TOPIC ONE:

INTRODUCTION
By the end of this chapter the students should be able to:
1) State a guiding definition of comparative education

2) Highlight the rationale for studying comparative education by educational

practitioners in your country.

3) Identify some of the challenges that comparative educationist are faced with in
their quest in using the information from other countries in the 21st century.

1. DEFINATION: COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION is a fully established academic field of study that

examines education in one country (or group of countries) by using data and insights
drawn from the practices and situation in another country, or countries.

Programs and courses in comparative education are offered in many universities

throughout the world, and relevant studies are regularly published in scholarly journals
such asComparative Education ,International Review of Education ,International Journal
of Educational Development , and Comparative Education Review. The field of
comparative education is supported by many projects associated with UNESCO and the
national education ministries of various nations.

Comparative education has been defined in different ways by various authors but what
is common in the definitions is the emphasis on the use of data from another
educational system. This has been necessitated by susceptibility of this discipline to
time and place.
GETAO (1996) in his book defined the discipline as the study of educational systems in
which one seeks to understand the similarities and differences among educational
systems.
NOAH AND ECKSTEIN (1969) defined comparative education as follows: Comparative
education is potentially more than a congeries of data and perspectives from social

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science applied to education in different countries. Neither the topic of education nor
the cross-national dimension is central to any of the social sciences; nor are the social
science concerns and the cross-national dimensioning central to the works of
educators.
NICHOLUS HONS (1958)
Comparative education is a step-by-step study of different and often contrasting
education systems with a view of understanding their differences and similarities.
E.H EPSTEIN (1995)
A field of study that applies historical, philosophical, and social science theories and
methods to international problems in education.
VERNON MALLINSON (1975)
An analytical study of factors that influence the development of education in historical
and comparative, perspectives with the aim of identifying the principles upon which
solutions to education problems are based.
FRASER & BRICKMAN (1968)
The analysis of education systems and problems of social, political, economic, cultural,
ideological and other contents in order to understand the similarities and differences in
various countries.
GAKUNGA (2008)
A discipline through which one makes comparison of each system gross national
boundaries by examining in details, the structure, curriculum administration, financing
and participation with the aim of understanding the factors and the forces that account
for differences and similarities in order to institute education reforms.

For over the past five decades, comparative education theorists have continued to
define and redefine the field of comparative education and speculate about its future
viability (Wolhuter et.al. 2011). As the range of definitions demonstrates, the field is
diverse, fluid, and responsive to global shifts and needs. It also holds a precarious
position at universities worldwide. From the foregoing literature it is evident that
comparative education does not have one agreed definition. In this view one intends to
find out the factors that are influencing particular education systems to be the way they

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are. This would involve analysis of the forces that make for resemblances and
differences in a particular education system.
The scope of comparative education involves the study of educational system or
systems. This would involve aspects of structure, organization, curriculum, financing,
administration and educational problems such as repetition, dropout, access,
urbanization and participation of various groups in education.

2. PURPOSE OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

There are various reasons why comparative education should be studied by prospective
teachers and reformers of education in any country of the world. The reasons are:
Description The most basic utility of comparative education is to describe education
systems/learning communities, within their social context, in order to satisfy the
yearning for knowledge which is part of human nature.
Evaluation Comparative education serves the purpose of evaluating education
systems: the own education system as well as universal evaluation of education
systems. In the current age of competitive globalised world, the evaluation of the
domestic education projects assumes even bigger importance-hence the proliferation
of studies such as the PISA (International Programme for the Assessment of Student
Achievement) and IEA (International Educational Assessment) studies, and the
international ranking of the universities. The universal evaluation entails how well the
education systems of the world rise up to the challenges of the twenty first century
world as well as an estimation of the limits and possibilities of the societal effects of
education.

Intellectual Comparative education is an intellectual activity that scholars can pursue

to the highest level possible in the academic ladder. They can pursue it in their masters
and doctoral programmes. An individual can do this in order to enhance his/her
intellectual capacity concerning other systems of education with the purpose of
enlightenment. This knowledge would help the individual to understand their education
system better and that of others with the intention of improving and solving problem in
their own system. Knowledge for its own sake is the sole ground upon which

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comparative education need to make a stand in order to merit inclusion among other
academic fields.

Planning Modern societies have come to appreciate the importance of planning.

Various problems that are associated with over-population, under production, diseases,
economic non-viability, industrialization and social ills can be tackled through planning.
Planning requires careful formulation of objectives, establishment of priorities and the
identification of the means to achieve those objectives. Since an educational policy
affects millions of people, rational decisions need to be made so that the policy can
achieve the desired results. Comparative education is also pursued to design a new
education system, to plan education, and to reform education systems (Stein and
Wolhuter 2010). In reforming or improving the education system or in grappling with an
educational issue, challenge or problem, one country could benefit from the experience
of other countries that once had faced the same problem, could reveal the full extent
and implication of the problem and possible contributory causes; and could also
suggest possible solutions to the problem. This call for proper planning that
comparative education can provide a helping hand.
Activity
1. Using your own words define the words comparative education.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of prospective teachers studying
comparative education

3. AIMS OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

1. To provide a picture or profile of education systems in various countries or
regions
2. To come up with a global description and classification of education in various
parts of the world
3. To determine the relations and aspects in education and society eg.
i) How does family size affect education?
ii) How does social status affect education?
iii) What are the motivations of different social classes to participate in

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education?
4. To distinguish the fundamental elements of each persistence and relate them to
the Philosophical laws.
5. To facilitate practical reforms and planned development of the school system
and the entire education system.
6. To enable a greater understanding of the wider education process.
7. To promote the spirit of international understanding and cooperation among
those who study it by promoting friendship and understanding other people’s point of
view and appreciating their culture.

4. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION-(Reasons).

1. To enhance one’s own understanding

Comparative education enables us to understand our own education system in better
way by knowing its development routes and origin routes, how it has been influenced by
others to be what it is today.

2. To generate education concept

Comparative education enables us to make general statements about how education
develops, test how universally existing educational theories are applicable in education.

3. To know other people

Through comparative education one develops a reservoir of knowledge which satisfies
one’s intellectual curiosity besides enhancing one’s intellectual enlightenment. This
broadens ones thinking especially when dealing with education issues and problems.

4. Improvement of education at home

By studying other systems of education, we get to develop a better perspective of our

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own education system. Through comparative education we discover which reforms are
desirable and possible and how we can implement them in order to improve our own.
We learn the success to borrow and the failures to avoid.
5. To make people practical
We study comparative education in order to get exposure to knowledge in other
disciplines in humanities and social sciences.
Education at this level is regarded as a consumer good- it must have the practical
aspect for utility. eg ability to read and write. The task of making education practical is
the duty of the government and educationists.

6. To learn the true nature of the society

By studying schools in other countries, comparative education opens the window
through which we understand the society. The school reflects what the society looks
like.
Michael Saddler (1900)
“In studying foreign systems of education, we shouldn’t forget that the things outside
the school matter even more than the things inside the school and they oftenly govern
and interpret the things inside the school”

7. Contribute to international understanding and good will.

Comparative education fosters international understanding, peace and cooperation
among the nations of the world.
Discovering and appreciating what exists elsewhere replaces national pride and
prejudice with objective judgment which facilitates international harmony.

8. Humanitarian reasons
It is believed that the contemporary world is characterized by a big quest for knowledge,
peace. Equality, equity, and better life.
The concern therefore is how one can provide these qualities.
Comparative education satisfies our natural desire to learn more about the origin and
development of education in various countries in regard to these humanitarian issues.

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9. Problem saving
All countries face education problems that require solutions
Comparative education helps us to understand different and familiarities between our
own education system and others.
Hence one is able to appreciate that countries develop education systems in order to
serve their own national objectives, interests, values and aspirations based on their
unique context and solves the problems of facing it.

10. International standards

In order to achieve international standards in education, comparative education makes
us aware of the international friends in education and guides countries on how to give
their citizens a universally conscious and relevant education that fits in the global village
today.

11. Expose people to innovations

Today people are using various media to conduct education activities e.g., E-learning,
TV, Radio etc.
By studying other education systems, one learns how to use those medias and their
benefits. This helps to bring necessary reforms in one’s own education system.

12. Understand the economic implication of education

The economic theory shows that there is a correlation between education and
improvements in the economy. Comparative education helps us to examine whether
this is true.

TOPIC TWO
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
By the end of this chapter the students should be able to:
a) Highlight the main phases through which comparative education has gone
through in its development.

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 b) Describe the main characteristic activities of each of the identified phase.
c) Apply the knowledge obtained in each phase to the current day set up in their
country.
Phases in the development of comparative education
The development of comparative education can be studied in seven major phases or
stages that are based on the major characteristic activities. These phases are:
(i) The phase of traveller’s tale (from antiquity to1817)
(ii) The phase of pioneers (From 1817-1900) (Selective borrowing)
(iii) The phase of philosophers (Concern for cultural context) from 1900 to
end of World War two in 1945.
(iv) The phase of social science perspective (From end of World War two to
present
 It is important to note that the phases used here to signify changes in the
historical development of the discipline are retrospective [related to the past] and
imposed ones.

 They should not be seen as precise or sudden turning points. The changes were
gradual. Significantly, each phase is only for the purpose of organizing information
because in reality there are no such distinct phases.

 This is because towards the end of each phase, for example, the next phase has
already evident in the work of prospective observer. At the same time, entry into a new
phase does not mean a complete break with the earlier one.

1. THE PHASE OF TRAVELLERS’ TALE (FROM ANTIQUITY TO1817)

This period cover time from antiquity to around 1817 A.D. when Marc Antoinne Jullien
De Paris published his famous work “Plan and preliminary views for work in
Comparative Education”. Before this time writings on foreign education systems were
mere descriptions of accounts of foreign education systems by individuals who had
opportunities for foreign travels.
Visitations to other countries-whether for purpose of commerce, conversations,
curiosity or conflict go back to ancient history of mankind? From one point of view,
everyone who had interest in the upbringing of children or in education, tended to
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enquire into what went on in those communities they visited. The writings by the early
writers on comparative education drew examples fr upom the societies other than their
own.
These travellers involved:
two
XENOPHONE (C430-355B.C.)
He was a Greek, described the training of Persian youths for citizenship and leadership.
He compared the aims and structure of Persian and Greek education systems
especially Sparta, which he admired and wished Athens, would copy. He commented on
the relationship between education and social occupation status in the countries. He
also gave a detailed account of the education of the Persians in his bibliography of King
Cyrus.

PLATO
In his two books, The Republic and The Law -he compared systems of education in
Sparta and Athens. He urged that the Athenians education system should borrow from
the Spartan education system in aspects of discipline.

CICERO 106-43BC
- Made comparison between Greek and Roman education
- He favored state-controlled education system as opposed to a family centered system.
- He also claimed that Greece was far better than every other in the practice of
eloquence.

MARCO POLO (13TH CENTURY)

- Reported about Chinese education system
- Observed that there were no quarrels in China schools that honesty and faithfulness
were emphasized
- Observed that men and women lived together peacefully which he attributed to the
education system.
- However, in the 19th century the Chinese education system contributed to the corrupt

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government system breaking of laws and cruelty to prisoners

Relevance to present day theory and practice of education

1. Features of travellers’ tales still remain with us in the work of journalism and
education trips. Indeed, their reports are informal getting to know the experiences of
other societies.
2. They form the first step to understanding education in other countries.
3. Stories given on return from visits to other countries add flavour to our teaching in
schools.
4. Eyewitness accounts are still deemed as valuable in research work.
5. Reading of novels and stories about other countries are all-commendable in our
present-day educational practices.

2. PHASE OF SELECTIVE EDUCATION BORROWING (PIONEERS)

This period was geared towards the development of methodology or systematic rules to
be followed in studying of comparative education. It was a drive to learn lessons from
foreign education systems for the purpose of borrowing ideas. This period is
considered as the starting point of comparative education.
It is associated with Marie Antoinne Julien De Paris workPlan and Preliminary Views for
Work of Comparative Education .

Apart from the increase in the incidence of trips to other countries in search of
improvement for home systems of education, the 19th century was noteworthy for the
establishment of national agencies for the collection and dissemination of information
about systems of education. For example, the United States Office of Education (1867)
the Musee Pedagogue in Paris (1879) and the Office of Special Inquiries and Report in
London (1895). There were various contributors who are accredited to this phase. They
involved Marc Antoinne Jullien De Paris, Victor Cousin, Horace Mann, Henry Bernard,
Matthew Arnold, K.D. Olshansky and Peter the Great.

Scholars attributed to this phase

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i) VICTOR COUSIN (1792-1867)
-Lived in France at the time when Europe was in chaos after the Napoleonic wars.
-Was a professor of philosophy and lead of France’s normal school?
-There was need to bring reform to France after the wars.
-He visited Prussia (Germany) and investigated its education system-aim of finding out
areas of relevance for the reform of France education
- In 1813 he wrote a report and recommended selective education borrowing from
Prussian experience
-He believed in borrowing whatever is appropriate and relevant to owns education
system.

ii) MATTHEW ARNOLD (1822-1888)

-From England
-He toured Europe continent severally
-Advocated for an expansion of state activities in education from his experience in
Europe
-Recommended that England should borrow what the French and other countries in the
Europe continent were doing
-Thought this would better the English system of education
-He advocated borrowing positive points /aspects of education system.
-However, he cautioned on the dangers of making comparisons based on analysis of
inadequate statistical data.

iii) MARC ANTOINE JULIAN DE PARIS (1775-1848)

-Born in Paris 1775-was a scholar
-Lived during the time of Napoleon and Napoleonic wars.
-During his travels he noticed that deterioration of the society, social and political
imbalances.
-He saw education as a provider of solution to those problems and a positive science
which would be used to improve the French society through systematic and vigorous
approaches of comparative analysis.

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- In 1984 he published a book” Plan and preliminary views of work in comparative
education.
-Gave a comprehensive scheme for a comparative study of foreign systems of
education.
-He proposed the establishment of education commission to collect and distribute
information among member education states
Others: Horrace Mann (1796-1859)
Henry Barnard (1871-1900)
K.D Vshinsky (1824-1870)

Relevance of the selective borrowing phase to present day education theory and
practice
- Despite the above shortcomings this phase is relevant to present day theory and
practice of education. First, they were mainly descriptive and utilitarian in purpose.
- Descriptive studies are features that are still relevant in education today. We also
endeavour to make education more utilitarian.
- Second, we still have visits to other countries or institutions, for the purpose of
observing what may be of value to be brought back and used at home.
- Lastly, there is the importance of learning from experience of others in order to
improve institutions in our own systems of education.

3. THE PHASE OF CONCERN FOR CULTURAL CONTEXT: FROM 1900 TO THE END OF
SECOND WORLD WAR-1945

The publication in 1900 of short essays by Michael Sandler (1861-1943) ushered in new
phase of comparative studies in education. Although intimations of this approach may
be discerned in the work of some earlier writer notably Matthew Arnold in England,
Wilhelm Dilthey in Germany, William T.Harris in USA and P.E.Levasseur in France, from
this point on, new prospects for comparative education were revealed that were more
comprehensive, more analytical and that had greater explanatory potential.
This phase was motivated by the need to move from the encyclopaedic, descriptive and

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sometimes uncritical approach of the earlier phases to a more analytical approach. The
trend towards analytical studies of the interrelationship between education and society
became more generally recognized. There grew a concern to understand factors, which
helped to shape systems of education.

The problem for comparativists was no longer one of selective borrowing, but of
predicting the likely success of educational transplant through knowledge of cultural
context in both the donor and recipient countries. Most comparativists have to account
for the features existing in systems of education in terms of the forces and factors that
shaped them.
The individuals who made substantive contributions to the development of comparative
education during this phase were mainly philosophers, historians and sociologists.
Some of the individuals to be considered are:

Scholars during this face

i) MICHAEL SADDLER (1886-1943)
-From England
-Noted that in studying foreign systems of education we should not forget that “ The
things outside the school matter even more than the things inside the school and in
most cases they actually govern and interpret the things inside the school”.
-Education and society are closely related and schools most be studied in the context of
the society.
-Further he stated that comparisons can’t be made on statistics only but that the social
political, economic and other factors should be looked into as well.
-He cautioned the danger of piece meal education borrowing while maintaining the
importance of the schools cultural context.
-He used sociological and historical data to explain trends in education.

ii) WILLIAM TORREY(1885-1905)

-From America
-He cautioned the use of statistics in education as an aspect of education comparison

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particularly statistics of foreign systems of education.
-Argued that each state puts its own stamp on its education system
-Argued that comparative studies could reveal universal relations between education
and society.
-A nations system of education is strongly affected by its culture.
-Education breaks down the caste system and also brings democracy in society.
-It is not possible to borrow from another system easily because what may work in one
social situation may not be suitable for another.

iii) ISAAC KANDEL (1881-1965)

-From America
-His main concern was on the forces and factors which shaped and accounted for the
existing system offered.
-He sought to find out why events occurred, when they did not occur and which
characteristics occurred in the place they did.
-Argued that each nation has a character which is a result of history and philosophy.
-Emphasized that the character of the school can only be understood through
understanding the countries national character.
-Observed that broad social movements and political wars across national boundaries
affect national education systems differently.
-He didn’t believe in borrowing because of national character which is unique.

iv) NICHOLUS HANS

Relevance of cultural context to present day theory and practice of education
 The phase emphasized the need to understand features in systems of education in
terms of factors and forces which shape these education systems.
 This process doesn’t help in establishing similarities and differences in systems of
education but offers explanation to why things are as they are.
 The motivation and activities of this phase have relevance to the theory and practice
of education today.

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4. SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE: FROM THE END OF WORLD WAR TWO IN 1945 TO
PRESENT

-This is the period that is presumed to have just started after the 2nd world war.
-Two main aspects stand out in this phase
1. The establishment of mews and infinite national and international agencies that are
involved in educational enquiry, planning and programme implementation
2. Emergency of comparative educationists who see the field as most productive in the
future in terms of more involvement in international projects in education that is
potentially of a reformative kind.
- During this phase, recognition and increased activity in the study and teaching of
comparative education as a discipline in colleges and universities.

Scholars during this phase

i) VERNOM MALLINSON
-From Britain
-Uses the concept of national character as a means of explaining the similarities and
differences that exist in systems of education.
-In 1957-published a book “An introduction to the study of comparative education” He
explains the concept of national character and how it determines the kind of education
that a country follows.
-In this concept of national character, he shows how differences between education
systems came about.

ii) GEORGE Z.F BEREDY (1920-1983)

-An American professor of comparative education at the teacher’s college, Columbia
University in New York.
-In 1964 he published a book “Comparative methods in education”
-In this book he stated clearly his beliefs about the purposes that comparative
education should seek to achieve and the methods it should follow.

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-He is remembered for “Systematic area studies Approach” in comparative education he
popularized as a scholar.

iii) BRIAN HOLMES

-From England
-A professor of comparative education and worked at the University of London Institute
of education
-His major contribution was in the search for a comparative education methodology.
-He popularized the “problem solving Approaches” as a methodology in comparative
education research.
-He published two books
1. 1965-“Problems in education”: A comparative Approach
2.1981-“Comparative education: some consideration of methods”
-Both books reflect his major interest in the methodology of comparative education.
iv) JOSEPH A.LAUWERYS-Britain
v) EDNOND J. KING-England
vi) HARLOD & NOAH& MAX ECKSTEIN

SALIENT FEATURES DURING THE PHASE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE.

Major characteristics of this phase:
1. An explosion of knowledge- the challenge of this is how this knowledge ought to be
disseminated. This would imply that teachers have to acquire new roles
2. Drive for knowledge world wide- a common phenomenon where everybody
everywhere wants education both in the developed and developing world.
3. Drive for liberty-through liberation struggles both political and ideological. Education
has been at the centre of these struggles.
4. Rapid urbanization and industrialization which has greatly impacted on education.
5. Population explosion-this has led to population related problems. For example, in
Kenya over 50% of the population is of school going-age. This means that their
education and upkeep has to be catered for by a very small working population.
6. Increasing concern for quality education. There has been need to emphasis on

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 education that is relevant to the life needs of the students and the society they are to
serve. Comparative educationists have been called upon by international agencies to
help solve the myriad educational challenges.
7. Comparative education as an academic discipline has become part of the
development of specialized interdisciplinary fields of study
8. The world power shifts. After the two world wars, there was an accelerated shift of
world power from the Great Britain to the U.S.A
9. Communism and Capitalism took center stage and the world was divided
accordingly. This had a big effect on national systems of education.
10. With the collapse of communism in the mid 1980s the power structure in the world
changed. The new world order has the U.S.A in a steering position
11. Arising from the cold war. There was a great concern for scientific and technological
development especially after the launch of the Sputnik in1957 by Russia.
12. A major issue on the methodology in comparative education emerged and
researchers and scholars like Beredy, Holmes and Arnold Noah were engaged in
active debate on this.

Relevance of this phase to present day theory and practice in education

 This phase has been a major provider of information, data and advice in the
process of reconstruction for peace through education
 Comparative educationists have also been motivated to work with the personnel
in systems of education and international organizations with the view of
providing information and other relevant data and advice as may be required.
 Comparative educationists have been giving sound advice to various states and
international societies for educational reforms.

Since the end of World War two in 1945 interest and activity in comparative education
have developed dramatically and especially in two main respects.
Getao (1996) has enumerated that the following forces characterize the contemporary
era:

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 1) Explosion of knowledge especially in science and technology.
2) Drive for more knowledge and globalization.
3) Drive for liberty with the proclamation of human rights by UNESCO
in 1948.
4) Urbanization as a result of industrialization.
5) Population explosion due to development of medical science where
fifty per cent of the population is under twenty years.
6) Drive for the reconstruction of peace to facilitate material, moral
and spiritual reconstruction. This is to help in removing suspicion
and distrust among nations and promote good will and cooperation
among them.
The outcome of the above forces has been greatly noticed in:
a) Greater efforts to democratize education to make it available to all as a way
of ensuring a reasonable good life.
b) Diversification of education to serve and suit diversified societies and
communities.
c) Greater concern and effort to provide quality education for the purpose of
progress.
d) Creation of international organizations like UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO, UNEP in
order to promote human welfare, reconstruction of peace, democratization,
diversification and improvement of education and management of knowledge.

REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR REVISION

1) Name the four phases in the development of comparative education

2) Describe the background conditions that led to the development of

each phase.

3) Describe the motivation and contributions of individuals in each case

of the four phases

4) Analyze the relevance of each of the four phases to the theory and
practice of List the main steps that can be used in discussing the

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 development of comparative education

5) Discuss the features of selective borrowing education today.

TOPIC THREE
METHODOLOGY IN COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
By the end of this chapter the students should be able to:
a) Identify the methodologies that have been applied in
comparative education
b) Apply at least one of the methodologies in solving a particular
problem in education sector.
Methodology in Comparative Education has been discussed by Comparative
Educationists from the time the discipline was established. Like other social science,
comparative education has been studied at different stages of its development with
different methodologies.

The following are the methods that have been used in studying of comparative
education and they tend to correspond with the particular stage of development of this
discipline:

(I) Traditional Method

(i) Descriptive Method
(ii) Selective education borrowing

(II) Social Science Methodology

(i) Historical approach
(ii) Sociological approach
(iii) Philosophical approach
(III) Convectional methods
- Systematic study area

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 - Problem solving approach

(I) Traditional methods

(a) Descriptive method
From the early times of the discipline development the most noticeable aspect was that
of description only. This method had neither any methodology nor system nor details to
the roots of the discipline.

(b) Selective Education Borrowing

The methods involve the Comparison of descriptive data inform of legislative details,
statistics and description which form the basis of comparison. Pioneers in the
discipline used this method in the pioneer phase of comparative education.
Their main aim was to facilitate transplantation of education system and to promote
understanding among nations through sharing of educational information among them.
This approach calls for the task of educational fact-finding and enlightenment through
abstracting educational statistics and presenting them in charts for comparison- e.g.
comparison of the organizations and methods of instructions. The approach requires
giving of details of other states and foreign systems of education. Some of the
materials to be collected may be historical and descriptive.
Though their reports now focused sharply upon the schools, characteristics associated
with traveller’s tales persisted; many of the reports took the form of encyclopaedic
descriptions of foreign system, perhaps enlightened here and there with anecdotes, but
rarely explanatory.
- Of necessity objectivity and detachment were lacking. These educational emissaries
committed as they were, to the cause of education in their own countries, they mostly
saw and reported from abroad merely what they judged would advance their domestic
enterprises at home.

(II) SOCIAL SCIENCE METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

Under this approach several methods linked to the various social science disciplines
have been brought forth. The development of social and behavioural science vastly

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expanded options for carrying out educational research.
Various scholars from the different disciplines have argued in favour of their area of
specialization being used in comparative education.
The vast methods available were found applicable to the study of Comparative
Education. The result of this linkage to social science meant that trends in parents’
discipline shaped comparative education.

STEPS/PROCEDURES TO BE FOLOWED
1. Problem identification
2. Development of functional hypothesis/research questions
3. Definition of concepts (operational terms)
4. Selection of cases to be studied e.g. performance in a specific area
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Data interpretation
8. Conclusions and recommendations

The following are the methods that fall under this approach:
(a) Historical method
This method involves the search for cause and effects. It pursues antecedent causes of
educational policy. In the use of this method it is assumed that the practice, device,
methods, organizations- all details which go to make up an educational system cannot
be transferred intact from one environment to another.
STEPS
The following are the steps that could be followed when using the historical method
in collection of data for comparative education:
1) Study each national system separately in its historical settings and its close
connection with the development of national character and culture.
2) Collect data of various systems across national border, bearing in mind the
importance of being aware of the differences in terminology, classification and
methods of gathering the data between countries

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 3) Analyses the factors or the forces historically responsible for creating
differences between the educational systems. The factors need to be classified
into the following manner:
a) Natural factor
- Race
- Language
- Environment
b) Religious factors
- Catholicism
- Anglicanism
- Puritanism
- Muslim
c) Social factors
- Humanism
- Nationalism
- Socialism
-
b) Sociological/Analytical explicative
In the sociological method the educational problems are studied in a social context.
This is done with the belief that the educational system of a country is conditioned by
its social, cultural, economic, political and religious situations. Hence the educational
problems of a country have their origin in some social problems and they do not exist by
themselves, as there is a close relationship between education and society. The
sociological methods of the study of comparative education does not emphasize only
the past causative factors, but also those social and cultural aspects which may be
responsible for the problem.

STEPS TO FOLLOW
The following are the steps that could be followed when using sociological method of
data collection:
i) Identification and collecting things of practical value that can be learnt

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 from the study of foreign systems of education.
ii) Analysis of the extent to which things outside the schools may
influence the things inside the school, an analysis of hoe school
teaching staff, or classes of pupils relate themselves to the system
and how they may be inextricably connected with the life of the nation
iii) Investigations of how Comparative Education studies, as an
instrument of reform, may also be an agency for promoting
international understanding. Since the collection of information of a
comparative kind would make it necessary for teachers. For example,
there should be a system of our own country, Kenya. This ought to
give the clues to the most valuable lessons, which can be drawn from,
the educational system of another country. We have to show concern
for national background in our enquiries on education of the country
studied. Lastly there is need to be aware that educational reform and
innovation would have wide social implications.
iv) Look for the means of prediction, or theories, which would enable us to
anticipate events. Prediction as a purpose implies a stress on
sociological dimension in addition to the historical perspective of the
pioneers.

(iii) Philosophical Analysis

In using this technique, the main assumption is that a process of simplication would
succeed in diminishing the number of diverse events to be considered.

Explanation of any education system is connected with the philosophy of that country.
The national styles of philosophy or different styles of arguing for example America
pragmatism or French nationalism can help in explaining the education system found in
a particular country.

(III) CONVECTIONAL METHODS

They are contemporary attempts to systematize methodology in Comparative

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Education research. These methods include:
i) The Systematic area study approach (George E. Beredy)
ii) Problem solving approach (Brian Holmes)

i) THE SYSTEMATIC AREA STUDIES APPROACH (BEREDY G. Z.F)

Assumptions
1. It is possible to make an analyzed survey of systems of education in other countries.
The systems of are analyzed by examining the similarities and differences and
making conclusions and recommendations.
2. Since the comparative studies have to make sense out of familiarities and
differences among education systems then its possible to seek assistance from
other fields of study e.g. Philosophy, sociology history and others
3. Education factors are so enmeshed in a matrix at other social sciences that
comparative education can’t be studied in isolation. Need for analysis of other fields.

PROCEDURE/STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED
Beredy ZF, suggested the following;
1. Identification of the problem
-Involves clearly describing the problem from the eye witness accounts, observation or
reading available literature to identify the research gap
-Statement of the problem-clear and specific
2. Data collection
-Can be collected through observation/interviews, questionnaires and other means fit
for the study.
-Collect accurate and relevant data
-Set questionnaires as per your research objectives and research questions
-Research questions should match the research objectives.
3. Data interpretation/data analysis
-Involves giving explanations of the way things are in each country
-The reasons should be political, cultural, religious, historical or social
-Show the similarities and differences

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4. Juxtaposition of interpreted data
It involves putting information into groups/categories according to features that can be
compared and those that can’t be compared.
The similarities and differences are clearly seen e.g. histograms, line graphs, frequency
tables.
5. Comparison
It involves comparing the features in one system with those of another. This leads to
formulation of possible hypothesis.
6. Testing of hypothesis
7. Drawing valid conclusions and recommendations
Collect valid data to make valid conclusions and recommendations

II) PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH (HOLMES BRIAN)

It is based on the stages of reflective or critical thinking which Brian applied to the study
of comparative education to solve educational problems
Brian Holmes envisioned the field of comparative education as eminently practical in
nature, providing the basis for the solutions to educational problems.

Assumptions
1. In the face of problematic situations possible solutions often spring to mind
2. On further reflection the problem is better formulated.
3. This further directs the solution to a certain kind of data out of which emerge refined
possible solutions which are then put forward as hypothesis and then tested.

STEPS
Here below are the steps that should be followed when using the problem-solving
approach:
1. Problem identification
2) Problem analysis
3. Proposed problem solutions
4) Specification of the context
5) Comparison
6) Conclusion

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1. Problem identification
2. Problem analysis
Involves understanding the real problem
3. Identification of possible solutions
Attempt to look for various solutions to the problems.
4. Analysis of possible context of app. of solutions
These are factors and conditions that are likely to influence the outcomes of the
proposed solutions e.g. traditions, morals, beliefs etc.
5. Prediction of anticipated results
Involves making informed guesses about expected outcomes
6. Comparison
It involves comparing the predicted outcomes (based on the proposed possible
solutions) with the actual observable practices.
This is the evaluation stage-check if things have worked out as anticipated.
7. Recommendations
From the observations made about recommendations for new lines calculations are
made.
Activity
1) Discuss the how you would use the problem-solving approach in studying a
problem of poor performance in your school.
2) What problems would be associated with use of selective borrowing in carrying
out a study of drop out in your school? Identify the various methodological study
approaches used in comparative education.

3) Describe the main features of each of the methods identified

4) Identify an educational problem in your country/school and show how you would
use aim of the methods discussed to carry out a comparative study to solve it.

TOPIC FOUR
CHALLENGES FACING THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

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1. Challenge of definition
- Scholars in comparative education are faced by the challenge of defining it; Whether it
should be defined by its content or method.
- To date scholars are still divided on whether comparative education is a field of
educational issues.
- Today many universities in Africa are offering education as a core unit in graduate
teacher education training.
- This is recognition of the fact that comparative education is a discipline in its own right,
whether defined by its own content or methods.

2. Challenge of comparability
- Most issues in comparative education are linked to the social, cultural, political and
economic realities of particular countries.
- These are further related to issues like equal opportunity, curriculum etc. which are all
interpreted differently in different cultures and educational systems.
- For effective comparison there is need for an understanding of all the parameters to
be considered I comparison to have where possible one meaning and interpretation
- This is possible if one understands the various cultural and social contexts of the
educational systems.

3. Challenge related to method

- Over the years, some of the analytical tools used in the study of comparative education
have been considered to be primitive as compared with the tool’s currency used in other
social enquiries,
- Some tools are difficult to use because of time and cost.
- Each study requires a specific method of study, as such comparative education faces
the challenge of choice of methods of approach in addressing educational issues and
processes being studied.
- Comparative education has a wide variety of methods to choose from and making the
right choice proves to be a challenge in the study of comparative education.

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4. Challenge related to subjectivity of analysis
- In many studies there is a human tendency to view issues with one’s social
background
- We come from various social backgrounds, some primitive, conservative and
[sometimes rigid while others come from the modern, open minded and more receptive
to changes.
- These social backgrounds bring about divergent views that are of comparative nature.
- People who are not natives of the countries where the study is being taken tend to
have bases and this poses challenges in comparative education. It results in subjectivity
of analysis of the educational issues.
- All studies ought to be objective rather than subjective for that is the essence of every
study even in comparative education.

5. Challenge related to culture and language

- Every country or region of the world has its own culture and language
- Culture and a language are greatly influenced by one’s social background.
- These post challenges in comparative education studies since there is always a need
for fresh studies as one moves from one cultural language group to another.
- For one to have a good understanding of the issue of study it requires one to employ a
thorough examination of the terminologies to be employed and used in the study.
- Clarity of terminologies in terms of culture a language is important in comparative
education studies.
- Any ambiguity of terminologies may render the study useless and meaningless.

6. Challenge related to the dynamic character of education.

- The character of education is dynamic because of the parameters that influence it.
- The different in stages of development of various countries of the world makes it
almost impossible to compare two different systems of education.
- Technology has brought dynamism in education.
- New discoveries are also being made daily and these influences the type of education

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offered in different parts of the world.
- In the first world developed countries, new knowledge is discovered and disseminated
easily and quickly because of the development in technology.
- Third world developing countries tend to lag behind in terms of technologies.

7. Challenge of national character

- Each country has its own national character
- We can’t understand the education system of a country without sufficient knowledge
of the physical and social context within which the educational system operates
- The character of a nation remains a challenge to comparative education because it
influences the educational aims and content of that particular system
Michael Saddler- “Things outside the school often influences things inside the school”
- Things outside-geographical, social, economic historical, religion, technological and
cultural environment
- These aspects are the ones are the ones which shape the national character.

8. Challenge of cost and time

- Comparative studies by large require substantial amounts of money and more real
time.
- In conducting comparative studies, one requires relevant equipment’s, traveling and
assembling data from foreign sources. These require funds.
This is why most comparative studies are done either through correspondence or
through documentary analysis.
- Most universities especially in developing countries find increasingly difficult to
allocate adequate funds for comparative research.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the challenges facing comparative education affect the study of
comparative educational in your own country.
2. What suggestions would you give to overcome these challenges?

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 TOPIC FIVE
NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCING NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION IN THE WORLD

Geographical factors
 The climatical conditions of a place and topography greatly influence the location
of schools
 Climatic conditions will affect the schooling period and vacation e.g. north
eastern and other hot areas school period starts very early and end at late
afternoons (2pm)
 Scandinavian countries - A lot of consideration is put in place to allow the
learners to be at home during the winter season.
 Within the tropic there are tropical diseases and learners are exposed to the
same, miss out of school during the treatment period.
 Land configuration that is whether hilly, plains, gentle slopping or valleys; affect
the type of buildings in each place.
Population factors –
 Densely populated areas and sparsely populated areas influences distance to
school e.g. China and India with very high population and densely population has
many schools within a short distance.
Economic factors
 The strength of the economy – that is whether the economy is developed or
developing or under developed, influences education to a great extend e.g in
Kenya, we have 8-4-4 system that is 8 yrs in primary, 4 yrs in secondary, and 4 yrs
in the university i.e. a total of 16yrs of very heavy investment by the government
with no tangible returns.

 If a country is not financially strong, then it cannot afford to finance education e.g.
Rwanda structure of education is 6-4-4

Historical factors
 Historical factors are connected with colonial influence and every educational
system has been affected by their history e.g. in Kenya before the coming of the
British rule, we had our own African indigenous education but that was greatly
influenced by the British administration.

 In Kenyan History, education has been changing since the colonial periods
especially due to political influences. Education has a system that grows, and it
builds its own history through reforms.

 The education system keeps on changing to address emerging trends/ needs so

as to cope with current challenges and future aspirations.

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Religious factors
 When religious believes are integrated in the social systems, they assist an
educational system e.g. Freedom of worship in our constitution has made people
appreciate the role of religious subjects in our education.
 For example, in USA, public schools don’t assimilated any religion – according to
them, religion is indoctrination
 The role of missionaries in the development of education systems is very
paramount in Africa.
Political factors
 The politics of a country influences educational system in terms of policy and
implementation e.g.

o UPE – Universal Primary Education

o EFA – Education For All

o UHE – Universal Higher Education

 Where democracy is practiced, it propagates education system. On the hand,

where dictatorship is practiced, the education system becomes a form of
indoctrination.

 The goodwill of the political power, can either propagate or retrogress the
educational system

Language factor
 Language is the mode of communication in which education is propelled through.

 The language factor influences education e.g. Tanzania succeeded in literacy

reforms due to use of Swahili language.

 Japan has fast developed due to great contributions of the Japanese language in
education

 The use of foreign language, will influence the extend of the success of
education system

Social cultural factors

 Some cultural practices e.g. circumcision, early marriages in some communities
affects education e.g. circumcised boys refused to go to schools believing they
are grownups and early marriages makes girls not to go to school has they are
now wives

 Gender issues (girl child) – where there is affirmative action e.g. the entry point
for girls to the public University is 61/2 but for boys 64/5. Girls entry point is

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 always lower than boys

Technological factors
 Technology is one key drivers of education; modern technology has played a
great role in propelling education into greater levels.

 Use of modern technology makes education to be more accessible and reduces

costs e.g. e – learning enables students to access learning modules for learning
without necessary being in a classroom set up.

 Exams can also be done online, where they are sent through coded messages
(e.g. password)

 Students can register online and they can also access the information from the
internet. E.g. UNESCO – education or Google: teacher education in Malaysia

 The challenge is that in most developing countries, the acquisition of modern

technology is tempered by lack of finance, expertise and unwillingness on the
part of the learners to embrace modern ways of acquiring education

QUESTIONS
a) Identify five factors that influence education systems in the world.
b) Explain in details at least three factors that have determined education
system in your country.
The specific factors that determine and shape system of education to the way they are
include: -
1) Economic factors
2) Social-cultural
3) Political
4) Climatic and geographical conditions
5) Colonialism, Racism and foreign domination
6) Religions
7) Historical

Activity
1. Outline five determinants of education systems in the world.
2. Discuss how the political and economic factors have influenced the development of
education system in developing and developed countries.

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Reference
TOPIC SIX
KENYAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

NATIONAL GOALS IN EDUCATION

1. To foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity
- There are many ethnic groups in Kenya thus education should help the youth acquire a
sense of national worth.
- Should instill in the youth positive attitude towards of mutual respect and unity.
2. To promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development.
- Under economic needs the education system intends to produce citizens with skills,
knowledge, expertise and personal qualities required to support a growing economy.
- Under technological and industrial needs education intends to produce learners with
skills and attitudes for individual development.
3. To provide individual development and self-fulfillment.
- Education provides opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents and
personality
- Education intends to help children develop potential interests, abilities and character
building.
4. To promote sound moral and religious values
- Provides for the developme1nt of knowledge, skills and activities that will enhance
acquisition of sound moral values.
- Education should help students be self-disciplined, self-reliant and interrogated
citizens.
5. To promote social equality and responsibility
- Providing equal opportunities for all.
- Education should provide children with varied and challenging opportunities for
collective activities and cooperate social services regardless of gender, ability or
geographical environment.
6. To promote respect for development of Kenya rich and varied culture

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- Instilling in the youth and understanding of past and present culture and their valid
place in the contemporary society.
7. To promote international consciousness and foster positive attitude towards other
nations.
- Youth should accept membership in the international community with all its
obligations, rights, benefits and responsibilities
8. To promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.
- Education is supposed to inculcate in the youth, the value of good health to avoid
indulging in activities that can lead to bad health.
- Foster positive attitude towards environmental conservation and protection.
STRUCTURE OF KENYANS EDUCATION SYSTEM
The education system consist of
1. Early childhood education -3yrs
2. Primary education -8yrs
3. Secondary education -4yrs
4. Tertiary education -2-3 yrs
5. University education -4yrs and above.
ADMINISTRATION
Several education agencies in Kenya
1. K.I.C.D- Develops the curriculum and conducts research
2. K.N.E.C- Administers exams except at the university level
3. T.S.C - Employs teachers
4. K.E.M.I- capacity building for teachers and education administrators.
FINANCING
- The government
- Parents
- Private sector
- Donors
- Foreign government
- Inter-national cooperation (World Bank, UNICEF, USAID)
- Students loans and bursaries

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- Charitable organizations and well wishers
- Faith based organizations
- Fund raising

CHALLENGES OF EDUCATION IN KENYA

1. Lack of adequate infrastructure by class rooms, learning materials
2. Lack of clear legal guidelines on the implementation of inclusive education to all
children regardless of status e.g. special needs
3. Lack of reliable data especially on children with special needs, out of school, youth
and illiterate adults. The problems can’t be dealt with effectively.
4. Shortage of adult literacy teachers and, teaching and learning materials
5. Low transition rates from primary to secondary, from secondary to higher education.
A good system should be able to transit all pupils
6. Out dated curriculum for technical, vocational education and training.
7. Inadequate physical facilities for technical and vocational training.
8. Limited resources for university expansion to cope with the number of secondary
school leavers
9. Mis-match of the skills offered by the universities and the demands of the labour
market.
10. HIV/AIDS
11. High pupil to teacher ration
12. Teacher shortages-government is reluctant of employing teachers
13. Poor teacher remuneration –people are discouraged to join the profession.

TOPIC SEVEN

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 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [U.S.A]
USA consists of 50 politically independent and self-governed states.
The following are some of the salient features of education in USA:
1. By tradition and constitutional arrangement education has always been a
function of the individual states and local institutions.

2. A great portion of expenditure is borne by the local population.

3. The spirit of democracy dominates all spheres of life including education.

4. The public schools are all secular.

5. Educational programmes are diversified. The high school students are offered a
wide choice among courses which prepare for industrial jobs, for general college
or for technical courses.

6. The philanthropic foundations have played an important role in American

education.

Goals of U.S.A Education (Aims)

1. To prepare to fit in political beliefs of the country-children start schools when ready
to learn
2. Their education targets that at least 90% of the population should have high school
education
3. Their students should demonstrate competence in critique learning
4. To make students be high achievers in math’s and science
5. To maintain high school discipline free from drugs and violence
6. To achieve literacy among all adults and equip them with skills for economic
competition
STRUCTURE 6-3-3-4
There are variations as per the status
Common characteristics are:
1. Pre-primary/pre-elementary level (2-3 years)
2. Elementary level (6yrs)

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3. Junior and senior high school (3 years each)
4. Junior college (2yrs)
5. Senior college (2years)
6. University (4years)
2years –first degree
2 years –masters
4 years – PhD
ADMINISTRATION
Education is administered at 3 levels
1. Federal government (central government)
2. State level
3. Local school district
1. Federal government
-Finances some programmes, materially, infrastructure
-Controls the institutions through financing some programmes
-Gives funds for research and development of education materials
-It credits secondary schools and higher education institutions
2. The state government
- Oversees the actual running of educational programs in a state
- It is done by the state department of education which is headed by the superintendent
of education
- Requires states educational laws
- Requires curriculum and living standards
- In charge of school construction and civil defense for children
3. The local school districts
-Comprises of the school board (elected/appointed)
-They formulate education policy which are implemented by the school staff
-Comprised of the elite, well-educated and successful people

FINANCING OF EDUCATION IN U.S.A

-Elementary and high school education is free

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-The cost are met by the local authorities state governments and federal governments
-College/university education is funded by students, parents, guardians and other
sponsors.
-Money for educational activities is gotten from property tax.
-Federal government finances special programs e.g. rights of marginalized people and
scientific research
-There are very numerous philanthropic funders of education
-Most college/ university students fund their education through work study programmes
Challenges facing education in U.S.A
1. Funding- public schools are faced by financial problems compared to private schools-
causes inequalities
2. Religion is not taught in public schools- it helps in molding students’ behaviour. In
private schools it’s taught because the parents control curriculum
3. Many parents prefer home schooling but the students must still take the national
examinations
4. Language-English and Spanish are competing for space in the schools.
5. Whether sex education or not
6. Evolution versus creation theory
7. Publishers don’t agree-Text books approved by the state are not always accepted
wholly
8. U.S doesn’t compare well with other developed countries in test performance. There
system is very liberal and doesn’t emphasis on examination
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the national goals of education in Kenya and show the extend to which
they have been achieved
2. Describe the structure of education in Kenya
3. Critically analyze the educational challenges facing the education system in
Kenya and suggest ways of addressing them
4. Describe the education system of U.S.A with specific reference to:-
1. Aims
2. Structure
3. Financing

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 4. Challenges

LESSONS THAT KENYA CAN DRAW FROM THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN THE USA

1. Massive investment in education – The US government has a strong policy and fiscal
commitment to education. This is based on the realization that for the country to
remain a world leader, it has to remain competitive at the innovation level. In 2015, the
Federal government spending on education is $ 69.9 billion, about 6.2% of the total
budget. The US spends about $ 11,000, 12,731 per student per year on elementary and
secondary education respectively.

2. Commitment to treating teachers as professionals and change workers. Beginning

US high school teachers earn about $ 38,000 (KES 4.1 M) per year. The average salary
for teachers is $ 53,000 per year. Teacher Associations have a lot of power and input on
education matters.
3. Funding and other supports for special student populations – children with learning
disabilities have special funding to get the schools equipped and facilitated to make the
learning experiences of such students great. The schools are funded to hire teaching
assistants/teacher aides to support such students

4. Flexibility and variety – the US system of education is structured with enough

flexibility to allow students to allow students to acquire the type of education, and at a
pace, that is suitable to their needs. Students moving to elementary and secondary
schools from different states or even from different countries of the world will find
programs that are suitable to their tastes and experiences. This flexibility and diversity
is especially evident in the higher education sector where universities offer so much
variety in terms of programs and delivery models. The fact that the US does not have a
parent ministry of education also helps to further the autonomy and flexibility of the
state/local education boards and individual higher education institutions. Many
universities have degree program structures that allow students to take courses from a
large cross section of university programs – while at the same time satisfying the
requirements of their home disciplines.

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5. Strong links between industry and universities – Many degree programs require
industrial experience as a requirement for graduation. The universities have established
strong links with industry, as well as public sector organizations to provide students
with the required work-experience. Some programs even have a component of
community work/international experience – and will therefore give credit for volunteer
work locally or internationally.

6. Global focus – owing to the US position as a world political, economic, and military
leader, the education system focuses on preparing students to have a global view (even
when this view only advances an American understanding of the world). Schools and
colleges alike will have programs that focus on global trends, global citizenship, cultural
diversity etc. Exchange programs entailing visits to other countries/cultures is a strong
feature of the US education system. The US higher education system plays a great role
in this regard – US universities have the highest number of international students in the
world. Majority of these students (58%) come from Asia and Europe (14%).

7. Inclusiveness – the US education system is committed to inclusiveness. This entails

an effort to avail education that caters for all learner aptitudes and abilities (e.g. funding
for special programs). Moreover, the commitment to high K-12 retention rates through
ensuring that children progress unhindered from one grade to another ensures the
inclusion objective.

WEAKNESSES OF THE USA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

1. The dilemma of political correctness – the fact that the US social and political
system is founded on expansive democracy and accommodation of diversity is
problematic when it comes to certain practices at schools. The teaching of
controversial issues – e.g. religion, creation/evolution, sexuality is often problematic.
Due to the overall sensitivity around respecting other people’s cultural values, issues
that touch on religion are avoided or skirted around – this dehistorizes the society! It
has to be acknowledged that the American society, like many societies, is founded on a

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strong religious/moral ethic (in this case Christianity). Any mention of religious values is
seen as privileging one religion over others.

2. The challenge of giving good education to children from poor backgrounds. Children
from inner city schools, from poor immigrant families, single-parent families are
especially vulnerable since they hardly graduate from high school. There are few
programs that cater for such drop outs.
3. Poor coordination of teaching standards. The decentralized management of
education means that the US lacks a national guideline for teaching standards. States
and districts are left to their own devices to design and manage teaching standards.
The ensuing inconsistencies are reflected in the performance of US students against
their counterparts from other developed countries that have unified national teaching
standards such as Finland

4. Private sector infiltration of public education – Falling funding from government has
meant that the private sector has to chip in to support school programs. The infiltration
of the private sector comes with the attendant consequence of the curriculum/school
programs having to serve the interests of industry/the private financiers. Examples
would be schools having to forego their moral obligation to safeguard their student’s
health concerns in cases where they have to display adverts from companies such as
Coca-Cola or McDonalds in exchange for program support – e.g. the donation of sports
equipment etc.

5. Lack of a national face – the decentralized control of education has been criticized
for the failure to make US education have a national face. The Department of Education
is the smallest Federal department and has little clout as compared to other
departments such as Defense and Foreign Affairs.

TOPIC EIGHT
BRITISH EDUCATION SYSTEM
By the end of this topic the learner should be able to:

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1. Highlight the salient features of the British education system
2. Discuss the structure and administration of education in the United Kingdom.

The British education system has the following features:

1. All the students between the ages of 5 to 16 years must by law attend the
schools or should be educated in a way approved by the Local Educational
Authority.

2. The wishes of the parents are respected during selection of the school for their
children.

3. Almost all varieties of schools are present in United Kingdom. It is difficult to

prepare a framework in which all these types of schools can fit.

4. All the schools are part of the social framework and do not confine themselves in
the four walls of the classroom.

5. The educational system of United Kingdom is dominated by academicians drawn

mostly from the grammar schools.

6. About 95% of the schools are supported by the public funds.

The structure of education followed in this country is seven years in elementary, four
years in ordinary level and two years in advanced level. Higher education is provided in
universities together with university polytechnics that provide technical education.
Activity
1. Download information on education system in Britain and read further on the
structure and administration of education.

2. Discuss the reforms that are being instituted in Britain to enhance her education
system.

The education system in the UK is divided into four main parts, primary education,
secondary education, further education and higher education. Children in the UK have to
legally attend primary and secondary education which runs from about 5 years old until

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the student is 16 years old.

The education system in the UK is also split into "key stages" which breaks down as
follows:

 Key Stage 1: 5 to 7 years old

 Key Stage 2: 7 to 11 years old
 Key Stage 3: 11 to 14 years old
 Key Stage 4: 14 to 16 years old

The National Curriculum is constructed in five Key Stages:

 Key Stage 1 - Foundation year and Years 1 to 2 - for pupils aged between 5 and 7
years old

 Key Stage 2 - Years 3 to 6 - for pupils aged between 8 and 11 years old

 Key Stage 3 - Years 7 to 9 - for pupils aged between 12 and 14 years old,

 Key Stage 4 - Years 10 to 11 - for pupils aged between 15 and 16 years old, and

 Key Stage 5 - Years 12 to 13 - for pupils aged between 17 and 18 years old.

In state schools each year that a pupil study is given a number. Primary education starts
in Year 1. Most pupils begin their secondary education at the age of 11 (Year 7), but in
some HMC schools pupils join the school at 13+ (Year 9). At the age of 16 (the end of
Key stage 4 and Year 11), all pupils take a series of exams called the General Certificate
of Secondary Education (GCSE), usually in about eight to ten subjects, which must
include English and Mathematics. Key Stage 5 is for pupils aged 16-18 (sometimes 19)
and most schools take Advanced Level exams after a two-year course.

Generally key stages 1 and 2 will be undertaken at primary school and at 11 years old a
student will move onto secondary school and finish key stages 3 and 4.

Students are assessed at the end of each stage. The most important assessment
occurs at age 16 when students pursue their GCSE's or General Certificate of Secondary
Education. Once students complete their GCSE's they have the choice to go onto further

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education and then potential higher education, or finish school and go into the working
world.

Our overview of the education system in the UK is divided into four main sections:

1. Primary Education

Primary education begins in the UK at age 5 and continues until age 11, comprising key
stages one and two under the UK educational system. Please visit the British Council
page for more information on primary education.

2. Secondary Education

From age 11 to 16, students will enter secondary school for key stages three and four
and to start their move towards taking the GCSE's - learn more about secondary
education in the UK and what it will involve. Primary and secondary education is
mandatory in the UK; after age 16, education is optional.

3. Further Education

Once a student finishes secondary education, they have the option to extend into further
education to take their A-Levels, GNVQ's, BTEC's or other such qualifications. UK
students planning to go to college or university must complete further education.

4. Higher Education

Probably the most important subject area on this site, this explains more about the
higher education system in the UK and how it works for international students. Most
international students will enter directly into the UK higher education system, after
completing their home country’s equivalent to the UK’s “further education

TOPIC TEN
NIGERIA EDUCATION SYSTEM
A study of educational system in Nigeria is important in that it is one of the most
populous countries in Africa and there is need to understand the steps that are being

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taken to access education to this large population. By the end of this chapter the reader
should be able to:
 Trace the evolution of education in Nigeria
To identify the major characteristics of Nigerian education system
To identify at least three issues affecting education in Nigeria.
Background

As of mid-2008, Nigeria’s population was estimated at 138 million, split primarily

between Muslims (50 percent) and Christians (40 percent). Muslims constitute the
majority in the north of the country and Christians in the south. Nigeria comprises of
more than 250 ethnic groups. However the following are the largest and politically
influential: Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%, Ijaw 10%, Kanuri 4%,
Ibibio 3.5% and Tiv 2.5%. Five major languages are used in Nigeria. They are Hausa,
Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani that are declared as the national languages while English is the
official language and is widely spoken.

Language has created a problem with respect to education. The smaller languages are
not written and therefore devising instructional materials in those languages is difficult.
In schools the medium of instruction in the first three years is the local language and
there after English is used.

The country is endowed with natural resources such as natural gas, petroleum, tin,
columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, Zinc and arable land. Oil accounts for 96 % of
the country’s foreign exchange earnings. The country produces 2.256 million barrels per
day. Nigeria and western Cameroon has share similar colonial legacy. The western
province of Cameroon was ruled as part of Nigeria until the cessation of the later before
independence. This has been creating conflict between the two countries and has led to
war due to the natural resources available such as oil.

The formal School System

In 1982, Nigeria switched to the American system of six primary’s, three junior
secondary, and three senior secondary school grades, but the rigid examination system

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remained. Education is free but not compulsory at any level. The formal education
system is six years in primary schools, 3 years of junior secondary school, 3 years of
senior secondary and 4 years of university education leading to a bachelor’s level
degree in most fields.

1. Primary Education
Primary education begins at the age of six for the majority of Nigerians and lasts for six
years. The curriculum for primary school typically includes subject areas like
mathematics, English, social studies, home economics and agriculture. However, the
curriculum has just recently been reviewed, and, from September 2008, the primary
school curriculum includes ICT, French language and civic education. For the first three
years of primary school the medium of instruction is that of the immediate environment.
During this period English is taught as a subject.

During the remaining years of primary school, English is progressively used as the
medium of instruction. Until 2004, graduating students from primary school had to sit
the Primary School-Leaving Certificate examination, this examination has been
abolished and the Primary School Leaving Certificate is now awarded on the basis of
continuous assessment.

Secondary Education
The secondary education cycle lasts for six years and is divided into two three-year
cycles: junior secondary and senior secondary. Junior secondary school has two
streams; pre-vocational and academic and the core curriculum includes: English,
mathematics, French, integrated science, social studies and introduction to technology.

Pre-vocational electives include agriculture, business studies, crafts and computer

education. Non pre-vocational electives include creative arts, religious and moral
education and Arabic. Students typically take between ten and thirteen subjects,
including core subjects.

On the successful completion of the junior cycle students are awarded the Junior
Secondary School Certificate (JSSC) / Certificate of Basic Education, which is

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necessary to progress to the senior secondary school level. Following the junior
secondary school cycle, students are streamed into secondary schools, technical
colleges or schools and out of school vocational training centres or apprenticeships
offering a range of terminal trade and craft awards.

The senior secondary cycle lasts for three years and each student takes eight subjects
from a diversified curriculum that includes six core subjects: English; mathematics; one
major Nigerian language; and one elective out of biology, chemistry, physics or
integrated science; one elective out of English literature, history, geography or social
studies, agricultural science or a vocational subject.

The Senior School Certificate (SSC) is issued by the West African Examination Council
and/or the National Examination Council on successful completion of the senior
secondary cycle. The SSC is one of the requirements for undergraduate admission into
a Nigerian university. The second requirement for entry to higher education is the
Universities Matriculation Examination (UME), which was first conducted in 1978 by
the joint admission and matriculation board. Students taking the UME must register for
English language and three subjects based on their particular major. A fifty percent total
score is considered a pass for the UME examination. However, the different higher
education institutions would specify different minimum requirements based on the
nature of specific undergraduate programmes.

The Senior School Certificate replaced the West African General Certificate of
Education Ordinary and Advanced levels (GCE ‘O’ and ‘A’ levels) in 1989. It should be
noted that students may still take the GCE ‘O’ and ‘A’ level examinations, though these
are not mandatory, and if successful this would guarantee direct entry to university
without being required to take the University Matriculation Examination.

2. Secondary and Post-Secondary Vocational Education and Training

Vocational education is provided at secondary level through science technical schools

following junior school education.

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Vocational and innovation enterprise institutions are vocational institutions, which have
recently been established to offer part and full-time education leading to the award of
certificates and national diplomas. Vocational enterprise institutions (VEIs) would admit
candidates with a minimum of the Basic Education Certificate (JSC), and would cover
multidisciplinary areas that would prepare learners for jobs in most industries. The
Innovation Enterprise Institutions (IEIs) would admit students with a minimum of five
credits obtained in the Senior Secondary Certificate (SSC).

3. Higher Education and Training

The Nigerian system of higher education is binary in nature and is constituted of

universities and a non-university sector made up of polytechnics, mono-technics and
colleges of education. Accreditation processes have been introduced at higher
education level to ensure certain standards.

Higher education and training has also come under increased centralized control
through two national commissions, the National Board for Technical Education and the
National Universities Commission. These agencies grant approval for all programmes
run in Nigerian university and non-university higher education and training institutions.
They grant approval for the establishment of all higher education and training
institutions and ensure quality assurance of programmes within such institutions.

Either federal or state governments can establish universities. While those universities
established by federal government have higher enrolments, there is little or no
difference between federal or state administered universities. A council and a senate
govern each university. The colleges or institutes that are affiliated with the Universities
are autonomous.

In 1993 the Federal government passed legislation to allow for the establishment of
private institutions of higher education. The National Universities Commission
maintains a register of recognized universities in Nigeria.

Minimum Entry into the university requires five credits passes in the Senior School

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Certificate and a pass on the Universal Matriculation Examination. Applicants
presenting acceptable results in the Nigerian GCE A levels are granted advanced entry
to stage two of a four-year Bachelor degree. The numbers applying through this direct
entry route are extremely low.

The Bachelor degree is typically four years in duration. In the case of many professional
degrees, such as medicine and dentistry, duration may extend to six years for
completion. All programmes leading to the award of a Bachelor degree are at Honours
degree level. Programmes may be taken as single or combined honours and this would
influence the amount of specialization in later years of the programme. A dissertation is
a normal requirement for the successful completion of a Bachelor degree; however,
there is not an expectation that the award holder will have undertaken independent
research.

A Postgraduate Diploma (PGD) is awarded after the completion of one year of graduate
study beyond the Bachelor degree. PGD programs are generally offered in education
and public administration. Programmes leading to a Masters degree are generally one
or two years in duration. The one-year programmes are coursework based and do not
involve research work. Study towards the Doctorate generally takes three years post
Masters degree. Candidates presenting for the award are required to submit a thesis
and take an oral examination.

Administration and Organization of Education System

The current administrative system is divided into the Federal Capital Territory and 36
states. The management of education in Nigeria is based on this federal system, so that
while basic educational policy regarding structure, curriculum and school year is
centrally determined, some powers over educational delivery are devolved to state and
local government. In effect, education is administered by three branches of government:
primary education is under the control of local governments, secondary schools fall
under the jurisdiction of the state government except the unity schools that are
administered by the federal governments. Both the federal and state government

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administers higher education.

The Federal Ministry of Education owns and runs twenty-five universities, thirteen
polytechnics, fifteen technical colleges, twenty colleges of education and sixty-six
secondary schools. The remaining tertiary institutions are owned and funded by state
governments, while other secondary schools are owned and funded by state
governments, communities and private organizations. The administration and
management of state government-owned secondary schools falls under the remit of
state Ministries of Education. The administration of public primary schools falls under
the local education authorities.

Activity

1. Discuss at least three issues that are affecting education in Nigeria since
independence.

2. Outline four reforms that have been introduced in Nigeria from 1990 to date.

3. Describe the educational structure of education in Nigeria

4. Nigeria has three types of education that has been used to cater for the large
population. Discuss the eligibility of using each type in the modern world filled
with information communication and technology.

TOPIC ELEVEN
FRANCE EDUCATION SYSTEM

France total land area is 547,030 square kilometres of land comprising 545,630 square
kilometres and water of 1400 square kilometres. The whole area of metropolitan France
is 543,965 square kilometres and has about 1 square kilometre, estuaries and rivers.
The geographical location of France is in Western Europe.

The country shares its national frontiers with various other nations. To the North is
Belgium and to the East is Switzerland and Germany. Luxembourg lies to the North East
while Italy is located to the South East of France. The Pyrenees Mountain range is

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extended throughout the country. The Atlantic Ocean coastline runs through the
Western part of France. The Mediterranean Sea is to the south of the country while the
English Channel is to the North. England is one of the premier neighbours of France.

The French educational system is highly centralized, organized, and ramified. It is

divided into three different stages:

 Primary education (enseignement primaire );

 Secondary education (enseignement secondaire );
 Higher education (enseignement supérieur ).

STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION IN FRANCE

1. Pre-primary education
Pre-primary education (nursery school) created in 1881 is for children aged 3 to 6.
Although it is not compulsory, virtually all 3-year-old children attend nursery school,
majority in the public school system. They are state funded, attendance is optional and
placement is not guaranteed especially for younger children; children as young as two
can attend but must be potty trained. With a dual educational and pedagogical objective,
children learn how to live among others, shape their own personality and develop
language skills.
Nursery school is the strong point of the French education system and what sets it
apart from other systems. Many parents start sending their children earlier though,
around age 3 as nursery classes (maternelle ) are usually affiliated to a borough's
primary school. Some even start earlier at age 2 in pré-maternelle classes, which are
essentially day-care centres.
The last year of maternelle , grande section is an important step in the educational
process as it is the year in which pupils are introduced to reading. They accept children
from age of 2 to five years. It also makes primary education more effective. Nursery
school teachers have the same training as primary school teachers and can teach in all
primary education grades.
The pre-school education is well developed and teachers in the e‘ coles maternelles hold
the same qualifications as the primary school teachers. Virtually all French children are

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scolarise ’ before starting primary schools.
2. Primary education
After nursery, the young children move on to primary school. Primary school is
compulsory for all students, French and foreign alike, starting at age six. Primary
education lasts for five years and caters for the 6-10 age groups. It aims to teach
children some degree of autonomy and the basics about citizenship.
It is in the first year (cours préparatoire ) that they learn how to write and develop their
reading skills. Much akin to other educational systems, French primary school students
usually have a single teacher (or perhaps two) who teaches the complete curriculum,
such as French, mathematics, science and humanities.
There is no structural difference between the private and government schools. School
attendance is compulsory between the ages 6-16 years. Most of them are co-
educational at all levels and classes are held in the morning and afternoon.
The primary school attendance has dropped because of a drop in birth rates. Grade
repetition is on the decrease, as it is believed that repeating would jeopardize the pupils’
future and that’s why Pre School and primary school are related. Grade repetition is
common with pupils from underprivileged groups.

3. Secondary education
French secondary education is divided into two schools:

 Thecollège for the first four years directly following primary school
 Thelycée for the next three years.

The completion of secondary studies leads to thebaccalauréat .

4. Higher education
Higher education entails all studies after the baccalauréat . France has very old
universities dating back between 1208 and 1210 A.D.They remain traditional offering
general rather than professional education. Universities (including Instituts nationaux
polytechniques) are open to a large number of students, whose programmes are
generally geared towards research and its applications.

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Higher education is funded by the state and fees are very low. Students from low-
income families can also apply for scholarships. Academic councils called académies
are responsible for supervising all aspects of University education in a given region.

Two systems exist side by side:

A - An open system in the universities. Most students’ study under this system and
women are the majority. All baccalauréat holders have the right to enter this system
without any prior selection procedure. Universities offer an extremely wide range of
studies. They can specialize in humanities, social science, law, economics and medicine.
There is a high dropout rate at this level.
Professional training courses within the university system have been created since
1970s catering for all levels. Entrance to the courses is selective and technical training
courses are organized in the top classes of high schools. In this country there is no
open university.
B - A selective system with a limited number of places. They make up the second
largest sector of higher education. They mostly involve engineering schools, business
school and school of administration.

5. Non-university level post-secondary studies (technical/vocational type):

Short-study courses last for two years after the Baccalauréat and lead to a terminal
diploma: Brevet de Technicien supérieur (BTS), a national diploma awarded in
vocational and service areas. Courses are provided in Lycées; Diplôme universitaire de
technologie (DUT) offered in Instituts universitaires de Technologie to train middle-level
managers in Industry and Commerce; Diplôme d'Etudes universitaires scientifiques et
techniques (DEUST) offered in various fields related to national or regional needs.
DUT and DEUST diplomas are offered in universities and are equivalent to a first cycle in
a Université. A DUT graduate may, in some cases, pursue higher studies leading to the
Licence and other degrees.

Administration, Supervision structure and operations

The French education system is highly centralized. The principal of centralism was

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introduced by La Chalotais in 1763 and was supported by the writers of the revolution.
Napoleon adopted it to facilitate the control that he needed in training elite to run his
empire. In France, authority is centralized in the Ministry of Education under the control
of parliament. The country is divided into seventeen academies for the purpose of
administration of education. A Lector who is appointed by the president of the republic
heads each academy.
The Lector is directly responsible to the minister of education. He is chosen from
among the professors and has total control of an academy from nursery school to the
university. He oversees both the state and private educational institutions.
There are inspectors in each department of the academy. They are specialist in
respective types of education provided in each department. The departmental councils
administer the whole primary education and it is responsible for the recruitment,
training, and promotion of primary school teachers.

At the central level, the minister and his advisers are assisted by a body of inspectors of
national education who visit educational institutions and keep the minister informed of
the general picture of education in France. The inspectors plan the programmes of
studies for the schools including the methods of instruction.

The administration of examinations is centralized. All examinations are state

examinations. This means that any type of examination in the education system is
merely a school leaving examination. Any child anywhere in France as long as he/she
has reached the right age can present himself/herself for the appropriate examination
anywhere in France.
The various institutions do give their certificates and diplomas but they are of no use.
This ensures that everybody has covered the programmes of work for a particular
certificate or diploma; it ensures uniformity in coverage of programmes of studies and
even the approaches. Some examinations are competitive and the numbers of those
who qualify depend on places available.
Activity
1. Discuss how the historical factors have shaped the development of the French

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 education system
2. Describe the structure of education in France.
3. Discuss the main challenges facing education in France.

TOPIC TWELVE
CUBAN EDUCATION SYSTEM
By the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
1. Discuss the main features of Cuban education system.

2. Highlight how the philosophy used in Cuba has influenced the development of
education.

The following are the salient features of the Cuban education system
1. Cuban has sustained a high level of investment by committing approximately
10% of her GDP on education. The investment involves high-level non-salary
investment which is well coordinated and sustain.

2. The country has consistent policy environment supportive of quality basic

education.

3. The government is committed to high-status professional development of

teachers that is on-going involving lifelong training, school based and action
research.

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 4. The country has developed low cost, high quality instructional materials that is
locally adapted and covers the whole country.

5. There is system wide evaluation and competition among classes and schools.

6. The school management is guided by the principal that education is everybody’s

responsibility.

7. Education has linked school and work programmes

8. Education is compulsory at lower levels.

Activity
1. Download information on Cuban education system and read about the structure
and administration of education in this country.
2. What lessons can be learnt by other developing countries in their endeavour to
improve education from the Cuban education system?

TOPIC THIRTEEN

CRITICAL CONTEMPORARY ISSUES AND TRENDS IN GLOBAL EUDCATION

There are important elements/emerging trends that educators should follow on to offer
better opportunities to the learners.
E.g. Gender, equality, equity human rights/justice, teacher motivation, quality of
education, Dependency, massification, teacher capacity, teacher-pupil ratios,
Globalization, HIV/AIDS, ICT, CBC, FDSE etc.

1. UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCAITON (U.P.E)

This is the 2nd M.D.G- was to be achieved by 2015.

Aimed at ensuring that every child is able to complete a full course of primary schooling.
Currently there are more than 75 M children around the world of primary school age who
aren’t in school.
Majority are from the sub-Saharan Africa and S. Asia.
Factors contributing to lack of access of education

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 1. Location and climate distance from schools (geographically located for from
schools).

2. Climate in arid zones no learning in the afternoons it’s hot.

3. Scandinavian climates are very cold. Schools are attended at 10.00 a.m. for few
hours.

4. Gender boy child education is regarded an investment /girls get married.

5. Pastoralists boys go to the field for herding

6. Cost Education is expensive to the low social economy. Status household. Can’t
afford the basic requirements, school uniform, and writing materials.

7. Language-English is the examination and instruction languages.

8. Most children from local boys/girls can’t understand because they are used to
their native languages.

9. Traditional practices – F.G.M, early marriages.

10. Poor governance in education –corruption and lack of transparency-budgets for

education are embezzled, business are mis-chanelled.

11. Lack of sensitization on the importance of education in some communities.

2. EDUCATION FOR ALL (EFA)

It’s an international initiative 1st launched in Jomtien Thailand in 1990.

The main aim was to bring education to every society.

To realize this aim the national government and agencies (UNESCO) and World
Bank commend to achieve 6 specific education goals.

EFA Goals

1) To expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education especially
for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children

2) To provide free and compulsory primary education for all -To ensure that by 2015 all
boys and girls to school and complete primary education- even those form the
marginalized communities and poor households.

3) To promote living and life skills for both young people and adults. This places
emphasis on the living needs for the young people and adults in the context of lifelong
learning of vocational skills.

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4) To teach adult literacy by 50% by 2015. This was with greater emphasis for women
and equitable access for basic and continuing education for all adults.

5) To achieve gender parity -boys and girls = equal number by 005 and gender equality
by 2015.

12. It calls for an equal number of boys and girls to be evolved in primary and
secondary schools by 2005.

6) To improve all aspects of quality education – calls for improvement in all aspects of
education to achieve measurable living outcomes especially in literacy, numeracy and
essential life skills

3. DEPENDENCY IN EDUCATION
The objectives of this chapter are to:
1. Define the word Aid,
2. Discuss the types of aid available in the world
3. Discuss the criticisms that have been levelled on foreign aid on education

Definitions:
AID from the French wordaide , also known as international aid, overseas aid, or foreign
aid, is a voluntary transfer of resources from one country to another, given at least
partly with the objective of benefiting the recipient country. It may have other functions
as well such as a signal of diplomatic approval, or to strengthen a military ally, to reward
a government for behaviour desired by the donor, to extend the donor's cultural
influence, to provide infrastructure needed by the donor for resource extraction from the
recipient country, or to gain other kinds of commercial access.

Carol Lancaster, in her book Foreign Aid (2007) defines foreign aid as a voluntary
transfer of public resources, from a government to another independent government, to
an NGO, or to an international organization such as the World Bank or the UN
Development Program with at least a 25 percent grant element, with the aim of
improving the human condition in the country receiving the aid
Sources and distribution

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Bilateral Aid is given by the government of one country directly to another. Many
dedicated governmental aid agencies dispense bilateral aid, for example DANIDA and
USAID as governmental aid agencies do give aid to recipient country.

Multilateral aid is given from the government of a country to an international agency,

such as the World Bank, the International Monitory Fund or the European Development
Fund. The contributing countries usually govern these organizations that involve the
wealthiest countries in the world. The organizations are used by the donor countries to
further their course by instituting stringent measures that ensure that their interests are
catered. This has brought criticism by the third world countries that feel that the
developed countries have brought a new form of oppression.

Donations from private individuals and for-profit companies are another significant type
of aid. The practice of giving such donations, especially on the part of wealthy
individuals, is known as philanthropy. This is done through foundations started by the
multinational companies and they provide aid in particular areas of their interest.

Non-Governmental Organisations play a major role in distributing aid. They include

Action Aid, Oxfam and the Mercy corps. Many non-profit charitable organizations solicit
donations from the public to support their work; charitable foundations often oversee an
endowment which they invest and use the proceeds to support aid organizations and
other causes. Aid organizations may provide both humanitarian and development aid, or
specialize in one or the other.

A number of aid NGOs has an affiliation with a religious denomination. They conduct
their own international operations - distributing food and water, building pipelines and
homes, teaching, providing health care, lending money, etc. Some government aid
agencies also conduct direct operations, but there are also many contracts with or
grants to NGOs who actually provide the desired aid.

Scholarships to foreign students, whether from a government or a private school or

university, might also be considered a type of development aid.

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 TYPES OF AID
Aid is oftenpledged at one point in time, butdisbursements (financial transfers) might
not arrive until later. Aid may be provided in the form of financial grants or loans, or in
the form of materials, labour, or expertise.
1. Humanitarian aid
Humanitarian aid or emergency aid involves rapid assistance given to people in
immediate distress by individuals, organizations, or governments to relieve suffering,
during and after man-made emergencies like war and natural disasters like famine,
floods, and earthquakes. It focuses on relieving suffering caused by natural disaster or
conflict, rather than removing the root causes of poverty or vulnerability. The provision
of humanitarian response consists of the provision of vital services such as providing
food, water and medicine by aid agencies, and the provision of funding or in-kind
services like logistics or transport, usually through aid agencies or the government of
the affected country. State-supported actors distinguish humanitarian aid from
humanitarian intervention that involves armed forces protecting civilians from violent
oppression or genocide.
2. Development aid
Development aid is given by industrialized countries to support development in general,
which can be economic development or social development in third world countries. It
is aimed at alleviating poverty in the long term, rather than alleviating suffering in the
short term.

Development aid is often used to refer specifically to Official Development Assistance

(ODA), which is aid given by governments on certain concessional terms, usually as
simple donations. It is given by governments through individual countries' International
Aid agencies and through multilateral institutions such as the World Bank and by
individuals through development charities such as Action aid; Caritas, Care International
or Oxfam. The offer to give development aid has to be understood in the context of the
Cold war.

Other Specific types of aid include:

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  Project aid: Aid is given for a specific purpose e.g. building materials for a new
school.
 Programme aid: Aid is given for a specific sector e.g. funding of the education
sector of a country.
 Budget support: A form of Programme Aid that is directly channelled into the
financial system of the recipient country.
 Sector wide Approaches (SWAPs): A combination of Project aid and Programme
aid/Budget Support e.g. support for the education sector in a country will include
both funding of education projects (like school buildings) and provide funds to
maintain them (like school books).
 Food aid is given to countries in urgent need of food supplies, especially if they
have just experienced a natural disaster like famine, floods, and earthquakes.
 Untied Aid: The country receiving the aid can spend the money as they chose.
 The Tied aid must be used to purchase products from the country that donated it
or a specified group of countries.
 Educated personnel, such as doctors, provide technical assistance. They are
moved into developing countries to assist with programs of development. They
can be both programme and project aid.

3. Educational aid

Much of the money provided by the international agencies and bilateral donors to help
in education do not benefit the recipient country but a substantial proportion returns to
the donor country through payments to expatriates staff and consultants.

Students pay part of the money as fees to the donor country educational institutions
from the recipient countries and contracts for educational materials and other
educational inputs that go to firms in the donor countries. The main sources of
educational aid are the World Bank, bilateral government to government agencies such
as the overseas development Administration in the UK in Britain and Non-Governmental
Organization.

The UN agencies such as UNESCO perform mainly advisory and research roles and

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provide technical assistance to national education systems. The World Bank is the
largest single donor to education accounting for 15 percent of the total international
support to education. The politics of aid have led to long experience of foreign
intervention and use of aid as political weapon that has led to suspicion of the motives
held by the donors.

A sceptical view of aid is most common among those opposing repressive regimes that
have long watched aid and trade bolstering the power and credibility of these regimes.
In South Africa assistance to education programmes, which would assist individual
mobility, has been regarded with suspicion by the more radical sections of the liberation
movements. They regard these programmes as attempts to buy off an educated class
of black people and in the long run divide the black community.

Similar suspicions are held in Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras where there is a
long history of the US aid geared to combating communism rather than promoting
social justice. The objectives of the aid given carry contradictory meaning that can be
interpreted in various ways. This indicates a hidden motive by the donor without
explicitly clarifying what they are interested when giving a particular

INDICATORS OF EDUCATION DEPENDENCY IN KENYA

1. Structure of education
Introduction of formal learning in Africa by Europeans has dominated African education
system. In Kenya before independence the education system was; Kenya African
primary education (KAPE), Kenya African secondary education (KASE).

African universities are modeled on overseas institutions with some being official
extensions of universities in Britain, America, France. Copy and paste degree programs
– borrowing heavily from universities in the West
Western scholarship, essentially, is scholarship that perpetuates Euro centrism by

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privileging theories, methods, and research practices of the Western academies and
research institutions. Within this framework, knowledge is only seen as ‘valid’ if it
follows the Western canon. Thus we have modern/scientific knowledge and
indigenous/traditional knowledge.

2. Western funding mechanisms/financing in education

Many developing countries depend heavily on donor funding to finance their education
systems – with the attendant conditionalities to fund education –The ROR argument,
for example has led to skewed funding in favour of primary school education while the
higher education sector has been starved of funding

In Kenya, for example, the continued shortage of teachers in primary and secondary
schools – despite there being an oversupply of trained teachers – is due to
conditionalities set by the World Bank and IMF regarding a freeze in hiring of teachers.

More recently, there has been a wave, universally, of universities shifting from their
public good model to a market model. Universities in Africa and other developing
countries, owing to dwindling financial support from donors and government have
adopted market-driven admission processes. More importantly, the core mission of the
university has, within this neoliberal model, shifted from public service to ‘servicing the
market’ (Lynch, 2006)

This neoliberal market model is of course a creation of the West! These so-called global
reform policies and practices include quality assurance initiatives (e.g. ISO!), expanded
privately funded admissions (Module 11).

3. School curriculum
The curriculum taught in Kenyan schools, colleges and universities is designed by those
who have had western experience. The content promotes western values and
perspectives. Ex. Shakespeare’s literature
African scholars especially have suffered the problem of addressing African realities

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problems using western conceptual and theoretical frameworks.
The curriculum in many universities is still heavy on Western content and very thin on
indigenous content. In Education, the theories of Dewey, Locke, Plato, Giddens, and
Durkheim etc. occupy centre stage! There is little mention of Ake, Mbebe, Mazrui, Sifuna,
etc.

4. Brain Drain
Brain drain refers to the exodus of scholars and students from developing countries to
the West. While academic exchanges between countries are a necessary and normal
process, the problem with brain drain is that Western countries deliberately target the
best of the brains from the developing world and entice them to study and work in their
institutions and industries. This deprives the developing countries of much needed
human capital.

Kenya has suffered one of the biggest brain drains in Sub Saharan Africa and has the
most number of students in Western universities from Africa. The problem, of course, is
exacerbated by push-factors such as poor pay, weak incentives, insecurity, political
persecution, etc. Many top brains have left the continent for Europe, US, Canada,
Australia.

5. Language
While it is fairly agreed that English is the foremost language of global capital, it is
inexcusable that Kenyan universities and the education system have not seen it
necessary to privilege the use of local African languages in publishing and teaching.
English is used as the medium of instruction and examination in the entire education
system in Kenya.

There are more than 50 languages spoken in Kenya, yet there is minimal use of such
languages in the curriculum. In many cases, such mother-tongues are relegated to
junior elementary school classes. Only South Africa and Tanzania have made any
significant efforts to privilege the use of indigenous languages in their education

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systems.
Language is not just a medium of communication – it is an expression of a worldview. It
is a carrier of culture (Thiong’o, 1986). The continued use of Western languages
(English & French), supported through donor-funding conditionalities (Brock-Utne, 2010)
has the effect of privileging Western languages over African languages. Moreover, such
a relationship undermines indigenous knowledge systems while privileging Western
knowledge systems as the norm.

In Kenya English is the preeminent language of instruction and examination in the public
education system. One wonders why, more than 50 years after independence, the
country has made very little effort and success towards privileging the use of African
languages such as Kiswahili. The continued use of English as the language of
instruction and examination disadvantages poor rural children in particular (Mazrui,
2000; Nungu, 2012).

6. Overreliance on Western publishing companies and journals

The big publishing firms and academic journals are located in the developed world.
Academic conferences, the best avenue for exchanging and discussing research
knowledge before publication are also few, and far apart, in Africa – especially due to
poor support from universities. This means that most African scholars end up not
having their works published, or they get published in journals that are not widely
available to those that should benefit most from such works.

The reliance on conferences in Western countries means that many excellent scholars
miss out on opportunities to get constructive critique of their works and also the ability
to network with other intellectuals from around the world. Organizations such as
Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) have
tried to create a Pan African forum for African scholars to participate in conferences,
publications, and workshops. This, however, is a tiny effort that has not been widely
replicated on the continent.
This entirely means that the developing world does not contribute significantly to

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 knowledge production and dissemination. The problem is exacerbated by weak
intellectual property legislation.

7. Evaluation
The pioneer institutions of learning started by Europeans offered exams and evaluation
models based on their mother countries. The awarding of certificates, diplomas, and
degrees is a western idea that has entrenched our education system.

8. Instructors/teachers and their training

The missionaries interest in teacher education as to produce teachers who possessed
the basic skills of reading and writing to spread the gospel to African masses. This
regardless of their personal orientations inculcated western values and vies in schools.

9. Methods of instruction
Traditional classroom instruction is done by the teacher through various methods like;
demonstration, lecture, question and answer. Etc. This is being replaced by e-learning
which is purely western oriented and has greater impact and potential.

EMPLOYMENT AND EDUCATION

a) Education provides skills and knowledge to the citizens to enable them

participate effectively in the labor force.

b) It provides literacy, language and numeracy.

c) Developing countries are faced by problems of educated unemployment due to

their economic status.

CAUSES OF UNEMPLOYMENT FOR THE EDUCATED

 The economies of most countries especially the developing countries are not
vibrant enough to open up and create job opportunities to absorb the large
number of graduates leaving school each year.

 There has been accelerated population growth and high fertility rate leading to
large numbers of people who cannot find jobs.

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  Over production of graduates from tertiary educational institutions which
produces many people who can’t be accommodated in the job market.
 Bad leadership and corruption attitude in power- This leads to embezzlement and
diversion of funds for economic growth which would create job opportunities to
the citizens.

 Poor education system which is academic oriented and fails to provide work
related vocational skills which may provide self-employment.

 Migration of the educated population from rural to urban areas leading to

shortage of jobs.

EFFECTS OF UNEMPLOYMENT

1. High dependency ratio - majority of the unemployed population depend on the

working pop
2. Brain drain - the exodus of scholars, trained people and students from developing
countries to the west in search of employment. This deprives the countries human
capital required for development
3. Wide spread poverty and low living standards.
4. Economic development retardation-since the youth migrates to towns in search
for jobs leaving the old people who are unproductive in the rural area. Can’t practice
agriculture
5. Increased crime and violence
6. Higher spending by the government in providing social needs of the population
7. Increased consumption of the population hence low economic growth.
8. Stress and distress among the population - Because of congestion in the social
amenities and insufficient job opportunities.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO UNEMPLOYMENT FOR THE EDUCATED

1. Reformation of the economy to an industrial economy - transforming and

supporting rural industries and close supervision of the production
industry to guarantee jobs to the population.
2. Make formal education relevant to the needs of the society by intensifying
vocational training - leads to acquisition of skills for self-employment.- e.g.
Competence Based Curriculum

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 3. Revising the national Youth Service Programmes to make the youth
participate and contribute to the work projects.
4. Control of the rising population
5. Development of rural areas to stop rural urban migration and avoid
pressure in the urban jobs - Through delocalization /setting up of
individual in the rural areas.
6. Proper control /management of development funds by leaders
7. Control massification of higher education

EQUITY AND EDUCATION

Means equal chances of access to education as well as equal chances to participate in

the acquisition of education (equal opportunities in education).

HINDRANCES TO EQUITY IN EDUCATION

Inherited personal characteristics

Inherited personal traits, family boy/girls and school/boy/girl determine the educational
attainment either positively or negatively. Equality of access will not necessarily lead to
equality of attainment.

Language

Inadequate development of language, skills, result to poor attainment hence access to

…. doesn’t guarantee equal attainment. Long of instruction often determines learner’s
interest in education consequently attainment.

Prejudice against a racial /ethnic group gender or religious affiliation

This may cause exclusion from an education system or allow access only of inferior
facilities.

It might also cause a favourism or discrimination against a section of population

causing inequalities in access and participation in end

Traditionally accepted beliefs/social cultural factors

There may favour or discriminate against a section of people

In forms African group girls are believed to be housewife’s and be married as early as
possible
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Boys are condemned as old age insurance to take care of parents when they grow old.

Different social classes

In many countries selection to secondary, colleges and universities favour those from
the upper/middle class and children whose parents have had high school or university
education. This is because such parents encourage habits conducive to high
educational attainment. They also teach children lang. Skills important in facilitating
high attainment in education.

Rapid population grown that doesn’t match the economy.

This leads to inadequate educational facilitate. The expansion of educational facilities

is affected by the severe economic constraints in the country.

In extreme cases children never access education because there is hardly any space in
schools. Population caused congestion in schools (high pupil teacher ratio) which
affects attainment in education.

Problems due to geographical factors

In Kenya 2/3 of the country is ASAL inhabited by nomadic pastoral communities.

Nomadic lifestyle makes it difficult to provide education to their children.
Where school are provided the children to travel long distances. This causes fatigue and
low participation.

Malnutrition

May at times cripple a Childs intellectual ability- Even if he/she has access to education
– may not profit.

Political instability

This causes most to areas of safety of isolate children from educational facilities.

The refuge problem denies many children this opportunity to go to school.

Hunger and lack of energy giving foods

Reduces the energy level of the child.

Such child can’t be expected to perform at his/her best.

EFFORTS TO FACILITATE EQUITY IN EDUCATION

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Abolition of school fees
F.P.E in Kenya was introduced and implemented in 2003.
This resulted to Net enrolment rate (N.E.R) rising from 79% to 84%.
Subsidized secondary education

School feeding programme

This is popular in England and Wales

In Kenya S.F programmes are in ASAL schools.
UNICEF provides food to primary schools in slums example, Kibira.
NGO’s and church organizations give good.
This ensures provision of balanced diet curbing malnutrition.

Compensatory educational programmes

This is a strategy intended for children from deprived back ground i.e A program to
assist individuals/groups that have not had a good chance as others to causes
educational opportunity.
Involves arranging for extra time to coach them to compensate that they have missed.
e.g private tuition/ remedial.

In Britain the students are grouped based on performance in subjects. In England and
Wales the schools offer a range of causes to cater for all students. E.g Kenya-physically
and mentally challenged - Montessori schools.

Re-current education

Individuals are allowed to finish schooling at varying forms according to their abilities
and efforts.
Meant at getting away from the strict consideration of age.
Extending the school years and allowing you can defer studies and join later.
Dividing the class according to the learner’s abilities in a given subject.
Low and high ability – idea is to give each child a chance to learn at his/her pace.

Provision of bursary and loaning systems

Some by government, international organization, faith/church organizations, individual.

To assist needy students and enable them to pay for their education, HELP, CDF.

Multi grade teaching

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Pupils of different grades in the same classroom sitting.
This motivates more learners to come - part time , school based , regular , S.P.P
Universities have programs to cater for students with different grades – enrolment

The re-entry policy in Kenya

Allows teenage mothers back to school

Double shift system

Caters for limited resources . One group may learn in the morning while the other in the
afternoon thus making use of the same facilities and resources e.g day and evening
program in university and weekend.

Mobile schools
Schools that follow the pupils where they are located. Suitable for the nomadic
communities. The concept is to follow the children where their parents are camping and
teach them.
Teach only basic subjects

Distance learning

Learning that takes place outside the classroom situation and without necessary
coming face to face with the instructor. Done through – correspondence
- Radio broadcasting - E-learning - Tele-conferencing etc

REVIEW GUESTIONS

Equality in education can be achieved in Kenya today” Critically discuss this

statement either in favour or against using relevant questions in each case.

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