 12.9. The average
❑ τ ult
plot can be expressed as τ ult =σ ' tan φ ' ult or φ ' ult =tan −1 ( )
σ'

12.7. Triaxial Shear Test

The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for determining shear strength
parameters. It is used widely for research and conventional testing. A diagram of the triaxial test layout is
shown in Figure 12.19. In this test, a soil specimen about 36 mm (1.4 in.) in diameter and 76 mm (3 in.)
long generally is used. The specimen is encased by a thin rubber membrane and placed inside a plastic
cylindrical chamber that usually is filled with water or glycerine. The specimen is subjected to a confining
pressure by compression of the fluid in the chamber. (Note: Air is sometimes used as a compression
medium.) To cause shear failure in the specimen, one must apply axial stress through a vertical loading
ram (sometimes called deviator stress). This stress can be applied in one of two ways:

1. Application of dead weights or hydraulic pressure in equal increments until the specimen fails.
(Axial deformation of the specimen resulting from the load applied through the ram is measured
by a dial gauge.)
2. Application of axial deformation at a constant rate by means of a geared or hydraulic loading
press. This is a strain-controlled test.

Three Standard types of Triaxial test are follows;

 1. Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)
2. Consolidated-undrained test (CU test)
3. Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

12.8. Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test

The Consolidated-Drained (CD) Triaxial Test is a fundamental laboratory procedure in

geotechnical engineering used to study the behavior of saturated soils under drained conditions. The test
begins by placing a saturated soil specimen in a triaxial cell and applying an all-around confining pressure
(σ 3) through the compression of the chamber fluid. If drainage is prevented during this phase, the applied
confining pressure causes an increase in pore water pressure ( u), which can be quantified using
Δu
Skempton's pore pressure parameter ( B). This parameter is expressed as B= , where Δ u is the
Δσ3
change in pore water pressure and Δ σ 3 is the change in confining pressure. For fully saturated soft soils,
B is approximately 1, whereas for stiff soils, it is less than 1. Theoretical values of B different soils at full
saturation have been documented, such as those by Black and Lee (1973).

In the next phase, the drainage connection is opened, allowing excess pore water pressure to
dissipate fully (u→0) and enabling the soil specimen to consolidate. During consolidation, the volume
of the specimen decreases as water drains out, and this volume change ( Δ V ) is measured by recording
the amount of water expelled.

Following consolidation, deviator stress ( Δ σ d❑ ) is applied axially to the specimen at a slow rate,
ensuring that any pore water pressure generated during loading dissipates immediately. The drainage
connection remains open throughout this phase, maintaining a condition where Δ u=0 . The deviator
stress is increased gradually until the specimen reaches failure.

The CD test is characterized by its drained conditions, where pore water is allowed to escape
during both the consolidation and shearing phases. This ensures that effective stress changes can be
accurately measured, as no excess pore water pressure remains in the soil. The test is primarily used to
determine the drained shear strength parameters ( c '∧ϕ ' ) of soils, which are crucial for analyzing long-
term stability in scenarios like embankment construction or foundation performance under slow-loading
conditions. By simulating these conditions, the CD test provides valuable insights into the long-term
drained behavior of soils, making it an indispensable tool in geotechnical engineering.

Figure 12.21 illustrates the behavior of soils during the Consolidated-Drained (CD) Triaxial Test,
focusing on stress-strain relationships and volume changes. Loose sand and normally consolidated clay
exhibit gradual increases in deviator stress without a peak, indicating ductile behavior, and undergo
consistent volume reduction under load. In contrast, dense sand and overconsolidated clay display a peak
deviator stress followed by strain softening, reflecting brittle failure. These soils initially compress but
later expand due to dilatancy during shearing. The figure highlights the differences in mechanical
responses between loose and dense soils and between normally consolidated and overconsolidated
conditions, providing critical insights for geotechnical applications.

The stress-strain behavior of soils under deviator stress is illustrated in Figures 12.21b and 12.21c
for loose sand, normally consolidated clay, dense sand, and overconsolidated clay. Volume changes due
to deviator stress application are depicted in Figures 12.21d and 12.21e. During the CD test, pore water
pressure is fully dissipated, meaning the total and effective stresses are equal. The total and effective
❑ ❑
confining stress is σ 3=σ ' 3 , and the total and effective axial stress at failure is σ 1=σ ' 1 . Multiple tests
❑ ❑
with varying confining pressures allow the determination of the major ( σ ' 1 ) and minor (σ ' 3 ) principal
stresses at failure. Using these, Mohr’s circles can be drawn, and failure envelopes can be established, as
shown in Figure 12.22 for sand and normally consolidated clay. The point of tangency between a Mohr’s
circle and the failure envelope represents the normal and shear stresses on the failure plane. For normally
consolidated clay, the relationship between the shear strength and the effective stress is expressed as
τ
sin ϕ '= , where σ ' is the effective stress friction angle.
σ ' n'
12.9. Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test

The consolidated-undrained triaxial test or just the CU test, is one of the types of soil testing used to
determine the strength and stress-strain behavior of soils. It is used to assess the shear strength of soils
under controlled drainage and loading conditions. It evaluates the effective stress parameters: all-around
chamber fluid pressure, 𝜎3, and angle of internal friction.

There are two phases during this test: Consolidation and Shearing Phase. In the first phase, the
soil specimen is subjected to an all-around chamber fluid pressure (𝜎3) without allowing drainage to
occur. In the Second phase, after the pore water pressure (Δ ud) generated by the application of confining
pressure is dissipated, the deviator stress (Δ𝜎d) on the test sample is increased to induce shear failure.

During this test, Δud & Δ𝜎d, are constantly measured. The increase in Δ ud can be expressed in a
nondimensional formula:

Where = Skempton’s pore pressure parameter.

Two tests on similar soil specimens with varying confining pressures have been conducted to determine
the shear strength parameters. Figure 12.27 shows the total and effective stress Mohr’s circles at failure
obtained from consolidated-undrained triaxial tests in sand and normally consolidated clay. Note that A
and B are two total stress Mohr’s circles obtained from two tests. C and D are the effective stress Mohr’s
circles corresponding to total stress circles A and B, respectively. The diameters of circles A and C are
the same; similarly, the diameters of circles B and D are the same.

In Figure 12.27, the total stress failure envelope can be obtained by drawing a line that touches all the
total stress Mohr’s circles. For sand and normally consolidated clays, this will be approximately a straight
line passing through the origin and may be expressed by the equation

Where: 𝜎 = total stress

Φ = angle that the total stress failure envelope makes with the normal axis, also known as
the “consolidated-undrained angle of shearing resistance”

12.10. Unconsolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test

In an Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) triaxial test, drainage from the soil specimen is not allowed at any
stage, including during the application of chamber confining pressure and during shearing caused by the
deviator stress. This setup allows the test to be conducted quickly. As chamber pressure is applied, the
pore water pressure within the soil increases, and an additional increase in pore water pressure occurs
when the deviator stress is applied. Therefore, the total pore water pressure at any stage is the sum of
these increases.
The Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) triaxial test is typically performed on fully saturated clay
specimens. An important strength characteristic of cohesive soils is that the additional axial stress at
failure is almost constant, regardless of the chamber confining pressure. This behavior is represented by a
horizontal failure envelope for the total stress Mohr's circles, known as a ϕ=0 condition.

The reason for the consistent additional axial stress at failure, regardless of the confining pressure, is
explained using the behavior of a clay specimen. If a clay specimen is consolidated under a chamber
pressure and then sheared to failure without drainage, the total stress conditions at failure are illustrated
by a Mohr’s circle. At failure, the pore pressure increase is, and the major and minor principal effective
stresses can be determined accordingly.
Consider a second clay specimen that is consolidated under a chamber pressure with an initial pore
pressure of zero. If the chamber pressure is increased without allowing drainage, the pore water pressure
rises by, and for saturated soils under isotropic stress, this increase equals the total stress increase, so.
Consequently, the effective confining pressure remains the same as it was for the first specimen before
deviator stress was applied. Therefore, when this second specimen is sheared to failure by increasing the
axial stress, it will fail at the same deviator stress as the first specimen. The total stress Mohr’s circle at
failure is represented as circle R, and the additional pore pressure increase from the deviator stress is.

The effective stress Mohr’s circle for the second clay specimen remains the same as circle Q because soil
strength depends on effective stress. The diameters of Mohr’s circles P, Q, and R are identical, indicating
consistent stress conditions. Regardless of the chosen value for testing the second specimen, the deviator
stress needed to cause failure remains unchanged, provided the soil is fully saturated and undrained
throughout the test.
12.11 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay

The unconfined compression test is a specific type of unconsolidated-undrained test frequently used for
testing clay specimens. In this test, the confining pressure (σ3) is set to zero, and an axial load is quickly
applied to the specimen to induce failure. At the point of failure, the total minor principal stress is zero,
while the total major principal stress is σ1 (Figure 12.33).

Since the undrained shear strength remains unaffected by the confining pressure when the soil is fully
saturated and undrained, we can conclude

Where qu represents the unconfined compressive strength. Table 12.4 provides approximate clay
consistencies based on their unconfined compressive strength.
Figure 12.34 shows a photograph of the equipment used for the unconfined compression test. Figures
12.35 and 12.36 display two types of specimen failure at the end of the test: one by shear and the other by
bulging. Theoretically, for similar saturated clay specimens, unconfined compression tests and
unconsolidated-undrained triaxial tests should produce the same cu values. However, in practice,
unconfined compression tests on saturated clays tend to yield slightly lower cuc values compared to those
from unconsolidated-undrained tests.