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 48 Units and Measurements =>
& Competitive Exams
Board
(Level

Try Yourself

18. 12.0 cm t 0.1 cm and B: 8.5 cm t 0.5 cm, find A + B.

19. If X, = 100.0 cm + 0.1 cm and X9 = 90.0 cm t 0.1 cm, find their difference and the error in it.

20. The error in the measurement of the radius of a sphere is 2%. What will be the error in the

calculation of its surface area?

2Ar
[Hint : Surface area A = 4772,
A

The voltage across a lamp is (6.0 + 0.1) V and the current flowing through it is (4.0 ‡ 0.2)A. Find
the power consumed with maximum permissible error in it.

22. The measure of mass and volume of a body are 2.00 and 5.0 cm3 respectively, with possible
errors of 0.01 g and 0.1 cm3 What would be the maximum permissible error in its density?

Ad Am AV
[Hint : > Ad = ( where
d m

23. A physical quantity P is given by P = and the percentage errors in the measurements of A,
C
B and C are 1%, 2% and 4% respectively. Find the percentage error in P.

Hint: 0ax100-2 (4 x100) +2(1 x100) AC x1001

For two resistors R, and R,, connected in parallel, find the relative error in their equivalent resistance,
if R, (50 2) 2 and R, (100 ‡ 3) 22

R,R2 AReg AR, AR,

[Hint : Rec 33.33 2 and from we have
R, +R, R.. R, R. R2

AR -(AR
R2
, AR R.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

As we already know, every measurement is approximate, so it should be reported in such a way that i
indicates the precision of the instrument used
to take the measurement.

Suppose we measure a certain thickness using a vernier callipers (least count 0.01 cm), and the measureo
value comes out to be 6.25 cm.
This number indicates that the value has been measured upto a resolutior
of 0.01 cm.
In other words it has an uncertainity of + 0.01 cm. It
implies the actual thickness could have
any value lying between 6.24 cm and 6.26 cm. Thus,
among the digits appearing in the value 6.25
6 and
2 are certain or reliable, while the
digit 5 is uncertain. All these certain digits and the one uncertain
digit are called the significant digits or significant figures in a measured value.

=>
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Competitive Exams (Level-I)
Board &
Units and Measurements 49
Thus the given value i.e. 6.25
/
cm has three significant figures in it. The value 6.25 should not be written as
6.250 or 6.2 as it gives a wrong idea about the number of significant figures in it and hence, the precision
of the measurement.
↑
choice of change in different units does not change the number of significant figures in
measurement : Suppose a length is measured as 2.400 cm having four significant digits. In different units,
this value can be written as 02400
m, or 24.00 mm. The number of significant figures in all these numbers
is the same i.e. four.

Summary : Significant figures indicate the precision of the measurement which depends on the least count
of the measuring instrument.

Rules to Find Significant Figures

All non-zero digits are significant : e.g. 2.483 contains four significant figures.
All zeroes appearing between
two non-zero digits are significant : e.g. 200.9 has four significant
figures.

The trailing zeroes in a number without a decimal point are insignificant e.g. in, 2304000. There
are four significant figures only. The three zeroes appearing at the end are not significant.

The trailing zeroes in a number having a decimal point are significant : e.g. the number 308.600
has six significant figures.

If a number is less than one, the zeroe(s) on the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant :
e.g. In the number 0.002783, there are four significant figures only. The three zeroes appearing in the
beginning are not significant.

For a measurement reported in scientific notation i.e. in the form a x 10b, all the digits
appearing in the base number 'a' are significant. The power of 10 is irrelevant in the
determination of significant figures The scientific notation is used to avoid the confusion arising due
to the change in the units of the measured quantity. For example, a thickness measured as 3.560 m

can be written in different units as

x
416
0.003560 km = 356.0 cm = 3560 mm = 3560000 um
4
All these values should have the same number of significant figures i.e. 4. But according to the rule

number 3, the number of significant figures appearing in the values 3560 mm and 3560000 um should

be three.

To remove this ambiguity, we prefer to report a measured value in the form a x 10°. a is a number lying
between 1 and 10, and is called the base. b is any positive or negative exponent of 10.

Thus using this notation, the value 3.560 m can be written in different units as

3.560 m = 3.560 x 10-3 km

&
= 3.560 x 102 cm

= 3.560 x 103 mm

7 = 3.560 x 10% um

Each number in this case has four significant figures. All the digits appearing in the base number,
including the trailing zeroes are significant.

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50 Units and Measurements Board &
Competitive Exams (Level
The exact numbers like 1, 2, 3, 4 etc that appear in the mathematical formulae of varion
physical quantities have infinite number of significant figures For example, perimeter of aSquan
is given by 4 x side. Here 4 is an exact number and has infinite number of significant figures. Therefo,
it can be written as 4.0, 4.000, 4.0000 as per the requirement.

Example 12 : How many significant figures are there in the measured values

(i) 227.2 g, (1) 3600 g and (iii) 0.00602 g

Solution (i) 227.2 g has all the non-zero digits. Hence, it has four significant figures.

(ii) According to rule number 3, trailing zeroes are not significant.

Hence, 3600 g has 2 significant figures.

0.00602 g According to the rule number 5, the zeroes at the beginning are not significant.
Hence, 3 significant figures.

Try Yourself

25. How many significant figures are there in the value 2.50 x 1010 m?

26. How many zeroes are significant in the following measured values?
(i) 60400

(i) 0.030600

(a) Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures

The result of an arithmetic operation involving measured values of quantities cannot be more accurate thai
the measured values themselves. So certain rules have to be followed while doing arithmetic operations with
significant figures SO that the precision in the final result is consistent with the precision of the origina
measured values.

~
These rules are as follows

1. When two measured values are multiplied or divided, there should

be as many significan
figures retained in the final result, as are there in
the original number with the least significam
figures.

If an object covers a distance 4.11 m in the time duration 1.2 s, then its
speed obtained by simple division
4.11m
comes out to be, v = 3.425 m/s
1.2s

The calculated value of

velocity has four digits in it. But practically v cannot have a greater precision thar
that in the
measurements of the distance and the time. The measured value of should have as much
significant figures as that present in the quantity having the least
precision. Here the measured value
of the distance (4.11 m) has three significant figures while the
measurement of time (1.2 s has two
significant figures only. So time has lesser precision amongst the two. Thus the
number of significan
figures in the value of should also be 2.

V=3.4m/s

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Board & Competitive Exams (Level-I)
Units and Measurements 51

~2. When two physical quantities are added or subtracted, there should be as many decimal places
retained in the final result as
are there in the number with the least decimal places.
Thus if we add 3
masses 0.307 g, 0.52 g and 0.4 g the arithmetic addition comes out to be
r >
Sn
1
=
0.307 + 0.52 + 0.4 = 1.227 9
S N
- =
2
.

snes > SN= 2

But since least number of decimal
places appears in 0.4 g, the final result should be
written as 1.2 g.

Note : Notice the difference in the

two rules. In case of division or multiplication, it is the number of
significant figures that we consider in the final result. But in case of addition and subtraction of two
measured values, we consider the number of decimal places in the final result. If the data are added
or subtracted, significant figures can be reduced. Thus uncertainties in subtraction or addition combine
in a different fashion.

While reporting the final result 1.227 g as 1.2 g we have dropped the last two digits 2 and 7. We say a
reported measurement should have only one uncertain digit in it. Therefore the last two uncertain or

insignificant digits 2 and 7 have been dropped.

There are certain rules that should be followed while rounding off numbers to the appropriate significant figures.
These are as follows :

(b) Rounding Off the Uncertain Digits

If the insignificant digit to be dropped is more than 5, the preceding digit is raised by 1. Let the

insignificant digit in the number 3.78 be (circled). Since 8 > 5, we raise the preceding digit 7 by 1.
Hence, the number becomes 3.8.

2. If the insignificant digit to be dropped is less than 5, the preceding digits is left unchanged. Let
the insignificant digit in the number 3.74 be 4 (circled). Since 4 < 5, we keep the preceding digit 7

unchanged. Hence the number becomes 3.7.

3. If the insignificant digit to be dropped is 5, the preceding digit is raised by 1 if it is odd, and IS

left unchanged if it iS even. Let 5 (circled) be the insignificant digit in the numbers 3.746 and 3.775.

In the first number, since the preceding digit 4 is even, it remains as such and the number becomes 3.74.

In the second number, the preceding digit is odd, hence it is raised by and the number is written

as 3.78.

Example 13 : The time taken by a pendulum to complete 25 vibrations is 88.0 seconds. Find the time period
of the pendulum in seconds, upto appropriate significant figures.

Total time taken 88.0

Solution Time period of oscillation S 3.52 S
Number of oscillations 25

Out of the two quantities given in the data, 25 is exact hence has infinite significant figures.
Therefore the answer should be reported to three significant figures i.e. 3.52 seconds

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-
52 Units and Measurements Board & Competitive Exams
(Level

Example 14 The length and breadth of rectangular plate are measured to be 14.5 cm and 4.2
respectively. Find its area to appropriate significant figures.

Solution Here length = 14.5 cm ) 3 significant figures.

Breadth = 4.2 cm ) 2 significant figures

Area = 14.5 x 4.2 cm2

= 60.90 cm2

The answer should be rounded off to two significant figures.

The digit to be dropped in the answer 60.90 is 9 (circled) which is greater than 5. So he

preceding zero is raised by 1.

Hence the answer 61 cm2.

-
Example 15 Round off the following numbers upto three significant figures.

(i) 2.520 (ii) 4.645

(ii) 22.78 (iv) 36.35

Solution : 2.52(0 Since 0 is less than 5, preceding digit IS left unchanged. Hence, 2.52

(ii) 4.64(5) Since the digit to be dropped is 5 and the preceding digit 4 is even. Hence, 4.64

(iii) 22.78) Since the digit to be dropped, 8 is greater than 5, the preceding digit 7, is raised

by 1 . Hence 22.8

(iv) 36.35 Since the digit to be dropped is 5, and the preceding digit 3 is odd, we write the

answer as 36.4.

Try Yourself

A force of 8.26 N is applied normally over an area of 4.2 m2. Calculate the pressure exerted over

the area to appropriate significant figures.

[Hint : 8.26 + 4.2 = 1.96666 N/m-. Round off the value to two significant figure.]

28.) The voltage across a lamp is 6.82 V when the current passing through it is 4.1 A. Find the

power consumed to appropriate significant figures.

{Hint : P = VI = (6.82) (4.1) W = 27.962 W Round off to two significant figures.]

29. Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.241 m. Find its total surface area o correct number of
significant figures.

(Hint: Surface area = 6(7.241)? m? = 314.592486 m2. Round off to four significant figures.]
30. 5.74 g of a substance occupies a volume 1.2 cm3. Express its density by keeping significan
figures in view.

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Board & Competitive Exams (Level-I) Units and Measurements 53

31.
Round off the number 970.02 to one decimal place.
32. Two sticks of lengths 12.132 cm and 10.2 cm are placed end to end. Find their total length with
due regard to decimal places.

(c) Rules for Determining the Uncertainty in the Results of Arithmetic Calculations

When an arithmetic operation is performed on two physical quantities, their errors combine as discussed in
the section "Combination of Errors" But the uncertainty in the final result can be reported as follows.

-
(1) Let the measurement of the mass

to be (5.5 t 0.1) m/s (say)

of a body comes out to be (10.02 ‡ 0.01) g. Its velocity is measured

Here m = (10.02 + 0.01) g and V = (5.5 ‡ 0.1) m/s

0.1
The percent error
Am
- x 100
0.01
0.099% = 0.1%: AV x100. - x100 =1.8%
5.5
m 10.02

A(mv)
Therefore the percentage error in its momentum, L x 100 = (1.8 + 0.1)% = 1.9%

mv = 55.11g ms-1 ‡ (1.9%) and absolute error

The momentum of the body comes out to be
mv x 1.9
A(mv) = = 1.04
100

The least precise quantity v, has two significant figures only. Hence, the momentum with absolute error
is reported as 55 + 1.04 = (55 ‡ 1) gm s-1. Here 1 g ms-1 is the uncertainty or error in the estimation

of momentum of the body.

~
(2) The relative error of

on the number itself.

a value of number specified to n significant figures depends not only on n but also

of mass 1.01 g is 0.01 g whereas in another

For example, the mean absolute error in the measurement
measurement 9.98 g is also accurate to +0.01 g.

The relative error in 1.01 IS

0.01
4 x100% = ‡1%
1.01)

And, the relative error in 9.98 g is

0.01
x100% = ‡ 0.1%
9.98

errors are different.

So, although both measurement are having three significant figures but percentage

~
all the numbers occurring in the intermediate steps
(3) When a complex multi-step calculation is involved,
in them. The final answer at the end of
should retain a digit more than the significant digits present
the calculation, can then be rounded off to the
appropriate significant figures.
to three significant figures is 0.104,
of 9.59 (= 0.10427), after rounding off
For example, the reciprocal
to three significant figures IS
9.62. But if we had taken four
but the reciprocal of 0.104 calculated
would get
and then taking the reciprocal to three significant figures, we
significant figures i.e. 0.1043
original value of 9.59.
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