CELL STRUCTURE & REPLICATION

SUMMARY SHEET
Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells Methods of Studying Cells
• Eukaryotes include animal, plant, protist & fungal cells. • Prokaryotes are smaller and simpler than eukaryotes. • There are 3 main types of microscopes used to observe cells:
• The following organelles are presents in eukaryotic cells:
Feature Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell Transmission
Organelle Structure Function Scanning Electron
Nucleus Present Absent Light Microscope Electron
Microscope
• Controls passage of entry of Microscope
Linear and packaged into Circular and freely
Cell surface substance into the cell Medium Light Beam Electron Beam Electron Beam
DNA chromosomes in nucleus. floating in cytoplasm.
membrane • Site of cell communication Dimensions 2D 3D 2D
via receptors Bound to histones Not bound to histones.
Cell Membrane Present Present Max Magnification X1,500 X200,000 X2,000,000
• Stores DNA
• Nuclear pores allow mRNA Membrane- Max Resolution 0.2 μm 20 nm 0.1 nm
Nucleus & & ribosomes to pass through bound Present Absent • Magnification is how much bigger the image is compared to the
Nucleolus • Nucleolus manufactures organelles original object viewed with the naked eye
ribosomal RNA and Ribosomes Present (80S) Present (70S)
produces ribosomes • Magnification = (size of image)/(size of object)
Sometimes (cellulose Present (peptidoglycan/ • Resolution is how well a microscope distinguishes between two
• Carry out aerobic respiration Cell Wall
or chitin) murein) points that are close together.
Mitochondria to synthesise ATP • Cell fractionation can be used to separate organelles.
Chloroplasts Sometimes Absent
Flagellum Absent Sometimes ◦ Homogenisation ­ grinding cells releasing the organelles into
• Contains digestive enzymes solution. Must be cold, isotonic and buffered
to hydrolyse pathogens,
Capsule Absent Sometimes ◦ Filtration ­ separates organelles & debris
Lysosomes Plasmid Absent Sometimes
old organelles, cells & food ◦ Ultracentrifugation ­ using a centrifuge the organelles are
molecules separated out in order of mass
• Bacteria replicate by binary fission.
• Site of protein synthesis
Ribosomes
Cell Division
Rough • Provide a large surface area • Within multicellular organisms, not all cells retain the ability to
endoplasmic for protein synthesis divide
reticulum • The eukaryotic cell cycle has three
Smooth • Synthesise, store and main stages:
endoplasmic transport lipids and • Interphase consists of two growth
reticulum carbohydrates. phases (G1&G2) and a DNA synthesis
• Modifies proteins stage (S). The cell may exit the cell
Golgi • Sort, package, and transport cycle at G0
Apparatus molecules around the cell • Mitosis is the nuclear division
• Cytokinesis is when the cell splits in
• There are additional organelles in plants, algae & fungi: two, forming two identical daughter cells.
Present Stage Description
Organelle Structure Function in which DNA condenses & coils,
organism Prophase nuclear envelope breaks
• Site of Plants & down, centrioles move to
opposite poles
Chloroplasts photosynthesis algae
Viruses Spindle fibres attach
• Maintains cell Plants • Viruses are acellular and non­ Metaphase to centromeres &
living. chromosomes line at the
structure
Cell vacuole • Act as a tempo­ • The basic structure of viruses equator
rary energy store is: Centromeres divides,
• Viruses replicate by binding Anaphase chromatids move to
• Provides Plants &
to the host cell, injecting their opposite poles
support & algae
Cell wall mechanical genetic material into the cell, Telophase Chromosomes uncoil,
strength Fungi using the host’s machinery to nuclear envelope reforms
replicate & burst out of the host cell.
• Cancerous cells have uncontrolled cell division and hence have
a modified cell cycle – one that repeats too quickly.
• In complex multicellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become
• Treatments for cancer involve disrupting the cell cycle
• Specialised for specific functions.
• Specialised cells are organised into tissues, tissues into organs (chemotherapy) by stopping DNA synthesis or by changing the
and organs into systems. cytoskeleton in mitosis

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CELL TRANSPORT & IMMUNITY
SUMMARY SHEET
Cell Membranes Components of the Immune System Vaccination
• Cell membranes act as barriers and • Antigens are any part of an organism/substance which is • Vaccination is the introduction into the body of a vaccine
can control what passes into and out recognised as foreign by the immune system and goes on to containing disease antigens, by injection or mouth, in order to
of cells and organelles trigger an immune response. induce artificial immunity
• The cell membrane is composed • Vaccines work by injecting weakened/dead pathogens into
of phospholipids, proteins, Cell Function
the body to stimulate an immune response, to form memory
glycoproteins, glycolipids and cholesterol. Macrophages Engulfs and digests pathogens by fusion of the cells against the specific antigen, which destroy the pathogen
Phagocytes
• Cholesterol has a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end & Neutrophils phagosome with lysosomes quickly upon infection.
regulates membrane fluidity by intercalating between the T helper cells
Stimulates B cells to divide and secrete antibodies. • Herd immunity is when the vaccination of a significant
phospholipids. Divide to produce Cytotoxic T cells and T memory cells proportion of the population provides protection for individuals
kill abnormal cells and infected body cells via who have not developed immunity
T cells Cytotoxic T cells
perforin
Passive Transport T memory cell
Remain in the blood for years and provide long
• Pathogen may mutate so that its antigens change suddenly
(antigenic variability) So the vaccine is now ineffective to the
• Passive transport involves exchange of substances without term protection new antigens.
Plasma cell Secrete antibodies • Ethical considerations: side effects, financial cost, right to
requiring metabolic energy from the cell Remain in the blood for years and provide long
B cells choose, animal testing of vaccines, human trials
• Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of B memory cell
term protection
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (down • Active immunity occurs when specific antibodies are produced
their concentration gradient). by the individual’s own immune system
• Facilitated diffusion is the net movement of particles down
their concentration gradient across a partially permeable cell
Antibodies • Passive immunity occurs when specific antibodies are
introduced to the individual from an outside source.
• Antibodies are a protein produced
membrane via carrier or channel by lymphocytes in response to the Immunity Example
proteins. presence of the corresponding antigen. Natural Active Direct contact with pathogen
• Water potential is a measure of the • Antibodies agglutinate pathogens by Natural Passive Antibodies through breastmilk
tendency of water molecules to forming antigen-antibody complexes, Artificial Active Vaccination
move from one area to another area
and describes the pressure created leading to phagocytosis & neutralise toxins. Artificial Passive Injection of antibodies/ antivenoms
by these water molecules; the more
dilute a solution, the higher (less negative) Cell-mediated Immunity Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
the water potential (Ѱ). • Antigen from the pathogen is displayed on the cell surface of
• Osmosis is the net movement of water from body cells or phagocytes after phagocytosis • HIV replicates in T helper cells, causing the
an area of higher water potential to an area • T cells with the correct specific receptor bind with the antigen symptoms of AIDs due to the decreased
of lower water potential across a partially and are activated
permeable membrane. Th cell count. The compromised immune
• They divide by mitosis (clonal expansion) and differentiate into system leads to the risk of serious
• The rate of diffusion can be increased by increasing the T helper, cytotoxic and memory cells.
number of channel & carrier proteins, the surface area of the infections.
• Cytotoxic t cells release perforin which destroys cell surface • Antibiotics kill
cell membrane, reducing the diffusion distance and creating a membranes, killing infected cells
steeper concentration gradient. bacteria by targeting bacteria

Active Transport Humoral immunity specific enzymes or organelles. They

are ineffective against viruses due to
• The humoral response is best at fighting pathogens which are the virus using the host’s machinery.
Active transport is the movement of free in the bodily fluids
particles from an area of low concentration • Free antigen binds to a complementary B cell receptor
to an area of high concentration (against • The pathogen is endocytosed, and the antigen presented on
their concentration gradient) across a cell
membrane, using ATP and carrier proteins.
the plasma membrane
• T helper cell binds to the presented antigen, activating the B Using Monoclonal Antibodies
cell (clonal selection) and stimulates the B cell to divide by • Drugs can be attached to monoclonal antibodies, in order
• Co-transport occurs when the transport mitosis (clonal expansion)
of one substance is coupled with the • The B cell differentiates to plasma and memory cells to ensure the delivery of the drug to specific cell types e.g.
transport of another substance across a • Plasma cells release antibodies, memory cells remain in the cytotoxic drug to a cancer cell
membrane. blood stream and allow a secondary immune response • Disease diagnosis can occur by testing for the presence of
• Glucose & sodium are co-transported in specific pathogen antibodies in the blood.
the ileum: Primary & Secondary Response • Monoclonal antibodies are also used for pregnancy testing
• Measurement & diagnosis of disease occur in the ELISA test
• The primary immune response is when
Phagocytosis a pathogen infects the body for the first
time with the initial immune response
where different antigens are bound to the surface of a well.
They attach to antibodies present in a sample, allowing the
• Pathogens are engulfed by phagocytes using endocytosis attachment of a detection antibody. An enzyme attached to
• Pathogens are stored in the phagosome being slow and leading to a low
concentration of antibodies. the detection antibody digests a substrate, which is added,
• A lysosome will fuse with the phagosome releasing hydrolytic causing a colour change. The colour intensity corresponds to
lysozyme enzymes • The secondary immune response is a
• The pathogen is hydrolysed more rapid and vigorous response leading the amount of the antigen present in the sample
• Some of it is used by the cell, some of it is presented on the cell to a higher concentration of antibodies • Ethical considerations: treatment may cause death (risky), use
caused by a second or subsequent infection by the same of animals for production may cause harm, human trials
surface membrane to activate lymphocytes pathogens. This is due to the presence of memory cells.

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