Concept of learning

Learning denotes changes in a system that enable the system to do the same task more efficiently
next time or we can say generalize the experience in a way that allows to improve your
performance on the task. Types of learning:
 Supervised learning generates a function that maps inputs to desired outputs (also called
labels, because they are often provided by human experts labeling the training examples). For
example, in a classification problem, the learner approximates a function mapping a vector
into classes by looking at input-output examples of the function.
 Unsupervised learning models a set of inputs, like clustering. See also data mining and
knowledge discovery.
 Semi-supervised learning combines both labeled and unlabeled examples to generate an
appropriate function or classifier.
 Reinforcement learning learns how to act given an observation of the world. Every action
has some impact in the environment, and the environment provides feedback in the form of
rewards that guides the learning algorithm.
 Transduction, or transductive inference, tries to predict new outputs on specific and fixed
(test) cases from observed, specific (training) cases.
 Learning to learn learns its own inductive bias based on previous experience.

Knowledge Acquisition
Knowledge acquisition is the expanding the capabilities of a system or improving its
performance at some specified task. So we can say knowledge acquisition is the goal oriented
creation and refinement of knowledge. The acquired knowledge may consist of various facts,
rules, concepts, procedures, heuristics, formulas, relationships or any other useful information.
Knowledge can be acquired from various sources like, domain of interests, text books, technical
papers, databases, reports. The terms of increasing levels of abstraction, knowledge includes
data, information and Meta knowledge. Meta knowledge includes the ability to evaluate the
knowledge available, the additional knowledge required and the systematic implied by the
present rules.

Rote Learning
This strategy does not require the learning system to transform or infer knowledge. It is the
simplest form of learning. It requires the least amount of inference and is accomplished by
simply copying the knowledge in the same form that it will be used directly into the knowledge
base. It includes learning my imitation, simple memorization and learning by being performed.
For example we may use this type of learning when we memorize multiplication tables. In this
method we store the previous computed values, for which we do not have for recomputed them
later. Also we can say rote learning is one type of existing or base learning.
For example, in our childhood, we have the knowledge that “sun rises in the east”. So in our later
stage of learning we can easily memorize the thing. Hence in this context, a system may simply
memorize previous solutions and recall them when confronted with the same problem.
Generally access of stored value must be faster than it would be to recompute. Methods like
hashing, indexing and sorting can be employed to enable this. One drawback of rote learning is it
is not very effective in a rapidly changing environment. If the environment does change then we
must detect and record exactly what has changed. Also this technique must not decrease the
efficiency of the system. We must be able to decide whether it is worth storing the value in the
first place.

Learning from Discovery

Using this strategy, the learning system must either induce class descriptions from observing the
environment or manipulate the environment to acquire class descriptions or concepts. This is an
unsupervised learning technique. It requires the greatest amount of inferencing among all of the
different forms of learning. From an existing knowledge base, some new forms of discovery of
knowledge may formed. The learning discovery process is very important in the respect of
constructing new knowledge base.

Learning by Analogy
It is a process of learning a new concept or solution through the use of similar known concepts or
solutions. We make frequent use of analogical learning. The first step is inductive inference,
required to find a common substructure between the problem domain and one of the analogous
domains stored in the learner’s existing knowledge base. This form of learning requires the
learning system to transform and supplement its existing knowledge from one domain or
problem area into new domain. This strategy requires more inferencing by the learning system
than previous strategies. Relevant knowledge must be found in the systems existing knowledge
by using induction strategies. This knowledge must then be transformed to the new problem
using deductive inference. Example of learning by analogy may include the driving technique of
vehicles. If we know the driving procedure of a bike, then when we will drive a car then some
sort of previous learning procedures we may employ. Similarly for driving a bus or truck, we
may use the procedure for driving a car.

Expert System
Expert system is an artificial intelligence program that has expert-level knowledge about a
particular domain and knows how to use its knowledge to respond properly. Domain refers to the
area within which the task is being performed. Ideally the expert systems should substitute a
human expert. Edward Feigenbaum of Stanford University has defined expert system as ―an
intelligent computer program that uses knowledge and inference procedures to solve problems
that are difficult enough to require significant human expertise for their solutions.‖ It is a branch
of artificial intelligence introduced by researchers in the Stanford Heuristic Programming
Project.
The expert systems is a branch of AI designed to work within a particular domain. As an expert
is a person who can solve a problem with the domain knowledge in hands it should be able to
solve problems at the level of a human expert. The source of knowledge may come come from a
human expert and/or from books, magazines and internet. As knowledge play a key role in the
functioning of expert systems they are also known as knowledge-based systems and knowledge-
based expert systems. The expert‘s knowledge about solving the given specific problems is
called knowledge domain of the expert.

Applications of Expert System

There are several major application areas of expert system such as agriculture, education,
environment, law manufacturing, medicine power system etc. Expert system is used to develop
a large number of new products as well as new configurations of established products. When
established products are modified to include an expert system as a component or when an
established product item is replaced with an expert system, the expert system supported entity is
called intelligent. Expert systems are designed and created to facilitate tasks in the fields of
accounting, medicine, process control, financial service, production, education etc. The
foundation of a successful expert system depends on a series of technical procedures and
development that may be designed by certain related experts.

Expert Systems are for everyone

Everyone can find an application potential in the field of expert systems. Contrary to the belief
that expert systems may pose a threat to job security, expert systems can actually help to create
opportunities for new job areas. No matter which is of business one is engages in, expert systems
can fulfill the need for higher productivity and reliability of decisions. Some job opportunities
offered by the expert system are listed below:
 Basic Research
 Applied Research
 Knowledge Engineering
 The development of Inference engine
 Training
 Sales and marketing

Expert System in Education

In the field of education, many of the expert system’s application are embedded inside the
Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) by using techniques from adaptive hypertext and hypermedia.
Most of the system usually will assist student in their learning by using adaptation techniques to
personalize with the environment prior knowledge of student and student’s ability to learn.
Expert system in education has expanded very consistently from microcomputer to web based
and agent based technology. Web based expert system can provide an excellent alternative to
private tutoring at any time from any place where internet is provided. Agent based expert
system will help users by finding materials from the web based on the user’s profile. Expert
system also had tremendous changes in the applying of methods and techniques. Expert system
are beneficial as a teaching tools because it has equipped with the unique features which allow
users to ask question on how, why and what format. When it is used in the class environment,
surely it will give many benefit to student as it prepare the answer without referring to the
teacher. Besides that, expert system is able to give reasons towards the given answer. Expert
system had been used in several fields of study including computer animation, computer science
and engineering, language teaching business study etc.
Expert system in Agriculture
The expert system for agriculture is same as like other fields. Here also the expert system uses
the rule based structure and the knowledge of a human expert is captured in the form of IF-
THEN rules and facts which are used to solve problems by answering questions typed at a
keyboard attached to a computer. For example, in pest control, the need to spray, selection of a
chemical to spray, mixing and application etc. The early, state of developing the expert systems
are in the 1960’s and 1970’s were typically written on a mainframe computer in the
programming language based on LISP. Some examples of these expert systems are MACSYMA
developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for assisting individuals in solving
complex mathematical problems. Other examples may be MYCIN, DENDRAL, and CALEX
etc. The rises of the agricultural expert system are to help the farmers to do single point
decisions, which to have a well planning for before start to do anything on their land. It is used to
design an irrigation system for their plantation use. Also some of the other functions of
agricultural expert system are:
 To predict the extreme events such as thunderstorms and frost.
 To select the most suitable crop variety.
 Diagnosis of liver stock disorder and many more.
Expert System for a particular decision problem
The expert system can be used as a standalone advisory system for the specific knowledge
domain. It also can provide decision support for a high level human expert. The main purposes,
the rises of the expert system are as a delivery system for extension information, to provide
management education for decision makers and for dissemination of up-to-date scientific
information in a readily accessible and easily understood form, to agricultural researchers,
advisers and farmers. By the help of an expert system, the farmers can produce a more high
quality product to the citizen.
Expert System for Text Animation (ESTA)
The idea behind creating an expert system is that it can enable many people to benefit from the
knowledge of one person – the expert. By providing it with a knowledge base for a certain
subject area, ESTA can be used to create an expert system for the subject:
ESTA + Knowledge base = Expert System
Each knowledge base contains rules for a specific domain. A knowledge base for an expert
system to give tax advice might contain rules relating marital status, mortgage commitments and
age to the advisability of taking out a new life insurance policy. ESTA has all facilities to write
the rules that will make up a knowledge base. ESTA has an inference engine which can use the
rules in the knowledge base to determine which advice is to be given to the expert system user.
ESTA also features the ability for the expert system user to obtain answers to questions such as
“how” and “why”. ESTA is used by a knowledge engineer to create a knowledge base and by the
expert system user to consult a knowledge base. Knowledge representation in ESTA is based on
the items like sections, parameters, title.

Components of Expert Systems

The components of ES include −
 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface
The expert System consists of the following given components:
User Interface
The user interface is the most crucial part of the expert system. This component takes the user's
query in a readable form and passes it to the inference engine. After that, it displays the results to
the user. In other words, it's an interface that helps the user communicate with the expert system.
Inference Engine
The inference engine is the brain of the expert system. Inference engine contains rules to solve a
specific problem. It refers the knowledge from the Knowledge Base. It selects facts and rules to
apply when trying to answer the user's query. It provides reasoning about the information in the
knowledge base. It also helps in deducting the problem to find the solution. This component is
also helpful for formulating conclusions.
Knowledge Base
The knowledge base is a repository of facts. It stores all the knowledge about the problem
domain. It is like a large container of knowledge which is obtained from different experts of a
specific field.
Thus we can say that the success of the Expert System mainly depends on the highly accurate
and precise knowledge.

Categories of Expert Systems

Category Problem Addressed
Interpretation - inferring situation descriptions from observations
Prediction - inferring likely consequences of given situations
Diagnosis - inferring system malfunctions from observations
Design - configuring objects under constraints
Planning - developing plans to achieve goals
Monitoring - comparing observations to plans and flagging exceptions
Debugging - Prescribing remedies for malfunctions
Repair - executing a plan to administer a prescribed remedy
Instruction - diagnosing, debugging, and correcting student performance
Control - interpreting, predicting, repairing and monitoring systems behavior
The Development Process of An Expert System
By the definition, an expert system is a computer program that simulates the thought process of a
human expert to solve complex decision problems in a specific domain. The expert system’s
knowledge is obtained from expert sources which are coded into most suitable form. The process
of building an expert system is called knowledge engineering and is done by a knowledge
engineer. The knowledge engineer is a human with a background in computer science and AI
and he knows how to build expert systems. A knowledge engineer also decides how to represent
the knowledge in an expert system and helps the programmers to write the code. Knowledge
engineering is the acquisition of knowledge from a human expert or any other source. The
different stages in the development of an expert system are illustrated in figure.

The process of ES development is iterative. Steps in developing the ES include −

Identify Problem Domain
 The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.
 Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.
 Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
Design the System
 Identify the ES Technology
 Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and databases.
 Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.
Develop the Prototype
From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to −
 Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.
 Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.
Test and Refine the Prototype
 The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any deficiencies in
performance.
 End users test the prototypes of the ES.
Develop and Complete the ES
 Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment, including
end users, databases, and other information systems.
 Document the ES project well.
 Train the user to use ES.
Maintain the System
 Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.
 Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems evolve.